Leaven Leaven

Volume 1 Issue 1 Worship Article 5

1-1-1990

Passover, Last Supper, and Lord's Supper: Jewish Elements for Passover, Last Supper, and Lord's Supper: Jewish Elements for

Christian Reclamation Christian Reclamation

Randall D. Chesnutt randall.chesnutt@pepperdine.edu

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All things praise thee, Lord may we 15

By Randy Chesnutt

PASSOVER,

Y \\"LAST SUPPER,~; Y AND LORD'S SUPPER

Jewish Elements for Christian Reclamation

The Gospels ofMatthew, Mark, andLuke indicate that Jesus' Last Supper was aPassover meal (Matt. 26:17-29; Mk. 14:12-25; Lk.22:7-23). The Gospel of John presents a some-what different chronology; there the Last Supperprecedes Passover, and in fact the Passover mealis yet in the future at the time of Jesus' death(13:1-2,29; 18:28; 19:14,31,42). The explana-tion for this divergence probably lies in thevarious Jewish calendars in use in the early firstcentury A.D. In his account of the passion, Johnapparently followed a different calendar fromthat reflected in the other Gospels, perhapsbecause this enabled him to emphasize Jesus asthe fulfillment of Passover by having Jesus'death coincide with the slaying of the Passoverlambs in the Temple. Whether or not this is thecorrect explanation for a much-discussed chrono-logical problem, one thing seems abundantlyclear: Jesus' Last Supper was a Passover meal.The Synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark, andLuke) are quite explicit on this point, and, as weshall see, there are elements in the Synoptic

Randy Chesnutt is Associate Professor of Re-ligion at Pepperdine University. He attendedAlabama Christian, Harding GraduateSchool, and received a Ph.D. from Duke Uni-versity. He is a member of the UniversityChurch in Malibu.

accounts confirming this identification.The purpose of this article is to explore

the significance of the Passover setting of theLast Supper. What was an ancient Passovermeal like? Does the Passover character of the oc-casion shed light on the New Testament ac-counts of the Last Supper? In what ways shouldthe Passover roots of the Lord's Supper informour understanding and celebration of the sacredChristian meal? Answers to these questionsmust be grounded in an appreciation of Passoveras it was practiced in Jesus' time.

Passover in the First Century A.D.Students ofthe Old Testament know

that Passover commemorates the great deliver-ance of Israel from Egyptian bondage. Alsofamiliar from the Old Testament are some ofthefood items comprising the Passover meal: lamb,unleavened bread, and bitter herbs (see Exod.12-13). The lamb, of course, reminded partici-pants of the lambs whose blood was smeared onthe doorposts in Egypt so the death angel wouldpass over and spare Israelite children from thetenth and final plague prior to the Exodus.Unleavened bread was used in the celebration asa reminder of the hasty departure of the fore-bears from Egypt in an hour of such crisis thatthere was no time to wait for bread to rise. Thebitter herbs (such as horse raddish, chicory, andendive) were interpreted as reminders of the

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bitterness of Egyptian bondage.Less familiar to non-Jews are the many

Passover traditions which are not described inthe Old Testament but which evolved in subse-quent centuries. Many of these are described inthe Mishnah, the written codification ofJewishoral law compiled around 200 AD. Althoughthis source contains many traditions later thanthe first century AD., the Passover celebrationdescribed in it is thought to be essentially thatpracticed in Jesus' time. In addition to thesymbolic food items specified in the Bible, othersequally laden with symbolic significance aredescribed in the Mishnah. Thus, for example, afruit puree called haroseth, consisting of amixture of finely-ground fruits, spices, andvinegar, served as a dip for the bitter herbs.Because of its color and consistency, it provided areminder of the clay used when the ancestorsmade bricks during their servitude in Egypt.The Mishnah also calls for the drinking of fourcups of wine to celebrate God's deliverance of hispeople (the rabbis discerned four aspects of God'spromise of deliverance in Exod. 6:6-7). Some-what later rabbinic texts mention still othersymbolic items; among those with possible rootsin first century practice are a bowl of salt watersymbolizing the tears shed in Egypt (or, accord-ing to some, the waters of the Red Sea) and usedas a dip for certain foods, and cinnamon sticksplaced in the fruit puree to represent the strawused in brickmaking.

On the thirteenth day of the Jewishmonth ofNisan, all traces ofleaven were re-moved from every house in which Passover wasto be observed. On the afternoon of the four-teenth day the lambs destined to be the maincourse of the meal were slaughtered in theTemple. On the evening ofthat day (which wasthe fifteenth day by Jewish reckoning since anew day was considered to begin at sunset) thePassover meal was eaten. The particulars ofthat meal and the accompanying celebrationvaried somewhat from time to time and place toplace, but the Passover Seder (order, arrange-ment) described in the Mishnah provides ourearliest detailed account and may be outlined infour parts as follows:

liminary dishes, including thebitter herbs and fruit puree, wereeaten. The main course (see IIIbelow) was served and the secondcup of wine was poured.

II. Passover Liturgy. The youngestson competent to do so inquiredformally about the meaning of theoccasion: ''Why is this nightdifferent from all other nights ...?" The head of the householdresponded with the PassoverHaggadah_- a retelling of theExodus story beginning with "Awandering Aramaean was myfather ... " (Deut. 26:5) and con-tinuing through God's mighty actsof redemption as these weresuggested by the symbolic foods.This was followed by the singingof Psalms 113-114 (or perhapsonly 113), the first part ofthegreat Hallel (Psalms 113-118).Then followed the drinking of thesecond cup of wine.

III. Main Course. The head of thehousehold blessed, broke, anddistributed the unleavened bread.The main meal, consisting of theroasted lamb, unleavened bread,bitter herbs, and fruit puree, was

Full participation in Passovermeant that the external facts ofhistory became lining, present re-alities marking both the personalexperience of deliverance and theoneness of the community ofpeople thus liberated by God.

eaten. The third cup of wine wasblessed and served.

1. Preliminary Course. The headof the household said a blessingfor the feast day generally and forthe first cup of wine. The first cupof wine was drunk and the pre-

IV. Close. Psalms 115-118 (or per-haps 114-118), the remainder ofthe Hallel, was sung. The fourthcup ofwine was blessed and

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served.Description of the mere mechanics of a

Passover celebration does not dojustice to theprofound religious significance of the occasion forancient Jews. One must also appreciate theatmosphere created, the memories evoked, the

As God's most decisive act of de-liverance, it merits telling andretelling in Christian familiesand in the Church so that it isdeeply ingrained in the con-sciousness of children from theirearliest memory.

praise inspired, the hopes rekindled, the festive-ness aroused, the self-identity revitalized, andthe communal solidarity nurtured by this sacredoccasion. Two such aspects of Passover whichunderlie all of the external acts are especiallynoteworthy.

One is the sacred memory of God'smighty acts of deliverance of his people. As wehave seen, the very food on the table providedvivid reminders of the Egyptian bondage and theExodus. The Passover liturgy likewise high-lighted God's saving acts by providing for theretelling of the Exodus story at the high point ofthe celebration. As the foundational event ofIsrael's national existence, the Exodus story wastold and retold to Israel's youth because it wasconsidered definitive for their self-identity as thepeople of God. The great Hallel which was sungafter the Haggadah, or recounting ofthe story,consisted of psalms of praise and thanksgiving toGod for his gracious and powerful acts.

Second, the Passover liturgy called notonly for a retelling but a reliving of the deliv-erance wrought by God. A portion of the Pass-over legislation in the Mishnah reads:

In every generation a man mustso regard himself as ifhe cameforth himself out of Egypt, for itis written, "And thou shalt tellthy son in that day, saying, It isbecause of that which the Lorddid for me when I came forth outof Egypt" (Exod. 13.8). Thereforeare we bound to give thanks, topraise, to glorify, to honour, toexalt, to extol, and to bless him

All things praise thee, Lord may we 17

who wrought all these wondersfor our fathers and for us. Hebrought us out from bondage tofreedom, from sorrow to glad-ness, and from mourning to aFestival-day, and from darknessto great light, and from servitudeto redemption; so let us saybefore him the Hallelujah.

The pronouns have been highlighted here inorder to show how present participation in thepast event was emphasized at Passover. In thesame spirit, one rabbinic text defines the "wickedson" as one who inquired, ''What do you mean bythis service?" This text complains that by usingthe second person pronoun, the inquirer ex-cludes himself and rejects one of the fundamen-tal principles of Judaism. Thinking of oneself asan actual slave liberated from Egypt served bothto encourage individuals to appropriate forthemselves the benefits of God's gracious actsand to strengthen the individual's sense ofoneness with the community of Israel. To fail toread the national experience of deliverance intoone's own experience was to renounce God'ssaving grace and to exclude oneself from thecommunity of the elect. Full participation inPassover meant that the external facts of historybecame living, present realities marking both thepersonal experience of deliverance and theoneness of the community of people thus liber-ated by God.

The Last Supper as a Passover MealMuch in the Synoptic accounts of the

Last Supper becomes understandable againstthe backdrop of the Jewish Passover celebration.Thus, for example, we know what preparationsare envisioned in the Synoptic passages in whichJesus sends the disciples ahead to prepare thePassover (Matt. 26:17-18; Mk. 14:12-16; Lk. 22:7-13). The painstaking removal of all leaven(including even grain by-products with anypotential for fermentation), the ritual slaughterof the lamb in the Temple, and the carefulpreparation ofthe various items offood wouldindeed have been a sizeable task. It is under-standable that the day before the meal came tobe called "the day of Preparation" (see In. 19:14).From Passover custom we also know the sourceand significance of the bread and wine which areinvested with new symbolic meaning. We candeduce that the sauce mentioned in Matt. 26:23and Mk. 14:20 (see also In. 13:26) is thePassover haroseth, or fruit puree. Also in

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keeping with Passover custom, the hymn sungby the group at the conclusion of the celebrationwould be the familiar one consisting of Psalms115-118 (or perhaps 114-118), the final part ofthe Hallel.

Jesus' own actions at the meal corre-spond in large measure to the duties of the headof the family as Passover host. As we have seen,at the appropriate time the head of the house-hold would take bread, bless it, break offa piecefor each guest, and distribute it. At the end ofthe meal he would take a cup of wine, bless it,and serve it to the guests. Thus far the actionsof Jesus - so familiar from the Gospels as theacts by which he instituted the Lord's Supper -are very much a normal part of the host's respon-sibilities at Passover. Of course, the symbolicsignificance ascribed to the bread and wine areuniquely Christian, but the very act of explain-ing the symbolic significance of various parts ofthe meal has a formal precedent in the Passoverhost's recounting of the story behind the sym-bols.

One aspect of Luke's account of the LastSupper (22:14-23) which has been especiallypuzzling to many becomes quite understandablein light of the Passover customs described above.According to Luke, Jesus first takes a cup, thenthe bread, then another cup. Although someancient manuscripts omit the reference to thesecond cup in verses 19b-20, most textual schol-ars now agree that these verses are a part oftheoriginal. Early Christian copyists may haveomitted these lines for precisely the same reasonthat modern interpreters have found themproblematic - namely, the reference therein to asecond cup not mentioned in the other Gospels orin Paul's account of the Last Supper in I Cor.11:23-25. However, once the Passover context ofthe Last Supper is understood, this problemdisappears. The first cup mentioned in Lukewould simply be the second of the four cups ofwine typically drunk at Passover. The secondcup mentioned in Luke, the one to which Jesusattached new symbolism, would be the third ofthe four Passover cups, the one following themain Passover meal. This identification ofthesecond cup in Luke is confirmed by his referenceto it as "the cup after supper" (22:20; see part IIIin the Seder outlined above). Paul also placesthe cup of the Lord's Supper "after supper" (ICor. 11:25) and calls it "the cup of blessing" (ICor. 10:16) - a rabbinic designation of the thirdPassover cup, though this usage cannot bedocumented in the first century.

Passover provides not only the externalframework for the narratives of the Last Supperbut much of the conceptual framework as well.The consciousness of a gracious God who acts inhistory to effect redemption was not an ideaintroduced into the sacred meal by Jesus or theearly Church, but one long celebrated in theJewish Passover. The major themes which findexpression in the Last Supper narratives -including God's covenants sealed with blood,thanksgiving for past deliverance, anticipation offuture consummation, and the corporate identityand solidarity of God's people - are all part andparcel of the Passover meal in which Jesus' LastSupper is set.

Jewish Elements for Christian Rec-lamation

That an appreciation ofJewish Passoverwill enrich the Christian celebration oftheLord's Supper is inevitable in view of two basicfacts: (1) Jesus' Last Supper was a Passovermeal; and (2) Jesus' Last Supper provides themodel for the Church's observance of the Lord'sSupper. Having considered the deep roots of theLord's Supper in the soil of Jewish Passover, weturn now to some practical considerations. Ofcourse, in some ways the Christian sacred mealmust be contextualized in whatever culture it ispracticed, but certain aspects of the Jewishheritage are so integral to the very essence of theLast Supper that they are crucial whenever andwherever the Lord's Supper is observed. Several

Passover involved not only alooking up to God with praiseand thanksgiving, a lookingback to God's mighty acts inredemptive history, and alooking forward to God's futureacts, but also a looking aroundto the community of which theindividual was a part.

components of Passover to which we havealready alluded suggest themselves as worthy ofreclamation by the Church in its observance ofthe Lord's Supper.

One such component is the Jewishemphasis on recounting the sacred story com-memorated in the meal. Jewish children were

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told about the Exodus because it was determina-tive for their self-identity; it was what had calledIsrael into existence as the people of God. Byhearing over and over the story of God's greatestand most formative act of deliverance on behalfof Israel, Jews of all ages were reminded ofwhothey were as the covenant people of God. Oneancient form ofthe Passover Haggadah insiststhat the story of the Exodus is to be recountedeven if everyone present is an adult learned inScripture.

What the Exodus story is to Jews, thePassion story is to Christians. Jesus' Passion isdefinitive for Christian identity; it is what effectsa new liberation, calls into existence a newpeople of God, and inaugurates a new covenantratified by blood (note the covenantal languagein all four accounts: Matt. 26:28; Mk. 14:24; Lk.22:20; and I Cor. 11:25; echoing the language ofExod. 24:8 and Jer. 31:31-34). As God's mostdecisive act of deliverance, it merits telling andretelling in Christian families and in the Churchso that it is deeply ingrained in the conscious-ness of children from their earliest memory. Thepower of sacred story to shape the self-conceptand determine the religious and social identityeven of a child should be recognized and ex-ploited in modern Christianity no less than itwas in the ancient Jewish liturgy. In the lan-guage of theologians, the indicative mustprecede the imperative; that is, the call tobelieve in and worship a God who has actedmightily in history must be rooted and groundedin the story of those mighty acts. With particu-lar reference to the Lord's Supper, meaningfulparticipation is impossible without a vividremembrance of the Passion. Paul acknowl-edged that those who eat the bread and drinkthe cup of the Lord's table "proclaim theLord's death" (I Cor.11:26).

The ancient Passover liturgy called notmerely for a retelling but a personal appro-priation ofredemptive history. The very act ofslaying the lamb required personal involvement;the Passover sacrifice was the only form ofsacrifice in which the animal was rituallyslaughtered by the individual worshiper ratherthan by the priests. God's gracious acts inancient history are of no value to the individualwho does not appropriate them as living, presentrealities. Paul therefore represents Christianbaptism as a reenactment of the death, burial,and resurrection of Jesus (Rom. 6:1-11). TheLord's Supper likewise affords each participantan occasion for going back to the scenes of the

All things praise thee. Lord may we 19

Cross and basking in the redemption accom-plished there. As in Passover, so in the Lord'sSupper, full participation entails reflection in thefirst person. The true worshiper asks notmerely, "What does this celebration mean?" or''What does it mean to you?" or ''What does itmean to them?" but especially "What does itmean to me?" Passover and Lord's Supper alikecelebrate not the abstract fact of redemption, butthe fact that God has redeemed me.

The Jewish celebration of God's pastintervention in history inevitably heightenedanticipation that he would intervene yet again.Ancient Passover prayers, possibly with roots infirst century Jewish liturgy, appeal for God tobring the Messiah to his people. There arenumerous other indications that the expectationof God's intervention to consummate the redemp-tion of his people was most intense at Passover.Jews engaged in the feast as a people redeemedand yet awaiting redemption. The ChristianSupper has something of this same character asan interim celebration between God's past andfuture interventions in history. It is a "mealbetween the ages," commemorating God's deci-sive acts ofredemption in the past but alsolooking forward to the consummation of redemp-tion and to the great heavenly banquet. InPaul's terms, the Lord's Supper is a memorial ofthe Lord's death "until he comes" (l Cor. 11:26).

Passover involved not onIy a lookingup to God with praise and thanksgiving, alooking back to God's mighty acts in redemptivehistory, and a looking forward to God's futureacts, but also a looking around to the commu-nity of which the individual was a part. Theancient Jewish sense of the corporate solidarityof the people of God was at no time stronger thanat Passover. By focusing on a part of Israel'sheritage which all Jews shared, this feastbecame a rallying point for ethnic and religiousunity. Social barriers and personal differenceswere overshadowed by what was held in com-mon. The very fact that the Passover lamb hadto be slain at the central sanctuary in Jerusalemserved as a reminder that the individual and thefamily were part of a larger unit, the people ofIsrael.

That such a sense of the oneness of God'speople should also characterize the Lord'sSupper surely is a legitimate deduction from thePassover context of the Last Supper. In fact, nosooner had the Lord's Supper become dislodgedfrom its Jewish moorings and contextualized inan individualistic Greek setting than serious

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problems arose in maintaining unity. In I Cor.11:18-22 Paul laments the factionalism anddisregard for fellow worshipers that had come tocharacterize the Corinthian assemblies. Indeed,it was precisely in response to this disunity thathe narrates the Last Supper and the institutionof the Lord's Supper (11:23-32), and it is on thebasis of this narrative that he then appeals forthe Corinthians to be sensitive to one another(11:33-34). Divisions among the CorinthianChristians indicated to Paul that the ''body''character of the Church had not been fullyappreciated. Particularly at the Lord's table,such selfish individualism was unthinkable:"Because there is one bread, we who are manyare one body, for we all partake of the onebread" (10:17). The discernment of "the body"which he urges in 11:29 is probably an appeal toacknowledge the corporate character of theChristian community. The Lord's Supper, likePassover, celebrates the one thing that allparticipants have in common, the foundationalevent of the faith. It should therefore foster asense of communal identity and solidarity. Toparticipate as an individual without a sense ofoneness and fellowship with the larger Christiancommunity is to make a mockery of the essentialcommunal character of the Supper.

One further feature of the ancientPassover celebration which should be notedbecause it provided so much of the ambiance ofthe Last Supper is bound up in the word "cele-bration" itself. Passover was not a somberoccasion but a very festive one. While frivolityand levity were considered inappropriate - theMishnah warns against after-dinner revelry inparticular - the predominant mood was one ofjoyous celebration. Such joy was considered anatural corollary ofthe sense of deliverance frombondage that each participant was encouraged toexperience afresh. In the case of the Lord'sSupper, solemn remembrance and sober reflec-

tion are, of course, crucial - as at Passover -but such a reflective atmosphere need not bemelancholic. It may be suggested, in fact, that agenuine sense of redemption from sin throughChrist cannot help but issue in joyful celebrationnot unlike that which typified Passover.

The Lord's Supper is not simply a Chris-tian Passover, but it does (according to theSynoptic Gospels) originate in the context ofthatJewish meal and it does build on many of theideas, the atmosphere, and the practices of anancient Passover celebration. In celebrating theLord's Supper today, the Church would do wellto ask whether it does justice not merely to theoutward aspects of the rite but also to theatmosphere ofmemory and hope, the spirit ofthanksgiving and praise, the sense of personalredemption and corporate solidarity, and themood of joy and celebration. In these areas theJewish heritage of the Supper has a great deal toteach us.

Suggestions for Further Reading:

Gordon J. Bahr, "The Seder of Passover and theEucharistic Words," Novum Testa-mentum 12 (1970) 181-202.

Herbert Danby, translator, The Mishnah (Ox-ford: University Press, 1933). [Thetractate on the Passover is found onpages 136-151.J

Joachim Jeremias, The Eucharistic Words ofJesus, 3rd ed. (New York: CharlesScribner's Sons, 1966).

I. Howard Marshall, Last Supper and Lord'sSupper (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,1980).

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