1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

.

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +31 20 5988501; fax: +31 20 5988529.E-mail address: j_h_van_dieen@fbw.vu.nl (J.H. van Dieen).

Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology 16 (2006) 116

www.elsevier.com/locate/jelekin1050-6411/$ - see front matter 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved2. Clinical ndings: signs and symptoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33. Pathophysiological mechanisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3.1. Evidence for muscle damage due to low-intensity loading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53.2. Cinderella hypothesis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53.3. Ca2+ accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63.4. Blood supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3.4.1. Impaired blood ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63.4.2. Reperfusion injury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73.4.3. Blood vesselnociceptor interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3.5. Muscular force transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73.5.1. Myofascial force transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73.5.2. Intramuscular shear forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Received 17 May 2004; received in revised form 11 May 2005; accepted 9 June 2005

Abstract

A review of the literature on the pathophysiology of upper extremity muscle disorders (UEMDs) was performed. An overview isgiven of clinical ndings and hypotheses on the pathogenesis of UEMDs. The literature indicates that disorders of muscle cells andlimitations of the local circulation underlie UEMDs. However, these disorders identied do not necessarily lead to symptoms. Thefollowing mechanisms have been proposed in the literature: (1) selective recruitment and overloading of type I (Cinderella) motorunits; (2) intra-cellular Ca2+ accumulation; (3) impaired blood ow; (3b) reperfusion injury; (3.3c) blood vesselnociceptor interac-tion; (4a) myofascial force transmission; (4b) intramuscular shear forces; (5) trigger points; (6) impaired heat shock response. Theresults of the review indicate that there are multiple possible mechanisms, but none of the hypotheses forms a complete explanationand is suciently supported by empirical data. Overall, the literature indicates that: (1) sustained muscle activity, especially of type Imotor units, may be a primary cause of UEMDs; (2) in UEMDs skeletal muscle may show changes in morphology, blood ow, andmuscle activity; (3) accumulation of Ca2+ in the sarcoplasm may be the cause of muscle cell damage; (4) it seems plausible that sub-optimal blood ow plays a role in pathogenesis of UEMDs; (5) since the presence of ber disorders is not a sucient condition forthe development of UEMSDs additional mechanisms, such as sensitization, are assumed to play a role. 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Repetitive strain injury; Cumulative trauma disorders; Myalgia; Low-intensity contraction; Muscle pain

Contentsdoi:10Bart Visser , Jaap H. van Dieena Institute for Fundamental and Clinical Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Human Movement Sciences,

Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlandsb Research Centre Body@Work, TNO Work and Employment, Hoofddorp, The NetherlandsPathophysiology of upper extremity muscle disorders

a,b a,*Review.1016/j.jelekin.2005.06.005

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

ders (UEMDs), that is disorders of muscle tissue proper,excluding tendon disorders and disorders of the tendinous

moac

Hyscriberequi

UEMDs on the other hand. A simple model describingthis relationship is presented in Fig. 1.

Of course the model presents a strong simplicationof the complex processes involved in the pathophysiol-ogy. This simplication was however, made on purpose,since added detail to a model like this, would quickly re-

tromyography and Kinesiology 16 (2006) 116potheses on pathophysiological mechanisms de-parts of assumed causal relationship between taskyalgia. Note that symptoms indicative of muscle dis-rders have been considered by some authors as specicnd conclusive for such disorders [144], whereas otheronsider these to be non-specic [126].toms, these disorders are also indicated with the term

insertions. Referring to pain as one of the main symp-3.6. Trigger points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.7. Impaired heat shock response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4. Feedback loops from muscle disorder to muscle activity5. Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1. Introduction

Insight into the physiological mechanisms involved inthe development and perpetuation of musculoskeletaldisorders is of great importance with respect to preven-tion, diagnosis, treatment and rehabilitation of thesedisorders. Upper extremity disorders include a heteroge-neous group of specic and non-specic symptoms. Asymptom is considered to be specic when: (1) it com-prises a more or less xed combination of signs; (2) test-ing results in a predictable reaction; (3) it is uniquelyidentied and described in the clinical scientic litera-ture. Examples of such specic disorders are epycondili-tis lateralis and carpal tunnel syndrome. If a certainsymptom does not match the criteria mentioned above,the symptom is called non-specic [126]. This non-specicity of symptoms obviously leads to problems inoperational denitions of disorders and in diagnostics.Varying denitions and diagnostic criteria have beenproposed in the literature and recently an attempt to-wards standardization has been reported [126]. Upperextremity disorders comprise soft tissue disorders ofthe muscles, tendons, ligaments, joints, peripheralnerves, and supporting blood vessels [69,126]. In viewof the wide range of disorders, aected tissues and symp-toms, it is unlikely that a single pathophysiologicalmechanism can be identied. In fact there are a numberof hypotheses on the physiological mechanisms behindthe development of upper extremity disorders. The pro-posed mechanisms are not necessarily mutually exclu-sive, but might either play independent roles possiblyleading to the same symptoms, or they might play com-plementary or interacting roles. This paper gives anoverview of possible mechanisms; the scope is limitedto the pathophysiology of upper extremity muscle disor-

2 B. Visser, J.H. van Dieen / Journal of Elecrements on one hand and the symptoms offer to, or be based on, a particular theory on the patho-physiology of UEMDs. Also the suggested linearitymight be misleading, and in Section 4, we will give someindications on possible circular causation within themodel. However, this simplication to a linear causalmodel provides a clear structure for grouping and inter-preting the literature.

Comprehensive reviews of the epidemiology onUEMDs [2,7,14,16,42,89,126,128] have shown strongand consistent associations between exposures andUEMDs. Although well-designed epidemiological stud-ies provide important information on possible causality,no solid proof for inferences about causality can begained from these studies. Necessary condition for infer-ences on causality is the biological plausibility of thecausal role of the exposure to a certain factor in thedevelopment of a disorder or disease [51]. Biologicalplausibility refers to an association being compatiblewith existing knowledge on biological mechanisms. Fur-thermore, understanding of these mechanisms couldprovide a basis for explaining the signs and symptomsmanifested by patients and a sound foundation for ra-tional clinical care and therapy [32].Fig. 1. Conceptual model of the pathophysiology of UEMDs.

and the longissimus capitis muscle) [126] and the levatorscapulae muscle [71] can be aected as well. Also the

tromyforearm muscles, especially the extensor muscles, havebeen suggested to be quite frequently aected [111].

Among the more subjective symptoms of muscle dis-orders are sensations of constant muscle fatigue andstiness, accompanied by radiating pain. These signs,combined with objective observations of increased mus-cle tone during passive movements, painful locations,and/or palpable discrete, focal, hyperirritable spots(trigger points) contribute to the diagnosis of UEMDs[99,144].

To obtain more insight into the underlying tissue dis-orders, additional objective information has been gath-ered using a variety of techniques. Early studiesfocused on fatigability of the muscles. Using electro-myographic fatigue indicators several authors haveshown more rapid development of fatigue in thedescending part of the trapezius muscle in patients withUEMDs compared to healthy subjects [40,45,129]. Bjelleet al. [9,10] compared cases with acute, non-traumaticshoulder-neck pain to age- and sex-matched, pairedThe model implies that symptoms nd their origin indisorders of the muscle tissue. Following the model back-wards, the crucial question arises if and when muscle tis-sue disorders can result from muscle activity. Muscleactivity depends on the human motor behavior, whichcomprises an extensive repertoire of postures, move-ments, and force exertion. In the model the humanmotorbehavior is placed in the context of task performance andis seen as dependent on task requirements. Individual andcontextual factors might, and are likely to, aect all de-scribed relationships. These factors are indicated in themodel as eect modiers. The multi-factorial nature ofUEMDs is underlined by the inuence of the eect mod-iers. This review focuses on two questions: (1) Is thereevidence that signs and symptoms of UEMDs are basedon disorders of muscle tissue? (2) Can disorders of muscletissue be caused bymuscle activity of relatively low inten-sity? The relationship between task requirements and ad-verse patterns of muscle that we have recently reviewedelsewhere [24] is not specically addressed.

2. Clinical ndings: signs and symptoms

This section addresses the relationship between disor-der and symptoms as indicated in the model of Fig. 1. Itthus attempts to answer the rst question formulatedabove. UEMDs appear to mainly aect the neck andshoulder muscles, in particular the descending part ofthe trapezius muscle [72,85,139]. Nevertheless, it hasbeen suggested that surrounding musculature like theparavertebral musculature (the splenius capitis muscle,the rectus capitis muscle, the semispinalis capitis muscle

B. Visser, J.H. van Dieen / Journal of Eleccontrols. An increased blood concentration of creatinekinase (CK), a marker of muscle damage, was foundin a substantial part of the cases.

Biopsy studies have been used to study muscle berabnormalities. Muscle bers characterized by the pres-ence of zones lacking activity of some mitochondrial en-zymes are indicated with the term moth-eaten bers.Moth-eaten bers have been regularly found in the tra-pezius muscle of myalgic patients [49,81,82] but also incontrol subjects [74,81]. The mitochondrial organizationis disturbed in variable amounts of bers in all trapeziusmuscles irrespective of whether they are from patients orcontrol subjects. However, the level of disturbance ishigher in symptomatic subjects [66,67].

Ten biopsy studies addressing structural and histo-chemical muscle ber abnormalities related to muscleactivity and myalgia have been reviewed, by Hagg [44].Hagg included studies comparing two or three groupsof subjects: (A) exposed with muscle complaints (myal-gia); (B) healthy and exposed; (C) healthy and non-exposed. Exposed refers to the fact that subjects performwork that presumably causes this type of disorders.However, descriptions of work exposure have been va-gue or missing in most studies. In general a higher per-centage of type I bers was found in group A comparedto group C. Increased ber cross-sectional area of bothtypes I and II bers were found in groups A and B com-pared to group C. In spite of an increased number ofcapillaries per ber, capillarization per ber cross-sec-tional area was decreased in group A. This eect wasfound to be more pronounced in the group with moresevere complaints. Some studies analyzed the contentof the energy substrate ATP and the activity of the en-zyme Cytochrome-c oxidase (COX) in the biopsies.These measures, reecting the quality of metabolichomeostasis, diered between the groups. ATP contentwas lower in group A compared to group C and thenumber of bers with no COX activity (COX negativebers) was higher in groups A and B compared to groupC. The occurrence of Ragged red bers (RRFs), indicat-ing structural damage to the cell membrane and mito-chondria, was similar in group A and B and markedlyless frequent in group C. So RRFs reect the exposureto work but do not dierentiate between patients andhealthy subjects. Within group A, a relationship be-tween the number of RRFs and the severity of com-plaints was found. It was noticed the RRFs are oftenCOX negative bers of type I.

Studies of the normal trapezius indicate a relativelypoor supply of capillaries as well as low mitochondrialvolume density as compared with limb muscles [83].Since the mitochondrial volume density is directly re-lated to oxidative capacity, the trapezius muscle has rel-atively low endurance capacity [6]. The presence of motheaten bers and RRFs indicates uneven distribution andproliferation of mitochondria. (Accumulation of mito-

ography and Kinesiology 16 (2006) 116 3chondria is seen in Gomori trichrome staining, and this

aect pain experience [109,117]. An important aspectin this respect is the fact that recurrent stimulation of

tromgives the ragged red appearance.) The mitochondrialproliferation might be a compensatory phenomenon inpathophysiological states aecting oxidative metabo-lism. RRFs appear to be related to insucient bloodsupply, and may be induced by ischemia [47].

Indications that micro-circulation is locally decreasedaround bers in the trapezius muscle of subjects withmyalgic pain have been reported [75,77]. Furthermore,there are indications that arterial blood ow in subjectswith a specic UEMDs diers from that in control sub-jects. Pritchard et al. [110] showed an impaired vasodila-tation response of the brachial artery to forearm muscleactivity in symptomatic subjects, resulting in a reducedblood ow. From the observation that hand tempera-ture during typing increases more in controls than insymptomatic subjects, Sharma et al. [120] and Goldet al. [39] concluded that blood supply of the arm isdiminished in patients, probably due to sympatheticdisregulation.

Rosendal et al. [114] found increased anaerobicmetabolism during low-force exercise in patients withtrapezius myalgia. The levels of metabolites associatedwith anaerobic metabolism correlated to pain intensity.Blood ow during the task was similar in patients andcontrols. Blood ow during a 20 min recovery period re-mained increased in the patients and returned to base-line in the controls. These results suggest that localcirculation in the muscle may be reduced in the patients,while systemic blood ow is unaected. A local limita-tion in blood ow due to inhomogeneous muscle activa-tion (see also [115] would than require prolongedhyperaemia in the recovery period. Note that the lackof dierence in systemic blood ow is in contrast withndings of Pritchard et al. [110], which may be due toa dierent location of measurement.

In conclusion, indications have been found that dis-orders of muscle cells underlie UEMDs. Furthermore,limitations of the circulation play a role in these disor-ders, but is unsure whether this is a cause or conse-quence. It is clear that the disorders identied do notnecessarily lead to symptoms. It cannot be excluded thatreporting of pain occurs only when severity of the disor-der, e.g., the numbers of aected muscle bers, exceedssome unknown threshold value. However, it seems likelythat several individual and environmental factors co-determine the reporting of symptoms, explaining the ab-sence of a one-to-one relationship between disorder andpain or other symptoms. An extensive literature on painprocessing exists that cannot be reviewed here but in thenext paragraphs we will give some indications of such ef-fect modication.

Pain, the most prominent symptom of UEMDs, is de-ned as an unpleasant sensory experience associatedwith actual or potential tissue damage. Pain is one ofthe somatic sensibilities with its own specialized set of

4 B. Visser, J.H. van Dieen / Journal of Elecneural pathways. Nociceptors are specialized receptorsnociceptors may induce sensitization, which means thatthe nociceptor threshold is lowered and the ring fre-quency in response to the same stimulus is increased(which is likely to be accompanied by an increased painintensity). Sensitization is often accompanied by an in-crease of the sensitive area, leading to radiating pain[12,98]. A similar sensitization process occurs in the cen-tral nervous system (CNS), with substance P playing animportant role. The concentration of this neurotrans-mitter, measured in the spinal cord, was increased in ratsthat had performed repetitive activities [4]. Central and/or peripheral sensitization may be required before seri-ous pain is experienced, which would imply that symp-toms are only reported after tissue disorder has beenpresent for some time. In addition, these processesmay be important determinants of severity and chronic-ity of pain.

Animal studies have shown cytokine release afterlow-intensity repetitive activities [3,1]. Besides their rolein the inammation process, cytokines have a large im-pact elsewhere in the body through eects on the CNS,leading to widespread physiological eects and evenbehavioral changes. Cytokines have for example beenshown to inuence illness related behavior, like inactiv-ity [145,146] and may cause increased pain sensitivity[27,116]. As with nociceptive aerence and pain, therelationships between cytokine concentrations on onehand and the symptom sickness behavior on theother hand is subject to eect modication by a rangeof factors. Interestingly, it has been shown in ratsthat motivation induced by environmental factors(cold exposure) could negate the inactivity induced bycytokines [23].

3. Pathophysiological mechanisms

This section deals with the transition from muscleactivity to muscle disorders in the model of Fig. 1 andthus addresses our second research question. We rst de-scribe some animal experiments that indicate that mus-cle activity of low intensity can indeed cause tissuedamage in muscles. As stated in the introduction it isnot likely that a single comprehensive pathophysiologi-that serve as injury (or noxious stimulus) receptors.Nociceptors are sensitive to chemical substances, re-leased from damaged or overloaded cells, and excessivetissue deformation that may occur as a consequence ofintramuscular connective tissue damage [98]. However,the experience of pain based on nociceptive informationis subject to extensive modication based on both indi-vidual and contextual factors. For example, expecta-tions about a nociceptive stimulus appear to strongly

yography and Kinesiology 16 (2006) 116cal mechanism exists that is responsible for the tissue

engages only a fraction of the motor-units (MUs) avail-able and that recruitment patterns are likely to be ste-reotypical [48,152]. The continuous activity of theseMUs during sustained tasks was hypothesized to bethe cause of damage to these MUs.

Hennemans [48] size principle implies that small typeI bers are continuously activated during prolongedtasks. However, studies describing the recruitment ofMUs show that in some subjects derecruitment ofMUs occurs and that substitution of MUs takes place[29,97,149]. On the other hand, recent experiments didconrm the presence of continuous activity of someMUs in the trapezius muscle over a wide range of motortasks [34,64,134,149,155]. Similar results were foundwith respect to the extensor muscles in the forearm

tromydamage and symptoms described. Several hypotheses onthe pathogenesis have been put forward in the literature.We reviewed the literature on these hypotheses and givean overview of those mechanisms for which some exper-imental evidence has been provided either in the clinicalliterature or from animal experiments.

One of the most puzzling aspects of the pathophysiol-ogy of UEMDs is the fact that complaints can occur inindividuals who perform low-intensity tasks, like com-puter work [137,138,150]. A commonly used indicatorfor muscle damage, the level of creatine kinase (CK),in blood was not found to be increased in such low-intensity tasks [93]. In contrast, increasing concentra-tions of CK, over a period of days, have been foundduring work with a high UEMD risk and a relativelyhigh intensity [41,90].

Unaccustomed exercise involving stretch of activemuscle at long length can cause extensive ber damage,resulting in pain and tenderness [26,31,36,101]. Muscledamage has been shown to be greatest when largestretches at long sarcomere lengths occur [132]. Thistype of eccentric contractions is rare in low intensityactivity and thus large eects are not expected. There-fore, this review will primarily focus on muscle damagedue to concentric and isometric contractions. Note,however, that repeated eccentric contractions at shortsarcomere lengths may be responsible in part for muscledamage in UEMDs [148]. Westerblad et al. [148] alludeto repetitive, low-force contractions over prolongedtimes with co-contracting agonist and antagonist mus-cles as can be seen in the forearm during for examplekeying.

3.1. Evidence for muscle damage due to low-intensity

loading

Animal experimental research has clearly shown thatlow-intensity loading can bring about muscle damageprovided that the load imposed is static and of longduration. Lexell et al. [80] performed a study to deter-mine eects of chronic low-frequency electrical stimula-tion on muscle bers. Rabbit fast-twitch muscles, tibialisanterior and extensor digitorum longus, were stimulatedfor 9 days with pulse trains ranging in frequency from1.25 to 10 Hz. After the higher stimulation frequencies,there was a signicantly higher prevalence of degenerat-ing muscle bers. Moreover, muscles that had been sub-jected to continuous stimulation showed signicantlymore degeneration than muscles that had been stimu-lated intermittently (Fig. 2). A recent paper [3] describedchanges in motor skills and tissues of the upper extrem-ity with regard to injury and inammatory reactionsresulting from performance of a voluntary forelimbrepetitive reaching and grasping task in rats. Ratsreached for food pellets at a rate of 4 reaches/min,

B. Visser, J.H. van Dieen / Journal of Elec2 h/day, and 3 days/week for up to 8 weeks. The forcelevel involved in the grasping task was estimated at 1%of maximal force. Besides the fact that rats were unableto maintain baseline reach rate over the weeks, signi-cantly more macrophages were found in the reach limband serum levels of pro-inammatory cytokines were in-creased. These results demonstrate that performance oflow-intensity tasks can elicit responses associated withinammation. However, in humans with UEMDs noacute inammatory indicators have been found, butthe presence of brotic tissue and anti-inammatorymediators suggest a preceding inammatory episode[5]. In conclusion, several animal experiments supportthe assumption that sustained low-intensity activitycan cause muscle tissue disorders. The question to be ad-dressed next, is how this can occur.

3.2. Cinderella hypothesis

The Cinderella hypothesis [43] can be seen as themost inuential hypothesis for the development of mus-cle damage due to low-intensity tasks. In essence, thishypothesis focuses on the question when muscle activityof low intensity may become damaging. The consider-ations that led to the hypothesis did focus on the factsthat the muscular force generated at sub-maximal levels

Fig. 2. Volume % degenerated bers in rabbit muscles tibialis anterior(TA) and extensor digitorum longus (EDL) after several days ofcontinuous and intermittent stimulation (data from [80]).

ography and Kinesiology 16 (2006) 116 5[35]. Reported ring rates of these MUs for trapezius

sue oxygenation during sustained repetitive work hasbeen suggested to contribute to the development ofUEMDs [22,37,76]. The suggestion that local circulatoryproblems and the consequent disturbances of homeosta-sis play a role in the development of UEMDs, can alsobe found in several models proposed to describe thepathophysiology of UEMDs [26,63,64,123,125]. Kelleret al. [69], suggest that blood ow can be compromiseddue to compression of the brachial artery. Postural devi-ations, often seen in for instance keyboard work (for-ward displacement of the head and shoulder girdle incombination with scapular protraction), would reducethe cross-sectional area of the thoracic outlet. Theresulting compression of the brachial artery has eectsdistally, including edema, brosis, and temperaturechanges.

A more widely supported explanation for the lack ofblood supply is an increased intramuscular pressure,which impedes microcirculation [54,59]. The intramus-cular pressure is related to the produced force, the shapeand location of the muscle with high pressure at highforces, in cylindrical, and deep muscles [119]. With re-

trommuscle and extensor muscles are relatively high (1020 Hz) [8,127,149] and comparable with ring rates ofpreviously mentioned animal studies. The nding inthe study of Lexell et al. [80] that especially muscles sub-jected to continuous stimulation are at risk for degener-ation provides strong support for the Cinderellahypothesis.

Some epidemiological studies have shown that staticmuscle activity and a low rate of short unconsciousinterruptions in EMG activity (EMG gaps) are relevantfor the development of complaints. Subjects in a groupof manufacturing workers, who showed fewer EMGgaps in their trapezius muscle activity, were at higherrisk to develop trapezius myalgia [137,138]. SuchEMG gaps were found to coincide with derecruitmentand substitution of MUs [149]. The relationship betweenthe rate of EMG gaps and complaints could, however,not be found in oce work [136]. A possible explanationcould be that during oce work periods of derecruit-ment occur anyway, which however, triggers the ques-tion why oce workers would develop complaints atall. Recently, Westad et al. [147] showed that MU dere-cruitment is not only promoted by short depressions incontraction amplitude, but also by increased contractionlevels. It appears that force variation in either directionpromotes derecruitment of MUs.

Although the Cinderella hypothesis gives a plausibleexplanation for the selective loading of type I muscle -bers, it does not explain the development of muscle berdamage itself. Possible mechanisms for the developmentof this damage are reviewed in the subsequent sections.

3.3. Ca2+ accumulation

In a recent review by Gissel [38], Ca2+ accumulationdue to sustained motor unit activity has been suggestedto play a causative role in the development of muscledisorders. Long-term low-frequency stimulation (1 Hz,4 h) caused an increased Ca2+ content in rat skeletalmuscle cells. The accumulation of Ca2+ at this low fre-quency was much more pronounced in muscles mainlycomposed of type II bers. However, a signicant in-crease was also found in the soleus muscle, a muscleconsisting of mainly type I bers. Furthermore, long-term low-frequency stimulation induced leakage of theintracellular enzyme lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) frommuscles containing substantial numbers of type II bers,which indicates membrane damage. No LDH releasefrom the soleus muscle was observed. However, at ahigher stimulation frequency (10 Hz) LDH release wasfound also in the soleus muscle. LDH leakage mayreect degradation of membrane proteins by the Ca2+-activated protease Calpain. This, in turn, leads tofurther inux of Ca2+ and further acceleration of pro-tein breakdown (Fig. 3). Membrane leakages are likely

6 B. Visser, J.H. van Dieen / Journal of Electo result in sensations of pain in the damaged muscle.Ca2+ might play a central role in the development ofmuscle ber injury during prolonged muscle activity[36,38,96]. Furthermore, Ca2+ accumulation may leadto mitochondrial Ca2+ resorption, which has been sug-gested to result in structural damage and energydepletion.

3.4. Blood supply

3.4.1. Impaired blood ow

Hampering of blood ow and reduction in muscle tis-

Fig. 3. Accumulation of Ca2+ might have noxious eects on themembranes of muscle bres by stimulating protease and lipase activity.Mitochondrial damage might occur due to mitochondrial Ca2+

resorption. For further explanation see text.

yography and Kinesiology 16 (2006) 116spect to the muscles involved in UEMDs, substantially

tromyhigher pressures were demonstrated in for example, theM. supraspinatus (round shaped/located deep under thesurface) than in in the M. trapezius (atshaped/locatedat he surface) [53]. Circulation becomes completelyblocked when intramuscular pressure exceeds bloodpressure. Low-intensity work tasks often involve fairlylow levels of intramuscular pressure [53], which wouldsuggest that blood ow is not severely restricted. How-ever, local intra-muscular pressure might be muchhigher in parts of the muscle where MUs are active thanwould be expected on the basis of overall muscle activity[124]. This could be the case when type I MUs ormechanically specialized subpopulations of MUs [156]are spatially clustered, such as in muscle compartmentsthat have been identied in animal experiments [151]. Inseveral arm and shoulder muscles, among them the tra-pezius muscle, indications for compartmentalizationhave been found [15,50,59,60,92,104]. In addition, pro-longed pressure at lower levels (8 h, 30 mmHg) cancause muscle ber damage at normal blood pressure[46].

The observation that partial obstruction of bloodow occurs at intramuscular pressure levels well belowblood pressure is supported by studies that investigatedtissue oxygenation [102] and hyper-compensation inblood ow post-exercise [20,21,57,58,113]. For example,Jensen et al. [58] found post-exercise hyperaemia valuesof two times the resting blood ow even after isometrichandgrip exercise at an intensity as low as 2.5% MVCand Re and Knardahl [113] found such hyperaemiaafter computer work. Re and Knardahl [113] do, how-ever, not share the opinion that this post exercisehyperaemia is related to local hypoxia, but suggest thatit is centrally mediated. Nevertheless, a recent studyfound that homeostatic disturbances occur in the trape-zius muscle during low-intensity muscle activity, as-cribed to local obstruction of blood ow, possiblyrelated to inhomogeneous activation. Contractions atapproximately 8% of MVC caused increased K+ andlactate concentrations, the latter being indicative ofanaerobic metabolism [115].

Central adjustment of blood pressure is one of thecompensatory mechanisms to optimize blood ow.The increase in blood pressure is dependent on the rela-tive muscle load. In addition, however, activity involv-ing contractions of large muscles trigger a greaterblood pressure response than those involving small mus-cle groups, like forearm muscles [122]. The consequencemight be that the blood pressure response will be insuf-cient in low-intensity arm muscle activities. The inade-quate blood ow regulation is possibly linked with thedevelopment of pain by a process known as granulocyteplugging, referring to granulocytes mechanically block-ing ow through the capillaries. The combination ofvasodilatation as a response to local accumulation of

B. Visser, J.H. van Dieen / Journal of Elecmetabolites and a limited blood pressure response mightgive granulocytes the opportunity to enter the capillariesand block the micro-circulation. The phenomenon ofgranulocyte plugging is known from ischemic cardiacdisease, but is no more than a hypothesis with respectto UEMDs [122].

Although it seems plausible that suboptimal bloodow (regulation) plays a role in the pathogenesis ofUEMDs it remains to be shown whether it is a causalfactor itself or an aggravating factor for other causalfactors.

3.4.2. Reperfusion injury

Free radicals can cause damage by oxidation of satu-rated fatty acids in skeletal muscle membranes. Also,oxidation of some proteins including Na+/K+-ATPaseand Ca2+-ATPase can take place, resulting in a loss ofenzyme activity. The consequences can be membranedamage and disfunctioning of the ion pump of the sar-coplasmatic reticulum [96]. Since variations in energysupply are especially large in intermittent concentriccontractions, it is expected that the oxygen ux throughthe tissue and the electron ux through the mitochon-drial chain are large also, predisposing to the formationof free radicals in these kinds of activities [96].

3.4.3. Blood vesselnociceptor interaction

Knardahl [70] proposed a hypothesis on the origin ofmuscle pain without muscle (cell) activation being theprimary cause. He suggests a mechanism, similar tothe supposed mechanisms in migraine, in which vesselnerve interactions play a central role. Knardahl [70]refers to evidence that nociceptive aerent nerves in con-nective tissue and free nerve endings are located close tothe vessel wall of arteries and arterioles. He proposesthree options for the interaction: (1) arterial vasodilata-tion stretches the blood vessel wall, producing mechan-ical activation; (2) arterial vasodilatation causes vascularproduction and release of pain producing substances,like bradykinin and nitric oxide, which can activatenociceptors; (3) arterial vasodilatation causes release ofinammatory mediators, such as histamine and sub-stance P and algogenic factors from the plasma thatmay activate or sensitize nociceptors. Note that thishypothesis is partially conicting with evidence of an im-paired vasodilatation response of the brachial artery toforearm muscle activity in symptomatic subjects ob-served by Pritchard et al. [110] and the indications thatmicro-circulation is locally decreased around bers inthe trapezius muscle of subjects with myalgic pain[75,77].

3.5. Muscular force transmission

3.5.1. Myofascial force transmissionRecently, a hypothesis postulating that shear forces

ography and Kinesiology 16 (2006) 116 7between and within muscles can be the cause of muscle

damage has been presented. When contracting musclesapply forces to tendons attached to bony structures,they also apply forces to the surrounding (muscle) tissue(Fig. 4). Especially, when the relative position [87] orchange of length of a single muscle (part) is large relativeto its environment, substantial shear stresses and strainsbetween muscles or muscle parts are expected to occur[52]. This inter- and extramuscular myofascial forcetransmission has been predicted to cause a substantialdistribution of the lengths of the sarcomeres arrangedin series within muscle bers [153]. Jaspers et al. [56] pos-tulated that local lengthening of sarcomeres could leadto damage, comparable to damage caused by eccentriccontractions. In an experiment to verify this, prolonged(3 h) stimulation of a multi-tendoned rat muscle was ap-plied [86]. Intermittent (1 Hz) shortening of a singlehead of the extensor digitorum longus (EDL) musclewas combined with isometric contractions of the other

8 B. Visser, J.H. van Dieen / Journal of Electromheads of the EDL and adjacent muscles. Histologicalanalysis revealed muscle damage in all muscles involved.Damaged muscle bers were predominantly locatednear the interface with the EDL muscle. It has to be real-ized that the muscles were activated at a supra-maximallevel making it dicult to generalize these results to hu-mans in low-intensity tasks.

Besides the short-term eects, myofascial force trans-mission might be responsible for adaptations of intra-muscular connective tissue with respect to strength andstiness [55]. Interventions with the myotendinous forcetransmission of rat m. extensor digitorum longus (EDL)by tenotomy and aponeurotomy showed variations instrength of the intramuscular connective tissue at theinterface between heads of the multi-tendoned EDL.Jaspers et al. [55] suggested that, in humans performingfrequent isolated nger movements as in keying or play-ing an instrument, local shear and stress deformationswill initiate adaptations of the intramuscular connective

Fig. 4. Schematic presentation of conguration changes in inter- andextramuscular connections involved in myofascial force transmission.The eect of both muscle length change and muscle position change

are illustrated.tissue in such a way that independent nger movementsbecome restricted. To prevent undesired digit move-ments, co-activation of antagonists and intrinsic musclesmight be required. Leijnse [78,79], who focused on theintertendinous connections between muscle heads, simi-larly suggested that this anatomical limitation of inde-pendent nger movements ultimately leads to increasedmuscle activation in certain tasks where these move-ments are required and thus to an increased risk foroveruse of muscles.

3.5.2. Intramuscular shear forces

With respect to the role of shear stresses in low-inten-sity tasks, Vllestad and Re [141] have suggested thatlow-intensity static contractions lead to higher shearloading than high-intensity dynamic contractions. Theirargument is that only a small fraction of the muscle -bers within a muscle contracts during low-intensity con-tractions. Due to low-ring rates in these situationsMUs generate oscillating forces. Furthermore, MUshortening and lengthening is not synchronized, contrib-uting to the movement of bers with respect to eachother. The nociceptors located between the muscle bersare exposed to repetitive shear stresses under these con-ditions. Finally, the shear stresses may increase withduration of work as the amplitude of the oscillations in-creases during prolonged repetitive contractions.

To our knowledge, there are no experimental data tosupport the notion that this shear stress mechanismactually produces nociception and or damage.

3.6. Trigger points

Mense and Simons [99] argue that trigger points(TrPs) are not just signs of myalgia, but that they playa causal role in the development of UEMDs. TrPs arevery common with prevalences of up to 50% in neck/shoulder muscles. The presence of TrPs is not alwaysaccompanied by symptoms. Mense and Simons distin-guish between latent and active TrPs with the only dif-ference the occurrence of spontaneous pain in theactive TrPs. Both latent and active TrPs can be denedas hyperirritable nodules of spot tenderness in a palpa-ble taut band of skeletal muscle [121].

TrPs are located near the insertion of the muscle or inthe motor endplate area. The relevance of TrPs as causalfactor is mainly based on the nding that muscle paindisappears when TrPs are removed by eective therapy.In a recent review, Simons [121] describes a hypothesison the development of TrPs. In short, the hypothesispostulates that a TrP has multiple muscle bers withendplates releasing excessive Acetylcholine (Step 1),accompanied by regional sarcomere shortening (Step2, Fig. 5). The shortened sarcomeres have unusuallyhigh oxygen demands, while the increased tension likely

yography and Kinesiology 16 (2006) 116compromises circulation producing local ischemia

harmful levels of chaperones. Forde et al. [32] them-selves indicate a lack of information on the relationshipbetween occupational muscle activity and the level ofcellular stress as a weak point in this theory.

4. Feedback loops from muscle disorder to muscle activity

The understanding of the pathophysiological processfrom muscle activity to disturbances of physiologicalprocesses in the body and disorders of the muscle(s) iscrucial, but as indicated in Section 2 does not necessarilyclarify the occurrence of the symptoms. It is possiblethat a minor disorder of muscle tissue creates a loopfeeding back onto muscle activity, thus creating a vi-cious circle in the model of Fig. 1. Such a vicious circlecould aggravate the initial disorder and eventually leadto symptoms. Hypotheses regarding the occurrence ofsuch loops will be discussed in this section.

Nociceptive aerence may be the consequence of

B. Visser, J.H. van Dieen / Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology 16 (2006) 116 9(Step 3). Ischemia and local hypoxia could lead to tissuedistress: as appears from a reduction of ATP and releaseof sensitizing substances (Step 4). The sensitizing sub-stances are responsible for the sensitization of nocicep-tors (Step 5), leading to pain. Some of the steps in the

Fig. 5. Schematic presentation of trigger points in a palpable tautband of skeletal muscle. The magnication of the central trigger pointshows contraction knots in some of the muscle bers (based on [121]).For further explanation see text.trigger point hypothesis overlap with the previouslymentioned theories. Dysfunctioning of the endplates isexclusive for this hypothesis and especially this part ofthe hypothesis has some uncertainties with respect to apossible causal role of muscle activity and task require-ments. Mense and Simons [99] and Simons [121] men-tion that the step from latent TrPs to active TrPs isunder the inuence of an autonomic central process,but at the same time they argue that it can be triggeredby a rather broad range of muscle activities leading tomuscle overload.

3.7. Impaired heat shock response

Forde et al. [32] formulated the hypothesis that dis-ruption of the heat shock response could lead to patho-genic levels of chaperone proteins causing cell death.The hypothesis is based on the observation that expos-ing cells to stress either heat stress, oxygen stress asoccurs in inammatory responses, or ischemic conditions leads to an increased production of chaperone proteins.Under normal conditions a self-limiting feedback loopexists in which chaperones shut down there own produc-tion. However, as cells age, either naturally or prema-turely due to adverse external exposures, the heatshock response does not function properly leading to

Fig. 6. The possible role of the c-muscle spindle system in a self-maintaining vicious circle: muscle contraction produces metabolites

and reduces pH, which can activate nociceptive types III and IVmuscle aerents, which in turn activate the c-motor neurons. Elevatedc-motor neuron activity would cause elevated muscle spindle activity,which in turn would increase muscle ber activity and stiness. Thepositive feedback loop might also reinforce the activity of surroundingmuscle activity but can in turn play a role in muscleactivation. Johansson and Sojka [62] proposed that thec-muscle spindle system plays a central role in a self-maintaining vicious circle in which nociception andmuscle activity amplify each other. Muscle contractionsproduce metabolites and low pH, which activates noci-ceptive types III and IV muscle aerents, which in turnactivate the c-motor neurons. Elevated c-motor neuronactivity would cause elevated muscle spindle activity,which in turn would increase muscle ber activity andstiness. The positive feedback loop might also reinforcethe activity of surrounding muscles, explaining thespreading of complaints to neighboring muscles(Fig. 6). Recent studies have not provided unambiguousmuscles.

muscle activity, although an interaction eect with activ-

tromsupport for this theory. An increased output of musclespindles in cat hind leg and neck muscles, as a conse-quence of nociceptive stimuli, was found in a rangeof experiments [25,84,108,106]. Evidence of hyper-excitability of the a-motor neuron pool after noxiousstimulation of muscle was found in cats and rats[105,130,143]. In contrast, an experiment in which myo-sitis was induced in the hind leg of the cat showed a de-creased activity of c-motor neurons [100]. Also in catback muscles, no increased c-motor neuron activitywas found after injection of bradykinin and capsaicin[68]. Experimental results in humans are sparse. In hu-man calf and masticatory muscles, the stretch reex,which is mediated by muscle spindle aerents, was foundto be enhanced after injection of hypertonic saline[95,131]. However, in back muscles no enhancement ofstretch reexes was found after hypertonic saline injec-tion [154]. In addition, during walking the stretch reexin the calf muscles was unaected by induced pain [94].The amplitude of the Hofmanns reex, which is an indi-cator of a-motor neuron excitability, was not increasedafter injection of hypertonic saline in the calf muscles[95] and Farina et al. [30] found even reduced ring ratesof motor units after induction of pain. However, restingEMG levels were increased in human masticatory mus-cles during induced pain [130], although the eect wasonly short-lived. In conclusion, a direct eect of painon muscle activity leading to a vicious circle is not con-sistently supported by the literature.

Recently, a more indirect feedback mechanism ofpain on muscle activity has been proposed [61]. The pro-posed loop consists of a negative eect of nociception onpropriocepsis leading to less precise control of move-ment that if the task requirements call for this couldbe compensated through increased co-contraction thusincreasing muscle activity. In animal studies, increasedtypes III and IV aerent activation did diminish theinformation content of muscle spindle aerence[106,135]. Also in humans, muscle fatigue has beenshown to negatively aect propriocepsis [11,33,107].Furthermore, patients with pain in the cervical regionwere shown to display an impaired ability in a head-repositioning task [112]. A recent reformulation of thehypothesis of Johanssen and Sojka focuses on this as-pect, where it is assumed that the reduced propriocep-tion requires increased eort to maintain taskperformance, which might lead to a vicious circle [61].Results from animal studies indicate that, in additionto the peripheral eects on sensory quality, changes inthe cerebral cortex as a response to sustained repetitivemuscle activity can occur [1719]. In monkeys that per-formed highly stereotypical and spatially constrainedand highly repetitive movements with one hand, changesin the cerebral cortex suggest a reduction in the dieren-tiation of sensory information from the hand and arm

10 B. Visser, J.H. van Dieen / Journal of Elec[19]. It is therefore possible that pain impairs proprio-ity level is likely to occur. Note that an independentmechanism proposed (nociceptor sensitization due to in-tra-muscular shear forces) also suggests that long peri-ods of low-level activity may lead to disorders, but thismechanism is less well supported by the literature. Sec-ond, intermittent activity (especially of high-intensity)may trigger mechanisms, such as reperfusion injuryand blood-vessel nociception interaction. The key-factorin this scenario is the fact that muscle activity is of rela-tively high intensity and intermittent, which leads to fre-ception, which will lead to less precise motor controland possibly as a compensatory reaction, to an in-creased eort mainly in the form of increased co-activation of muscles. Increased muscle activation andespecially a lack of relaxation as shown in patients withUEMDs [28,73] and whiplash associated disorders [103],and increased pen pressure during a graphical aimingtask in patients with a-specic forearm pain [13] supportthis assumption.

5. Discussion

This review focused on the injury mechanisms thatcould underlie upper extremity muscle disorders. In Sec-tion 2, it was found that several studies have providedevidence for the presence of muscle tissue disorders(muscle ber abnormalities and impaired micro-circula-tion) in people with UEMDs. It was concluded thatthese disorders are not a sucient condition for com-plaints to occur but yet may play a causal role. Section3 focused on the question how these disorders may de-velop. The following mechanisms were discussed: (1)Cinderella motor-units loading; (2) Ca2+ accumulation;(3a) impaired blood ow; (3b) reperfusion injury; (3.3c)blood vesselnociceptor interaction; (4a) myofascialforce transmission; (4b) intramuscular shear forces; (5)trigger points; (6) impaired heat shock response. The lit-erature shows no complete proof for any of these mech-anisms. Some mechanisms have been studied quiteextensively and have received partial support. Othermechanisms have hardly been studied yet.

As expected, none of the hypotheses included in Sec-tion 3 is able to explain when muscle activity can be-come pathogenic to its full extent. However, threescenarios emerge. First, sustained (usually low-intensity)muscle activity is likely to coincide with selective andsustained activation of type I motor units as proposedin the Cinderella hypothesis. This may lead to Ca2+

accumulation in the active motor units and otherhomeostatic disturbances due to limitations in localblood supply and metabolite removal in muscle com-partments with larger numbers of active MUs. Thekey-factor in this scenario is the duration of continuous

yography and Kinesiology 16 (2006) 116quent and strong changes of blood ow into the muscle.

Acknowledgements

References

tromyography and Kinesiology 16 (2006) 116 11Third, when intermittent activity coincides with selectivelength changes of muscle parts relative to their environ-ment, local sarcomere lengthening due to myofascialforce transmission may lead to injury. The key-factorin this scenario is the repetitive length change of singlemuscle parts or muscles. The bulk of the ndings fromthe biopsy studies reviewed in Section 2, which indicatemitochondrial dysfunction of type I bers in myalgicmuscles and reduced micro-circulation, are in line withthe rst scenario. Overall the rst scenario is best sup-ported by empirical data and appears to t well with epi-demiological data on UEMDs. The second and thirdscenario have hardly been investigated and thus cannotbe refuted nor supported.

Johansson et al. [61] concluded that the multiple indi-vidual mechanisms interact in (series of) circular pro-cesses, with the implication that it is unlikely topinpoint a unique causal starting point. In our simplemodel we chose the muscle activity as a starting point.This has heuristic value for the prevention of UEMDsand is supported by consistent relationships betweenphysical exposures and incidence of UEMDs[2,7,14,16,42,89,126,128]. However, to illustrate someof the circular processes potentially involved, considerthe following: The homeostatic disturbances in muscle,resulting from muscle activity, can result in an accumu-lation of metabolites, stimulating nociceptors. Thisprocess can be enhanced in subjects with relatively largetype I bers and low capillarization, which paradoxi-cally may have developed as an adaptation to theexposure. Nociceptor activation can disturb the propri-oception and thereby the motor control most likelyleading to further increased disturbance of musclehomeostasis. The pain resulting from nociceptor activitycan cause increased sympathetic activity leading to de-creased muscle circulation and increased levels of muscleactivity. In addition, in the long run a reduction of thepain threshold and an increase of pain sensitivity can de-velop. It is worth noting that initial nociceptor stimula-tion may be a response to metabolite accumulationpreceding tissue damage.

As indicated in Fig. 1, the pathophysiological processis under the inuence of eect modiers, varying fromindividual to psychosocial factors. Task stress has aninuence on all levels of the model. It has an eect onthe relationship between task requirements and muscleactivity [140], with task stress having an increasing eecton muscle activation. Stress can also have a negative ef-fect on circulation and oxygen supply to the muscles bysympathetic inuence and hyperventilation [118]. Inaddition, hormonal eects of stress may lead to a de-creased anabolic capacity, which would negatively aecttissue quality and the capacity to regenerate tissue afterinjury [133]. Finally stress has an inuence on the rela-tion between disorders and symptoms, the sensation of

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Bart Visser received his M.Sc. degree inHuman Movement Sciences in 1989 fromthe VU University Amsterdam. In 2004,he obtained his PhD on the basis of athesis focusing on upper extremity load inlow-intensity tasks. He is currently afaculty member at the Faculty of HumanMovement Sciences of the VU University.He is the head of the Expertise centre forRehabilitation, Ergonomics and Sports(EXPres), aliated to this faculty.His research interests focus on

occupational ergonomics, work related musculoskeletal disorders ofthe upper extremity and measurement techniques for physicalworkload.

Jaap van Dieen obtained a PhD in HumanMovement Sciences from the Faculty ofHuman Movement Sciences at the VU Uni-versity Amsterdam in the Netherlands.Since June 1996 he has been employed at thisfaculty, currently as professor of biome-chanics. He is chairing the ergonomics pro-gram at this faculty. In addition, he is thehead of a research group focusing onmechanical and neural aspects of musuclo-skeletal injuries. His main research interest ison the interaction of muscle coordination,

with fatigue and injury and its eects on joint load and joint stability.Jaap van Dieen has (co-) authored over 90 papers in international sci-entic journals. In addition, he has (co-) authored numerous abstractsand book chapters in the international literature and technical reportsand publications in Dutch. He serves on the editorial advisory board ofthe Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, the editorial boardsof Human Movement Sciences and Clinical Biomechanics and is aneditor of the European Journal of Applied Physiology.

16 B. Visser, J.H. van Dieen / Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology 16 (2006) 116

Pathophysiology of upper extremity muscle disordersIntroductionClinical findings: signs and symptomsPathophysiological mechanismsEvidence for muscle damage due to low-intensity loadingCinderella hypothesisCa2+ accumulationBlood supplyImpaired blood flowReperfusion injuryBlood vessel ndash nociceptor interaction

Muscular force transmissionMyofascial force transmissionIntramuscular shear forces

Trigger pointsImpaired heat shock response

Feedback loops from muscle disorder to muscle activityDiscussionAcknowledgementsReferences