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PsikologiPsikologi UmumUmum 22UniversitasUniversitas BundaBunda MuliaMulia

DEFINITIONSDEFINITIONS

PSYCHOLOGY is an academic and applied field involving the study PSYCHOLOGY is an academic and applied field involving the study of of behaviourbehaviour, mind and thought and the subconscious neurological , mind and thought and the subconscious neurological bases of bases of behaviourbehaviour. . Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including problems of various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals' daily lives and the treatment of mental illness. individuals' daily lives and the treatment of mental illness. It is largely concerned with humans, although the It is largely concerned with humans, although the behaviourbehaviour and and mental processes of animals can also be part of psychology reseamental processes of animals can also be part of psychology research, rch, either as a subject in its own right either as a subject in its own right ((e.g. animal cognition and e.g. animal cognition and ethologyethology)), or somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an , or somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human psychology by means of comparison insight into human psychology by means of comparison ((including including comparative psychologycomparative psychology)). . Psychology is commonly defined as the science of behavior Psychology is commonly defined as the science of behavior and mental processes.and mental processes.

What is PsychologyWhat is Psychology

Psychology is the study of cognitions, emotions, and behavior. Psychology is the study of cognitions, emotions, and behavior. Psychologists are involved in a variety of tasks.Psychologists are involved in a variety of tasks. Many spend their Many spend their careers designing and performing research to better understand hcareers designing and performing research to better understand how ow people behave in specific situations, how and why we think the wpeople behave in specific situations, how and why we think the way ay we do, and how emotions develop and what impact they have on ourwe do, and how emotions develop and what impact they have on ourinteractions with others. These are the research psychologists winteractions with others. These are the research psychologists who ho often work in research organizations or universities. Industrialoften work in research organizations or universities. Industrial--organizational psychologists work with businesses and organizatiorganizational psychologists work with businesses and organizations ons to help them become more productive, effective, and efficient, ato help them become more productive, effective, and efficient, and to nd to assist them in working with their employees and their customers.assist them in working with their employees and their customers.Practitioners, typically counseling and clinical psychologists, Practitioners, typically counseling and clinical psychologists, work work with individuals, couples, families, and small groups to help thwith individuals, couples, families, and small groups to help them em feel less depressed, less anxious, become more productive or feel less depressed, less anxious, become more productive or motivated, and overcome issues which prevent them from living upmotivated, and overcome issues which prevent them from living upto their potential.to their potential.

Five basic goals of psychologyFive basic goals of psychology

1.1. Describe Describe –– The first goal is to observe behavior and describe, often in The first goal is to observe behavior and describe, often in minute detail, what was observed as objectively as possible minute detail, what was observed as objectively as possible

2.2. Explain Explain –– While descriptions come from observable data, psychologists While descriptions come from observable data, psychologists must go beyond what is obvious and explain their observations. Imust go beyond what is obvious and explain their observations. In other n other words, why did the subject do what he or she did? words, why did the subject do what he or she did?

3.3. Predict Predict –– Once we know what happens, and why it happens, we can begin Once we know what happens, and why it happens, we can begin to speculate what will happen in the future. Thereto speculate what will happen in the future. There’’s an old saying, which s an old saying, which very often holds true: "the best predictor of future behavior isvery often holds true: "the best predictor of future behavior is past past behavior."behavior."

4.4. Control Control –– Once we know what happens, why it happens and what is likely Once we know what happens, why it happens and what is likely to happen in the future, we can excerpt control over it. In otheto happen in the future, we can excerpt control over it. In other words, if we r words, if we know you choose abusive partners because your father was abusiveknow you choose abusive partners because your father was abusive, we can , we can assume you will choose another abusive partner, and can thereforassume you will choose another abusive partner, and can therefore e intervene to change this negative behavior.intervene to change this negative behavior.

5.5. Improve Improve –– Not only do psychologists attempt to control behavior, they Not only do psychologists attempt to control behavior, they want to do so in a positive manner, they want to improve a persowant to do so in a positive manner, they want to improve a personn’’s life, not s life, not make it worse. This is not always the case, but it should alwaysmake it worse. This is not always the case, but it should always be the be the intention.intention.

PSYCHOLOGY IN AMONG SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY IN AMONG SOCIAL SCIENCESCIENCE

PsychologyPsychology ((Gk:Gk: psychepsyche, soul or mind + , soul or mind + logoslogos, speech) is an , speech) is an academicacademic and and appliedapplied field involving the field involving the studystudy of the of the mindmind, brain, and , brain, and behaviorbehavior, both human , both human and nonhuman. Psychology also refers to the application of such and nonhuman. Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledgeknowledge to to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individvarious spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals' uals' daily livesdaily livesand the treatment of and the treatment of mental illnessmental illness..

Psychology differs from Psychology differs from anthropologyanthropology, , economicseconomics, , political sciencepolitical science, and , and sociologysociology in seeking to capture explanatory generalizations about the in seeking to capture explanatory generalizations about the mental mental functionfunction and overt and overt behaviourbehaviour of individuals, while the other disciplines rely of individuals, while the other disciplines rely more heavily on field studies and historical methods for extractmore heavily on field studies and historical methods for extracting descriptive ing descriptive generalizations. In practice, however, there is quite a lot of cgeneralizations. In practice, however, there is quite a lot of crossross--fertilization fertilization that takes place among the various fields. Psychology differs frthat takes place among the various fields. Psychology differs from om biologybiology and and neuroscienceneuroscience in that it is primarily concerned with the interaction of mentain that it is primarily concerned with the interaction of mental l processes and behavior, and of the overall processes of a systemprocesses and behavior, and of the overall processes of a system, and not , and not simply the biological or neural processes themselves, though thesimply the biological or neural processes themselves, though the subfield of subfield of neuropsychologyneuropsychology combines the study of the actual neural processes with the combines the study of the actual neural processes with the study of the mental effects they have subjectively produced.study of the mental effects they have subjectively produced.

Diversity of PsychologyDiversity of PsychologyAPA has 53 different divisions APA has 53 different divisions http://www.apa.org/about/division.htmlhttp://www.apa.org/about/division.html

Psychology covers topics ranging from Psychology covers topics ranging from biology to animal behaviour to social biology to animal behaviour to social sciencessciencesUnfortunately this wide range reduces the Unfortunately this wide range reduces the coherence of psychology as a disciplinecoherence of psychology as a discipline

No grand unifying theoryNo grand unifying theory

FIELD OF PSYCHOLOGYBiopsychologistsBiopsychologists:: take a comparative and ontogenetic perspective in the take a comparative and ontogenetic perspective in the experimental analysis of basic psychological processes as they rexperimental analysis of basic psychological processes as they relate to the many ways elate to the many ways in which animal species adapt, survive, reproduce and evolve.in which animal species adapt, survive, reproduce and evolve.Child Psychologists:Child Psychologists: See Child Clinical Psychologists, Developmental See Child Clinical Psychologists, Developmental Psychologists, School Psychologists, and Social Worker.Psychologists, School Psychologists, and Social Worker.Child Clinical Psychologists:Child Clinical Psychologists: have about the same preparation as clinical have about the same preparation as clinical psychologists; in addition, they have the responsibility of becopsychologists; in addition, they have the responsibility of becoming acquainted with ming acquainted with the developmental characteristics of preadolescent.the developmental characteristics of preadolescent.Clinical Psychologists:Clinical Psychologists: are concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of are concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disturbances. After graduate preparation in an accpsychological disturbances. After graduate preparation in an accredited university or redited university or school of professional psychology, supervised postdoctoral experschool of professional psychology, supervised postdoctoral experience, and licensure ience, and licensure or certification by the state, some clinical psychologists enteror certification by the state, some clinical psychologists enter independent independent practice/consulting roles. Others find themselves responsible fopractice/consulting roles. Others find themselves responsible for a complete range of r a complete range of psychological services in public settings. Their responsibilitiepsychological services in public settings. Their responsibilities range from s range from administering and scoring psychological tests, to engaging in thadministering and scoring psychological tests, to engaging in therapy, to supervising erapy, to supervising the training of graduate students in the delivery of mental healthe training of graduate students in the delivery of mental health services, to th services, to administering a community mental health program. Some clinical padministering a community mental health program. Some clinical psychologists sychologists obtain faculty positions in a college or university where they pobtain faculty positions in a college or university where they perform research and erform research and train graduate students. Others serve as adjunct (or parttrain graduate students. Others serve as adjunct (or part--time) faculty, while time) faculty, while maintaining independent clinical practices. Many serve as consulmaintaining independent clinical practices. Many serve as consultants. Ph.D. or tants. Ph.D. or Psy.DPsy.D. needed.. needed.

FIELD OF PSYCHOLOGYCognitive Psychologists:Cognitive Psychologists: are concerned with what organisms know and how they are concerned with what organisms know and how they come to know it. They study how people perceive objects and evencome to know it. They study how people perceive objects and events, how they can ts, how they can store past events in memory, how they transform and manipulate kstore past events in memory, how they transform and manipulate knowledge by nowledge by thinking, and how they analyze their experience to emerge with nthinking, and how they analyze their experience to emerge with new and abstract ew and abstract notions.notions.Community Psychologists:Community Psychologists: are concerned with the application of concepts, tools are concerned with the application of concepts, tools and skills from the fields of counseling, guidance and rehabilitand skills from the fields of counseling, guidance and rehabilitation psychology. ation psychology. Community psychologists are trained to counsel, treat and/or refCommunity psychologists are trained to counsel, treat and/or refer outpatients and to er outpatients and to assist in the development of community resources for their clienassist in the development of community resources for their clients.ts.Counseling Psychologists:Counseling Psychologists: are concerned with counseling, teaching, consulting are concerned with counseling, teaching, consulting research, and/or administration. In their work, they are particuresearch, and/or administration. In their work, they are particularly concerned with larly concerned with the role of education and work in an individual's functioning, athe role of education and work in an individual's functioning, and with the interaction nd with the interaction between individuals and the environments in which they live. Typbetween individuals and the environments in which they live. Typically, counseling ically, counseling psychologists work with normal or moderately maladjusted personspsychologists work with normal or moderately maladjusted persons, individually or , individually or in groups. This work includes use of traditional counseling intein groups. This work includes use of traditional counseling interview methods, rview methods, interest, ability and personality tests, and educational and occinterest, ability and personality tests, and educational and occupational information. upational information. Most counseling psychologists are employed in educational settinMost counseling psychologists are employed in educational settings and most of gs and most of those in colleges or universities. A minority are employed in hothose in colleges or universities. A minority are employed in hospitals, (e.g., the VA), spitals, (e.g., the VA), community mental health or rehabilitation centers, industry, govcommunity mental health or rehabilitation centers, industry, government, or in ernment, or in private or community counseling agencies.private or community counseling agencies.

FIELD OF PSYCHOLOGYDevelopmental Psychologists:Developmental Psychologists: are concerned with growth and development from conception are concerned with growth and development from conception through death. All aspects of the animal or human organism (physthrough death. All aspects of the animal or human organism (physiological, biological, physical, iological, biological, physical, cognitive, emotional, social, cultural) may be studied.cognitive, emotional, social, cultural) may be studied.Educational Psychologists:Educational Psychologists: are concerned with a range of activities from initial design are concerned with a range of activities from initial design through development and evaluation of both materials and proceduthrough development and evaluation of both materials and procedures for education and training. res for education and training. Such positions exist in public schools, in the military, in privSuch positions exist in public schools, in the military, in private research and development ate research and development companies, and in industrial concerns. They may deal with analyzcompanies, and in industrial concerns. They may deal with analyzing education and training ing education and training needs, with developing materials for instruction in various medineeds, with developing materials for instruction in various media, with designing the best a, with designing the best conditions for instruction, and with evaluating the effectivenesconditions for instruction, and with evaluating the effectiveness of instructional programs.s of instructional programs.Engineering Psychologists:Engineering Psychologists: are concerned with designing and using environments and are concerned with designing and using environments and systems with which human beings live and work. Their job is to isystems with which human beings live and work. Their job is to improve the interaction between mprove the interaction between people and their environments. They may help design work areas, people and their environments. They may help design work areas, equipment, and humanequipment, and human--machine systems, as well as the training devices, aids, and requmachine systems, as well as the training devices, aids, and requirements needed to prepare people irements needed to prepare people to make such systems function. They work in many different settito make such systems function. They work in many different settings, such as the aerospace ngs, such as the aerospace industry, communications and transportation industries, the miliindustry, communications and transportation industries, the military, and other governmental, tary, and other governmental, commercial and industrial enterprises.commercial and industrial enterprises.Experimental Psychologists:Experimental Psychologists: a general title applied to a variety of psychologists who are a general title applied to a variety of psychologists who are trained in designing and conducting research in specific basic atrained in designing and conducting research in specific basic areas like learning, sensation and reas like learning, sensation and perception, human performance, and motivation and emotion. A resperception, human performance, and motivation and emotion. A research oriented doctoral earch oriented doctoral degree (Ph.D.) is usually needed.degree (Ph.D.) is usually needed.

FIELD OF PSYCHOLOGYHealth or Medical Psychologists:Health or Medical Psychologists: are concerned with understanding how are concerned with understanding how psychological factors can affect physical health. Some representpsychological factors can affect physical health. Some representative issues: how ative issues: how certain attitudes and behaviors may cause heart disease; how thecertain attitudes and behaviors may cause heart disease; how the state of physical state of physical health affects one's psychological wellhealth affects one's psychological well--being; and how living with cancer can affect being; and how living with cancer can affect one's attitude and behavior. They also study the psychology of hone's attitude and behavior. They also study the psychology of how people can better ow people can better cope with physical diseasecope with physical diseaseIndustrial / Organizational Psychologists:Industrial / Organizational Psychologists: are concerned with the relation are concerned with the relation between individuals and work. They are employed in business and between individuals and work. They are employed in business and industry, in industry, in government, and in colleges and universities, and may perform a government, and in colleges and universities, and may perform a variety of jobs. An variety of jobs. An industrial/organizational psychologist working in industry may sindustrial/organizational psychologist working in industry may study how work is tudy how work is organized; suggest changes to improve the satisfaction of employorganized; suggest changes to improve the satisfaction of employees, the quality of ees, the quality of the organization's services, and productivity; consult with manathe organization's services, and productivity; consult with management on the gement on the development of effective training programs for employees; designdevelopment of effective training programs for employees; design programs for the programs for the early identification of management potential; administer career early identification of management potential; administer career counseling and counseling and preretirementpreretirement counseling programs; develop affirmative action programs; counseling programs; develop affirmative action programs; recommend changes in job definition; design a system of performarecommend changes in job definition; design a system of performance evaluation. A nce evaluation. A master's degree in industrial/organizational psychology is a minmaster's degree in industrial/organizational psychology is a minimum requirement imum requirement for a position as a psychological associate but a position as a for a position as a psychological associate but a position as a psychologist requires a psychologist requires a Ph.D.Ph.D.

FIELD OF PSYCHOLOGYPersonnel Psychologists:Personnel Psychologists: Compared to industrial/organizational psychologists, personnel Compared to industrial/organizational psychologists, personnel psychologists focus more specifically on the hiring, assignment,psychologists focus more specifically on the hiring, assignment, and promotion of employees. and promotion of employees. Such a psychologist may be involved in the continued developmentSuch a psychologist may be involved in the continued development and validation of assessment and validation of assessment tools for selection, placement, classification and promotion of tools for selection, placement, classification and promotion of employees. Although positions as employees. Although positions as test administrators and interviewers are available for those wittest administrators and interviewers are available for those with B.A.'s and M.A.'s, a Ph.D. is a h B.A.'s and M.A.'s, a Ph.D. is a general prerequisite for a position as a psychologist.general prerequisite for a position as a psychologist.Psycholinguists:Psycholinguists: are concerned with discovering the psychological significance oare concerned with discovering the psychological significance of the properties f the properties of language, of linguistic organization, the meaning of words, sof language, of linguistic organization, the meaning of words, syntax and how children acquire yntax and how children acquire language.language.Psychometric (Quantitative) Psychologists:Psychometric (Quantitative) Psychologists: are directly concerned with the measurement are directly concerned with the measurement of behavior (mostly through the use of tests) and the design of of behavior (mostly through the use of tests) and the design of research investigations. Such a research investigations. Such a psychologist may be analyzing complex sets of data; designing, dpsychologist may be analyzing complex sets of data; designing, developing pilot testing, or eveloping pilot testing, or validating versions of intelligence, personality, or aptitude tevalidating versions of intelligence, personality, or aptitude tests; or deriving new statistics with sts; or deriving new statistics with which to analyze data. The psychometric psychologist is typicallwhich to analyze data. The psychometric psychologist is typically welly well--trained in mathematics, trained in mathematics, statistics, and in the programming and use of computers.statistics, and in the programming and use of computers.Psychotherapists:Psychotherapists: A very broad term. Generally, anyone can call him or herself a A very broad term. Generally, anyone can call him or herself a "Psychotherapist", but "Psychotherapist", but ONLYONLY a person with a Ph.D. in Psychology and a license can use the ta person with a Ph.D. in Psychology and a license can use the term erm "Psychologist". Psychotherapists can include anyone without a Ph"Psychologist". Psychotherapists can include anyone without a Ph.D. who tries to help people deal .D. who tries to help people deal with their problems. Counselors and Social Workers are psychothewith their problems. Counselors and Social Workers are psychotherapists, but rapists, but not not Psychologists.Psychologists.

FIELD OF PSYCHOLOGYSchool Psychologists:School Psychologists: are concerned with increasing the effectiveness of schools in are concerned with increasing the effectiveness of schools in improving the intellectual, social and emotional development of improving the intellectual, social and emotional development of children. They may children. They may also serve as consultants in education for the handicapped, mentalso serve as consultants in education for the handicapped, mentally disturbed or ally disturbed or mentally retarded; or in developing special programs in adult edmentally retarded; or in developing special programs in adult education. They ucation. They typically function in various roles within the school system. Thtypically function in various roles within the school system. They may assist in ey may assist in implementing and evaluating special education programs, may servimplementing and evaluating special education programs, may serve as leaders of ine as leaders of in--service training programs for teachers, or as consultants to teaservice training programs for teachers, or as consultants to teachers regarding chers regarding specific teaching or classroom related problems. They may also hspecific teaching or classroom related problems. They may also help to treat elp to treat children's psychological and educational problems that influencechildren's psychological and educational problems that influence problems in school. problems in school. They may also administer tests and interpret their results. An MThey may also administer tests and interpret their results. An M.A. and certification .A. and certification by the State Board of Education are generally required, and a Phby the State Board of Education are generally required, and a Ph.D. may be required .D. may be required for supervisory positions.for supervisory positions.Social Psychologists:Social Psychologists: study the ways in which the social context affects the study the ways in which the social context affects the behavior of the individual and groups in the real world and the behavior of the individual and groups in the real world and the laboratory. Social laboratory. Social psychologists focus on topics such as social roles, attitude forpsychologists focus on topics such as social roles, attitude formation and change, mation and change, affiliation, interpersonal attraction and interaction, conformitaffiliation, interpersonal attraction and interaction, conformity, and group processes.y, and group processes.Social Workers:Social Workers: attempts to meet social needs by providing leadership in the attempts to meet social needs by providing leadership in the development of social policy and practice in the field of socialdevelopment of social policy and practice in the field of social welfare. Social Workers welfare. Social Workers help advance the professional practice of social work by enhancihelp advance the professional practice of social work by enhancing the social ng the social functioning of individuals, groups, families, and communities. Tfunctioning of individuals, groups, families, and communities. Two subfields exists in wo subfields exists in the field of Social Welfare, such as specializations in either dthe field of Social Welfare, such as specializations in either direct practice, or irect practice, or management concentrations.management concentrations.

CONTEMPORARY THEORITICAL CONTEMPORARY THEORITICAL PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGYPERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY

Only observable Only observable aventsavents ( stimulus( stimulus--responsrespons relations) relations) can be studied can be studied scientificallyscientifically

Effects of Effects of environment on environment on the overt behavior the overt behavior of humans and of humans and animalanimal

J.B. WatsonJ.B. Watson

Ivan PavlovIvan Pavlov

B.F. SkinnerB.F. Skinner

Behavioral Behavioral

((19131913--present)present)

UnconciousUnconciousmotives and motives and experiences in experiences in early childhood early childhood govern personality govern personality and mental and mental disorderdisorder

UnconciousUnconciousdeterminants of determinants of behaviorbehavior

Sigmund FreudSigmund Freud

Carl JungCarl Jung

Alfred AdlerAlfred Adler

Psychoanalytic Psychoanalytic (1900 (1900 –– present)present)

Basic PremiseBasic PremiseSubject MatterSubject MatterPrincipal Principal ContributorsContributors

Perspective and Its Perspective and Its Influential periodInfluential period

An organismAn organism’’s s functioning can be functioning can be explained in terms of explained in terms of the bodily structures the bodily structures and biochemical and biochemical processes that processes that underlie behaviorunderlie behavior

Physiological Physiological bases of bases of behavior in behavior in humans and humans and animalsanimals

James OldsJames Olds

Roger SperryRoger Sperry

David David HubelHubel

TorstenTorsten WieselWiesel

Biological Biological

(1950(1950--present)present)

Human behavior Human behavior cannot be fully cannot be fully understood without understood without examining how examining how people acquire, store people acquire, store and process and process information.information.

Thoughts; Thoughts; mental mental processesprocesses

Jean PiagetJean Piaget

NoamNoam ChomskyChomsky

Herbert SimonHerbert Simon

Cognitive Cognitive

(1950 (1950 –– present)present)

Humans are free, Humans are free, rational beings with rational beings with the potential for the potential for personal growth, and personal growth, and they are they are fundamentally fundamentally different from different from animalanimal

Unique aspects Unique aspects of human of human experienceexperience

Carl RogersCarl Rogers

Abraham Abraham MaslowMaslowHumanistic Humanistic

( 1950( 1950–– present)present)

Behavior patterns Behavior patterns have evolved to have evolved to solve adaptive solve adaptive problems; natural problems; natural selection favors selection favors behaviors that behaviors that enhance enhance reproductive reproductive successsuccess

Evolutionary bases Evolutionary bases of behavior in of behavior in humans and humans and animalsanimals

David BussDavid Buss

Martin DalyMartin Daly

Margo WilsonMargo Wilson

Leda Leda CosmidesCosmides

John John TobbyTobby

Evolutionary Evolutionary (1980(1980--presents)presents)

Research MethodsResearch MethodsInfluence of Research on Psychology

Psychology is not an absolute science and is often referred to as a 'Social Science' or a 'Soft Science.' This is because it deals with human thoughts, feelings, and behavior, and as we are all aware, humans are not always predictable and reliable. Instead, we interact with our environment in ways that alter how we behave, how we think, and how we feel. Change one thing and the domino effect can change everything else.

Nevertheless, research plays an extremely important role in psychology. Research helps us understand what makes people think, feel, and act in certain ways; allows us to categorize psychological disorders in order to understand the symptoms and impact on the individual and society; helps us to understand how intimate relationships, development, schools, family, peers, and religion affect us as individuals and as a society; and helps us to develop effective treatments to improve the quality of life of individuals and groups.

In this sense, psychological research is typically used for the following:

Study development and external factors and the role they play on individuals' mental healthStudy people with specific psychological disorders, symptoms, or characteristicsDevelop tests to measure specific psychological phenomenonDevelop treatment approaches to improve individuals' mental healthIn the following sections, you will learn about how research is conducted and the different types of research methods used to gather information.

Experimental MethodsExperimental MethodsStarting from the general and moving to the more specific, the fStarting from the general and moving to the more specific, the first concept we need irst concept we need to discuss is to discuss is TheoryTheory. . A theory can be defined as a "general principle proposed to explA theory can be defined as a "general principle proposed to explain how a number of ain how a number of separate facts are related." In other words, a theory is an "ideseparate facts are related." In other words, a theory is an "idea about a relationship." a about a relationship." In order to test whether a theory is correct or not, we need to In order to test whether a theory is correct or not, we need to do research. Theories do research. Theories are stated in general terms, so we need to define more accuratelare stated in general terms, so we need to define more accurately what we will be y what we will be doing in our doing in our experiment.Toexperiment.To do this, we need to define the do this, we need to define the variablesvariables in our theory so in our theory so that they are testable, and every experiment has two types of that they are testable, and every experiment has two types of variables:ovariables:oIndependent Variable (IV)Independent Variable (IV) –– the variable that is manipulated by the the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter (input experimenter (input variable)ovariable)o Dependent Variable (DV)Dependent Variable (DV) –– the outcome variable the outcome variable (results of the (results of the experiment)Byexperiment)By defining our variables that we will use to test our theory defining our variables that we will use to test our theory we derive at our we derive at our HypothesisHypothesis, which is a testable form of a , which is a testable form of a theory.Astheory.As an example of an example of this, lets say that we have a theory that people who drive sportthis, lets say that we have a theory that people who drive sports cars are more s cars are more aggressive in theory interactions with others. Our independent vaggressive in theory interactions with others. Our independent variable would be the ariable would be the type of car you drive (sports, sedan, SUV, etc.). Our dependent type of car you drive (sports, sedan, SUV, etc.). Our dependent variables, the outcome variables, the outcome of our research, would be aggression. of our research, would be aggression. We would need to further define aggression so that it is somethiWe would need to further define aggression so that it is something we can test such as ng we can test such as speeding or cutting other people off in traffic. We now have thespeeding or cutting other people off in traffic. We now have the basics of our very basics of our very simple experiment and can write our Hypothesis: People who drivesimple experiment and can write our Hypothesis: People who drive sports cars drive sports cars drive over the speed limit more frequently than people who drive otherover the speed limit more frequently than people who drive other types of cars.types of cars.

Research BiasesResearch BiasesNow weNow we’’ve got a hypothesis which is the first step in doing an experimeve got a hypothesis which is the first step in doing an experiment. nt.

Before we can continue, however, we need to be aware of some aspBefore we can continue, however, we need to be aware of some aspects of ects of research that can contaminate our results. In other words, what research that can contaminate our results. In other words, what could get in could get in the way of our results in this study being accurate. These aspecthe way of our results in this study being accurate. These aspects are called ts are called research biases, and there are basically three main biases we neresearch biases, and there are basically three main biases we need to be ed to be concerned with.concerned with.Selection BiasSelection Bias –– occurs when differences between groups are present at occurs when differences between groups are present at the beginning of the experiment.the beginning of the experiment.Placebo EffectPlacebo Effect –– involves the influencing of performance due to the involves the influencing of performance due to the subjectsubject’’s belief about the results. In other words, if I believe the news belief about the results. In other words, if I believe the newmedication will help me feel better, I may feel better even if tmedication will help me feel better, I may feel better even if the new he new medication is only a sugar pill. This demonstrates the power of medication is only a sugar pill. This demonstrates the power of the mind to the mind to change a personchange a person’’s perceptions of reality.s perceptions of reality.Experimenter BiasExperimenter Bias –– The same way a personThe same way a person’’s beliefs belief’’s can influence his s can influence his or her perception, so can the belief of the experimenter. If Ior her perception, so can the belief of the experimenter. If I’’m doing an m doing an experiment, and really believe my treatment works, or I really wexperiment, and really believe my treatment works, or I really want the ant the treatment to work because it will mean big bucks for me, I mighttreatment to work because it will mean big bucks for me, I might behave in behave in a manner that will influence the subject.a manner that will influence the subject.

Controlling for BiasesControlling for Biases

After carefully reviewing our study and determining what After carefully reviewing our study and determining what might effect our results that are not part of the might effect our results that are not part of the experiment, we need to control for these biases. To experiment, we need to control for these biases. To control for selection bias, most experiments use whatcontrol for selection bias, most experiments use what’’s s called called Random AssignmentRandom Assignment, which means assigning , which means assigning the subjects to each group based on chance rather than the subjects to each group based on chance rather than human decision. To control for the placebo effect, human decision. To control for the placebo effect, subjects are often not informed of the purpose of the subjects are often not informed of the purpose of the experiment. This is called a experiment. This is called a BlindBlind study, because the study, because the subjects are blind to the expected results. To control for subjects are blind to the expected results. To control for experimenter biases, we can utilize a experimenter biases, we can utilize a DoubleDouble--BlindBlindstudy, which means that both the experimenter and the study, which means that both the experimenter and the subjects are blind to the purpose and anticipated results subjects are blind to the purpose and anticipated results of the study.of the study.

StandardizationStandardization

We have our hypothesis, and we know what our subject We have our hypothesis, and we know what our subject pool is, the next thing we have to do is pool is, the next thing we have to do is standardizestandardize the the experiment. Standardization refers to a specific set of experiment. Standardization refers to a specific set of instructions. The reason we want the experiment to be instructions. The reason we want the experiment to be standardized is standardized is twofold.Firsttwofold.First, we want to make sure all , we want to make sure all subjects are given the same instructions, presented with subjects are given the same instructions, presented with the experiment in the same manner, and that all of the the experiment in the same manner, and that all of the data is collected exactly the same or all subjects. Second, data is collected exactly the same or all subjects. Second, single experiments cannot typically stand on their own. single experiments cannot typically stand on their own. To really show that are results are valid, experiments To really show that are results are valid, experiments need to be replicated by other experimenters with need to be replicated by other experimenters with different subjects. To do this, the experimenters need to different subjects. To do this, the experimenters need to know exactly what we did so they can replicate it.know exactly what we did so they can replicate it.

Types of ResearchTypes of ResearchWhat weWhat we’’ve focused on is called Experimental Methods, the true experimenve focused on is called Experimental Methods, the true experiment. It involves randomized assignment of subjects, t. It involves randomized assignment of subjects, standardized instructions, and at least one IV and one DV. Therestandardized instructions, and at least one IV and one DV. There are several other types of research that are not as rigorous, are several other types of research that are not as rigorous, but that you need to be aware of.but that you need to be aware of.Perhaps the simplest form of research is Perhaps the simplest form of research is

Naturalistic ObservationNaturalistic Observation..Observing behavior in their natural environment Often involves cObserving behavior in their natural environment Often involves counting behaviors, such as number of ounting behaviors, such as number of aggressive acts, number of smiles, etc.aggressive acts, number of smiles, etc.Advantages: Behavior is naturally occurring and is not manipulatAdvantages: Behavior is naturally occurring and is not manipulated by a researcher and it can provide more ed by a researcher and it can provide more qualitative data as opposed to merely quantitative information.qualitative data as opposed to merely quantitative information.Limitations: Even the presence of someone observing can cause thLimitations: Even the presence of someone observing can cause those being observed to alter their behavior. ose being observed to alter their behavior. ResearcherResearcher’’s beliefs can also alter their observations. And, it is very difs beliefs can also alter their observations. And, it is very difficult to coordinate multiple observers ficult to coordinate multiple observers since observed behaviors must be operationally defined (e.g. whasince observed behaviors must be operationally defined (e.g. what constitutes an aggressive act)t constitutes an aggressive act)

Case StudyCase StudyFollowing a single case, typically over an extended period of tiFollowing a single case, typically over an extended period of timemeCan involve naturalistic observations, and include psychologicalCan involve naturalistic observations, and include psychological testing, interviews, interviews with others, and testing, interviews, interviews with others, and the application of a treatment or observation the application of a treatment or observation Advantages: Can gather extensive information, both qualitative aAdvantages: Can gather extensive information, both qualitative and quantitative and it can be helpful in better nd quantitative and it can be helpful in better understanding rare cases or very specific interventionsunderstanding rare cases or very specific interventionsLimitations: Only one case is involved, severely limiting the geLimitations: Only one case is involved, severely limiting the generalization to the rest of the population. Can be neralization to the rest of the population. Can be very time consuming and can involve other problems specific to tvery time consuming and can involve other problems specific to the techniques used, including researcher bias.he techniques used, including researcher bias.

SurveySurveyEveryone has probably heard of this and many of you have been inEveryone has probably heard of this and many of you have been involved in research involving surveys. They volved in research involving surveys. They are often used in the news, especially to gather viewer opinionsare often used in the news, especially to gather viewer opinions such as during a race for presidentsuch as during a race for presidentAdvantages:Advantages: Can gather large amounts of information in a relatively short tiCan gather large amounts of information in a relatively short time, especially now with many me, especially now with many surveys being conducted on the internet.surveys being conducted on the internet.Limitations: Survey data is based solely on subjectsLimitations: Survey data is based solely on subjects’’ responses which can be inaccurate due to outright lying, responses which can be inaccurate due to outright lying, misunderstanding of the question, placebo effect, and even the mmisunderstanding of the question, placebo effect, and even the manner in which the question is askedanner in which the question is asked

CorrelationalCorrelational StudiesStudiesCorrelation means relationship, so the purpose of a Correlation means relationship, so the purpose of a correlationalcorrelational study is to determine if a relationship exists, study is to determine if a relationship exists, what direction the relationship is, and how strong it is.what direction the relationship is, and how strong it is.Advantages: Can assess the strength of a relationshipAdvantages: Can assess the strength of a relationship. . Is popular with lay population because it is relatively easy Is popular with lay population because it is relatively easy to explain and understand.to explain and understand.Limitations:Limitations: Can not make any assumptions of cause and effect (explain how thCan not make any assumptions of cause and effect (explain how third a variable can be involved, or ird a variable can be involved, or how the variables can influence each other). how the variables can influence each other).

Psychological TestingPsychological Testing

Utilizing testing to gather Utilizing testing to gather information about a group or information about a group or an individualan individualAdvantages: Most tests are Advantages: Most tests are normednormed and standardized, and standardized, which means they have very which means they have very reliable and valid results. reliable and valid results. Popular with businesses Popular with businesses looking for data on employees looking for data on employees and with difficult or specific and with difficult or specific therapy casestherapy casesLimitations: Tests which are Limitations: Tests which are not rigorously not rigorously normednormed and and standardized can easily result standardized can easily result in inaccurate results.in inaccurate results.

““We only use 10% of our We only use 10% of our brainsbrains””

Movie, Movie, ““PhenomenonPhenomenon””There are people with There are people with significant brain significant brain damage/loss/defect who can damage/loss/defect who can do some things normallydo some things normallyThis leads to notion that they This leads to notion that they dondon’’t t ““needneed”” the restthe restBut doesnBut doesn’’t address other t address other problemsproblems

REFERENCESREFERENCESWajibWajib

WortmanWortman, C, Loftus, E, , C, Loftus, E, dandan Weaver Weaver C.1999. C.1999. Psychology. Psychology. Boston: Boston: McGrawHillMcGrawHill Co.Co.

TambahanTambahanAtkinson, Rita L., Atkinson, Atkinson, Rita L., Atkinson, Richard C., and Richard C., and HilgardHilgard, Ernest R. , Ernest R. 1994. 1994. PengantarPengantar PsikologiPsikologi jilidjilid I.I.Jakarta : Jakarta : ErlanggaErlanggaAtkinson, Rita L., Atkinson, Atkinson, Rita L., Atkinson, Richard C., and Richard C., and HilgardHilgard, Ernest R. , Ernest R. 1994. 1994. PengantarPengantar PsikologiPsikologi jilidjilid II. II. Jakarta: Jakarta: ErlanggaErlangga, 1983, 1983BoereeBoeree, C. George. 2005. , C. George. 2005. SejarahSejarahPsikologiPsikologi : Dari : Dari MasaMasa KelahiranKelahiranSampaiSampai MasaMasa ModernModern. . YogyakartaYogyakarta: : PrimasophiePrimasophie,,WeitenWeiten, Wayne. 2004. , Wayne. 2004. Psychology : Psychology : Themes & Variations.Themes & Variations. Belmont, Belmont, CA : CA : ThomsonWadsworthThomsonWadsworth..

SearchingSearchinghttp://www.has.vcu.edu/psy/psy101/forsythttp://www.has.vcu.edu/psy/psy101/forsyth/psych.htmh/psych.htmhttp://allpsych.com/psychology101/index.http://allpsych.com/psychology101/index.htmlhtmlhttp://http://maxweber.hunter.cuny.edu/~bseegmaxweber.hunter.cuny.edu/~bseegmil/hdbk/fields.htmmil/hdbk/fields.htmhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introductionhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Psychology:chpt1_to_Psychology:chpt1http://http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyen.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_psychohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_psychologylogyhttp://Health Education Stress, Depression, http://Health Education Stress, Depression, Anxiety, Drug Anxiety, Drug Use.htmUse.htmhttp:// Consciousness http:// Consciousness -- WikipediaWikipedia, the free , the free encyclopedia.conciousness.htmencyclopedia.conciousness.htmhttp://Phenomenon of Science Chap_ http://Phenomenon of Science Chap_ 7.htm7.htm

USING THE INTERNET ON USING THE INTERNET ON PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGY

1.1. PLAN WHAT TO LOOK FOR BEFORE GOING ON LINEPLAN WHAT TO LOOK FOR BEFORE GOING ON LINE

2.2. DO NOT RELY ON THE INTERNET AS YOUR PRINCIPAL OR ONLY DO NOT RELY ON THE INTERNET AS YOUR PRINCIPAL OR ONLY

SOURCE OF DATA OR REFERENCES IN A RESEARCH PROJECTSOURCE OF DATA OR REFERENCES IN A RESEARCH PROJECT

3.3. AS NOTED BEFORE, DONAS NOTED BEFORE, DON’’T EXPECT TO FIND MANY FULLT EXPECT TO FIND MANY FULL--TEXT TEXT

JOURNAL ARTICLES OR OTHER COPYRIGHT COMMERCIAL MATERIAL JOURNAL ARTICLES OR OTHER COPYRIGHT COMMERCIAL MATERIAL

ONLINE FOR FREEONLINE FOR FREE

4.4. LEARN TO RECOGNIZE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD ONLEARN TO RECOGNIZE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD ON--LINE LINE

RESOURCE SITE. RESOURCE SITE.

5.5. IF YOU CONTACT ANYONE ONLINE FOR HELP, BE CORTEOUSIF YOU CONTACT ANYONE ONLINE FOR HELP, BE CORTEOUS

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