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1940 1960 1950 680 Latin America 1945–Present Key Events As you read this chapter, look for the key events in the history of Latin American nations. Many Latin American nations have experienced severe economic problems, and their governments have been led by military dictators. Successful Marxist revolutions in Cuba and Nicaragua fed fears in the United States about the spread of communism in the Americas. The Impact Today The events that occurred during this time period still impact our lives today. Latin American influence in the United States can be seen in art, music, literature, and foods. Rapid and unplanned industrial development in some Latin American countries has led to heightened concern about the environment. World History—Modern Times Video The Chapter 22 video, “The Cuban Revolution,” chronicles the causes and effects of Castro’s revolution in Cuba. 1948 Organization of American States formed 1946 Juan Perón establishes authoritarian regime in Argentina 1951 Juan Perón elected to second term as president of Argentina 1959 Fidel Castro seizes power in Cuba 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion fails 1962 Cuban missile crisis resolved 680 Juan Perón

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Page 1: Latin America - Mrs. Hulsey's Classandersonsclasses.weebly.com/.../26093804/world_civ...latin_america.pdfLatin America 1945–Present ... Make a chart or diagram comparing ... would

1940 19601950

680

Latin America1945–Present

Key EventsAs you read this chapter, look for the key events in the history of Latin

American nations.• Many Latin American nations have experienced severe economic problems, and their

governments have been led by military dictators.• Successful Marxist revolutions in Cuba and Nicaragua fed fears in the United States

about the spread of communism in the Americas.

The Impact TodayThe events that occurred during this time period still impact our lives today.

• Latin American influence in the United States can be seen in art, music, literature, and foods.

• Rapid and unplanned industrial development in some Latin American countries has led to heightened concern about the environment.

World History—Modern Times Video The Chapter 22 video,“The Cuban Revolution,” chronicles the causes and effects of Castro’s revolutionin Cuba.

1948Organizationof AmericanStates formed

1946Juan Perónestablishesauthoritarianregime inArgentina

1951Juan Perónelected tosecond termas president ofArgentina

1959Fidel Castroseizes powerin Cuba

1961 Bay of Pigsinvasion fails

1962 Cuban missile crisisresolved

680

Juan Perón

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681

Sugarloaf Mountain overlooks Rio de Janeiro, one of Brazil’s most populous cities.

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit the Glencoe WorldHistory—Modern Times Web site at

and click on Chapter 22–Chapter Overview topreview chapter information.

wh.mt.glencoe.com1970 19901980 2000

1967Ché Guevaradies in Bolivia

1989United Statesinvades Panama

1990Violeta Barrios deChamorro electedpresident of Nicaragua

2002Brazilians elect Lulapresident

2000Vicente Foxbecomespresident ofMexico

Arrest of Panamanianleader Manuel Noriega

Ché Guevara

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682

The Castro BrothersOn January 1, 1959, Fidel Castro and his revolutionary forces

overthrew the Cuban dictator, Fulgencio Batista. In the years before the revolu-

tion, Castro had promised areturn to the constitution, landreform, and improved healthand welfare services. ManyCubans were overjoyed at hisvictory. “We were walking on acloud,” one Cuban said.

At first, Castro’s government did become a source of hope formany Cubans. He confiscated land and redistributed it amongpoor farmers. He set up health clinics and made education a pri-ority for everyone. Castro did not follow through on his promiseof political freedom, however. When elections were held, peoplewere able to vote only from a list of approved candidates. Politi-cal dissent was not allowed.

Soon after the revolution, many well-to-do Cubans who hadlost their property migrated to the United States, often settling inFlorida. Since then, Cubans of all classes have often tried to emi-grate to find a better life and greater freedom.

Castro’s efforts to establish a functioning centralized economyfailed, despite help from Cuba’s main ally, the Soviet Union. Thathelp ended in 1989 when the Soviet Communist Party fell frompower. Cuban conditions worsened and the high hopes of theCuban revolution were left unfulfilled.

Caribbean Sea

Gul f o fMexico

CUBA

MEXICO

Florida

Moncada Havana

A victorious Fidel Castro rides through the streets of Havana in 1959.

Why It MattersSince 1945, the nations of LatinAmerica have followed differentpaths of change. In some countriesmilitary dictators have maintainedpolitical stability and initiated eco-nomic changes. A few nations, likeCuba, have used Marxist revolutionsto create a new political, economic,and social order. Many Latin Ameri-can nations have struggled to builddemocratic systems, especially sincethe late 1980s. The Cold War hasalso had an impact on Latin America.

History and You As you readthis chapter, document the strugglebetween democracy and dictator-ship in the Latin American states.Make a chart or diagram comparingthe different states, their leadership,and reasons why the regimes wereable to gain power.

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Guide to Reading

General Trends in Latin America

Preview of Events

One Latin American observer discussed the United States’s invasion of Panama in1989 in the following words:

“The first official [U.S.] reason for the invasion of Panama was ‘to protect Americanlives there.’ This pretext was not credible, for the cry of ‘wolf! wolf!’ has been usedbefore in Latin America. . . . The danger to American lives is a hundred times greaterevery day and night in Washington, D.C., ‘the murder capital of the United States,’ andin other American cities to which President Bush has hardly applied his policy of pro-tecting North American lives and waging war against drugs (he prefers to wage thatwar on foreign battlefields).”

—Latin American Civilization: History and Society, 1492 to the Present,Benjamin Keen, 1996

U.S. intervention in Latin American affairs has been a general trend in Latin Ameri-can history since 1945.

Economic and Political DevelopmentsSince the nineteenth century, Latin Americans had exported raw materials

while buying manufactured goods from industrialized countries. As a result of theGreat Depression, however, exports fell, and the revenues that had been used tobuy manufactured goods declined. In response, many Latin American countriesdeveloped industries to produce goods that were formerly imported.

Voices from the Past

CHAPTER 22 Latin America 683

!1940 !1950 !1960 !1970 !1980 !1990

1948The Organization ofAmerican States is formed

1980A movement toward democracytakes place in Latin America

1982Gabriel García Márquez winsthe Nobel Prize for literature

1990Twenty-nine Latin Americancities have over a million people

U.S. soldiers in Panama

Main Ideas• Exporting raw materials and importing

manufactured goods has led to eco-nomic and political troubles for LatinAmerican nations.

• Many Latin American nations began tobuild democratic systems in the late1980s.

Key Termsmultinational corporation, magic realism

People to IdentifyGabriel García Márquez, Oscar Niemeyer

Places to LocateChile, Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Colombia

Preview Questions1. What factors undermined the stability

of Latin American countries?2. How did the roles of women change

in Latin America after 1945?

Reading StrategyCategorizing Information Use a chartlike the one below to identify social andpolitical challenges in Latin America since1945.

SocialChallenges

PoliticalChallenges

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By the 1960s, however, Latin American countrieswere still experiencing economic problems. Theywere dependent on the United States, Europe, andJapan, especially for the advanced technologyneeded for modern industries. Also, many LatinAmerican countries had failed to find marketsabroad to sell their manufactured products.

These economic failures led to instability andreliance on military regimes. In the 1960s, repressivemilitary regimes in Chile, Brazil, and Argentina abol-ished political parties and returned to export-importeconomies financed by foreigners. These regimes alsoencouraged multinational corporations (companies

with divisions in more than two countries) to come toLatin America. This made these Latin American coun-tries even more dependent on industrialized nations.

In the 1970s, Latin American nations grew moredependent as they attempted to maintain their weakeconomies by borrowing money. Between 1970 and1982, debt to foreigners grew from $27 billion to$315.3 billion. By 1982, a number of Latin Americaneconomies had begun to crumble. Wages fell, andunemployment and inflation skyrocketed.

To get new loans, Latin American governmentswere now forced to make basic reforms. During thisprocess, however, many people came to believe that

Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection1,000 kilometers

1,000 miles0

0

SE

W

EQUATOR

80°W 70°W 60°W 50°W 40°W 30°W 20°W 10°W 0°90°W100°W110°W120°W130°W

30°N

20°N

10°N

10°S

20°S

30°S

40°S

CHILE1940s–1970: Support for left-leaning parties grows1970: President Allende nationalizes some industry and institutes land reform1973: Army overthrows Allende; General Pinochet becomes dictator1989: Pinochet forced out; Azocar elected president by popular vote

ARGENTINA1946: Peron begins to nationalize industry and expand unions; economic growth is slow1976–83: period of military rule and "Dirty War"; thousands disappear 1982 Argentina invades British Falkland Islands; defeat leads to political reform 2003: International Monetary Fund approves $6.78 million loan for financial crisis

MEXICO 1946: One-party rule by PRI continues1950s–1960s: Industrialization under way, often with U.S. capital1986: continuing wave of immigrants prompts new U.S. law1994: U.S., Mexico, and Canada form NAFTA2000: Vicente Fox elected, ending 70 years of PRI rule

NICARAGUA1947–1979: Somoza family, with strong U.S. support, controls country 1979: Marxist Sandinistas overthrow Somoza regime1981–1990: U.S. aids right-wing "contras" against Sandinistas 1990: Moderate Chamorro elected; U.S. lifts trade embargo

PANAMA1968–1981: military junta controls country1977: By treaty, canal reverts to Panama in 1999 1983: Dictator Noriega profits from illegal drug trade1989: U.S. invades Panama and captures Noriega 1999: Canal reverts to Panama

COLOMBIA1960s–present: guerrillas, illegal drug gangs and paramilitary groups create violence and chaos 2003: U.S. forces protecting oil pipeline from terrorist attacks

CUBA1959: Marxist Castro overthrows dictator Batista1960: U.S. declares trade embargo 1961: U.S. supports Bay of Pigs invasion1962: Cuban Missile Crisis1989: Soviet military subsidies to Cuba end, hurting Cuban economy1996: U.S. continues trade embargo

BRAZIL1946–1980s: Industrial development begins, surging in the 1970s and 1980s1964–85: military dictatorship rules1989: first direct election held 1994–95: new president introduces reforms1995: annual rate of deforestation of Amazon rain forests estimated at 29,000 sq. kilometers

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

1

2

5 8

7

3

6

4

ARGENTINA

CUBA

CHILE

PANAMA

NICARAGUA

Pacific Ocean

Atlantic Ocean

COLOMBIA

GUYANA

SURINAMEECUADOR

PERU

BOLIVIA

BRAZIL

URUGUAY

PARAGUAY

FRENCH GUIANA Fr.

UNITED STATES

BELIZE

COSTARICA

HAITI

FALKLAND ISLANDSU.K.

684 CHAPTER 22 Latin America

U.S. Involvement in Latin America since 1945

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government had taken control of too many indus-tries. Trying to industrialize too quickly had led tothe decline of the economy in the countryside as well.

Many hoped that encouraging peasants to growfood for home consumption rather than exportwould stop the flow of people from the countrysideto the cities. At the same time, they believed thatmore people would now be able to buy the productsfrom Latin American industries.

With the debt crisis in the 1980s came a movementtoward democracy. Some military leaders wereunwilling to deal with the monstrous debt problems.

At the same time, many people realized that militarypower without popular consent could not maintain astrong state. By the mid-1990s, several democraticregimes had been established.

The movement toward democracy was the mostnoticable trend of the 1980s and the early 1990s inLatin America. This revival of democracy was fragile.In 1992, President Alberto Fujimori returned Peru toan authoritarian system.

Explaining Why did the debt crisisof the 1980s create a movement toward democracy?Reading Check

685CHAPTER 22 Latin America

Year

Popu

latio

n (in

milli

ons)

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

600

166218

286362

443520

586645

700

500

400

300

200

100

0

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census.

Note: Populations for 2010 and 2020 are projections.

Population of Latin America,1950–2020

1,000 kilometers

1,000 miles0

0Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection

N

S

EW

EQUATOR

TROPIC OF CANCER

TROPIC OFCAPRICORN

70°W90°W100°W110°W 60°W 50°W 40°W 30°W 20°W

40°S

30°S

20°S

10°S

10°N

20°N

AtlanticOcean

PacificOcean

CaribbeanSea

Amazon R.

COLOMBIA

VENEZUELA GUYANA

SURINAMEECUADOR

BOLIVIA

CHILE

AR

GEN

TIN

A

BRAZIL

URUGUAY

PARAGUAY

FRENCHGUIANA

MEXICO CUBA DOMINICAN

REPUBLICHAITI

PERU

PANAMA

EL SALVADORGUATEMALA

BELIZEHONDURAS

NICARAGUA

COSTA RICA! !!! !! !

!

! !!!!Main Exports, 1990s

BananasCattleCoffeeCopperFish/fishproductsManufacturedgoodsOil/petroleumproductsSugar caneTobaccoWheat

!

Main exports, 1990s:

Over the past 50 to 60 years, the United States has beenactively involved in Latin American affairs.

1. Interpreting Maps Based on information from themap on page 684, describe the economic relationshipbetween the United States and many Latin Americancountries.

2. Applying Geography Skills Create a time line basedon the map on page 684. Then, pose and answer a ques-tion about the patterns you find.

3. Applying Geography Skills Create a database forLatin America that includes elements from the maps andthe graph on pages 684 and 685. Analyze your data in aparagraph.

Dollar Amount*In constant international U.S. dollars

0 6,0002,000 8,0004,000 10,000

Cuba

Mexico

Nicaragua

Panama

Chile

Colombia

Argentina

Brazil

Gross Domestic Product per Capita*

64886041

N/AN/A

41585299

50604911

78437299

55219089

25061571

51145452 1980

1996

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International Women’s ConferencesAs women around the world organized movements

to change the conditions of their lives, an internationalwomen’s movement emerged. Especially in the 1970s,much attention was paid to a series of internationalconferences on women’s issues. Between 1975 and1985, the United Nations celebrated the Decade forWomen by holding conferences in such cities as MexicoCity, Copenhagen, and Nairobi.

The conferences made clear how women in bothindustrialized and developing nations were organizingto make people aware of women’s issues. They alsomade clear the differences between women from West-ern and non-Western countries.

Women from Westerncountries spoke aboutpolitical, economic, cul-tural, and sexual rights. Incontrast, women fromdeveloping countries in

Latin America, Africa, and Asia focused on bringing anend to the violence, hunger, and disease that haunttheir lives.

At the International Women’s Year Tribunal in Mexicoin 1974, sponsored by the United Nations, Dimitila Bar-rios de Chungara, a miner’s wife from Bolivia, expressedher lack of patience with professional women at theconference. She said, “So, I went up and spoke. I madethem see that they don’t live in our world. I made themsee that in Bolivia human rights aren’t respected. . . .Women like us, housewives, who get organized to bet-ter our people well, they [the Bolivian police] beat us upand persecute us.”

Latin American SocietyLatin America’s economic problems were made

worse by dramatic growth in population. By the mid-1980s, the population in Latin America had grownfrom about 165 million people in 1950 to 400 million.

With the increase in population came a rapid rise inthe size of cities. By 2000, 50 cities in Latin Americaand the Caribbean had more than one million people.Slums and shantytowns were found in many cities.

The gap between the poor and the rich remainedenormous in Latin America. Landholding and urbanelites owned huge estates and businesses, while peas-ants and the urban poor struggled just to survive.

The traditional role of homemaker continues forwomen, who have also moved into new jobs. In addi-tion to farm labor, women have found jobs in indus-try, and as teachers, professors, doctors, and lawyers.

The international drug trade brought crime and cor-ruption to some Latin American countries, undermin-ing their stability. Bolivia, Peru, and Colombia wereespecially big producers of cocaine and marijuana.

Evaluating Describe the effect(s) of Latin America’s dramatic increase in population.Reading Check

! Latin American mother with children

The United States and Latin America

The United States has always played a large role inLatin America. For years, the United States had senttroops into Latin American countries to protect U.S.interests and bolster friendly dictators.

In 1948, the states of the Western Hemisphereformed the Organization of American States (OAS),which called for an end to military action by one statein the affairs of any other state. The formation of theOAS, however, did not end U.S. involvement in LatinAmerican affairs.

As the Cold War developed, so, too, did the anxi-ety of American policy makers about the possibilityof Communist regimes in Latin America. As a result,the United States returned to a policy of taking actionwhen it believed that Soviet agents were trying toestablish Communist governments or governmentshostile to United States interests. The United Statesalso provided massive amounts of military aid toanti-Communist regimes.

Examining How did the Cold Warimpact United States policy in Latin America?Reading Check

Women from industrialized and developing nationsfocus on very different issues.1. Which concerns of women are most important?2. Do you think women’s conferences are needed?

What purposes might conferences serve otherthan raising issues?

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Latin American CultureWriters and artists have played important roles

in Latin American society. They have been given a public status granted to very few writers and artistsin other countries. In Latin America, writers andartists are seen as people who can express the hopesof the people. One celebrated Latin American writeris the Chilean poet Gabriela Mistral.

In literature, Latin Americans developed a uniqueform of expression called magic realism. Magic real-ism brings together realistic events with dreamlike orfantastic backgrounds.

Perhaps the foremost example of magic realism isOne Hundred Years of Solitude, a novel by Gabriel Gar-cía Márquez. In this story of the fictional town ofMacondo, the point of view slips back and forthbetween fact and fantasy. Villagers are not surprisedwhen a local priest rises into the air and floats. How-ever, when these villagers are introduced to magnets,telescopes, and magnifying glasses, they are dumb-founded by what they see as magic. According toGarcía Márquez, fantasy and fact depend on one’spoint of view.

García Márquez, a Colombian, was the mostfamous of the Latin American novelists. He was aformer journalist who took up writing when hebecame angered by the negative reviews Latin Amer-ican authors were receiving. He was awarded theNobel Prize for literature in 1982.

687CHAPTER 22 Latin America

9. Descriptive Writing A uniquelyLatin American literary form is magicrealism, which combines realisticevents with elements of magic andfantasy. Research further the ele-ments of magic realism and thenwrite a short story about a real orimagined event, using that style.

Checking for Understanding1. Define multinational corporation,

magic realism.

2. Identify Organization of AmericanStates (OAS), Gabriel García Márquez,Oscar Niemeyer.

3. Locate Chile, Brazil, Bolivia, Peru,Colombia.

4. Explain how the Great Depression hurtLatin American economies. Have theseeconomies recovered from the prob-lems caused by the Great Depression?

5. List two well-known Latin Americanwriters. Why are writers and artists heldin such high regard in Latin America?

Critical Thinking6. Analyze Why did the rapid rate of

population growth in many Latin Amer-ican countries cause problems for theirpolitical and economic systems?

7. Organizing Information Draw a chartlike the one below to list economicchallenges in Latin America since 1945.On your chart, use dates and names ofcountries from the text to make eachentry as specific as possible.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the photograph of a Latin

American mother with her childrenshown on page 686 of the text. Howdoes this photograph reflect the con-cerns faced by many Latin Americanwomen?

Gabriela Mistral1889–1957—Chilean poet

Gabriela Mistral, whose real namewas Lucila Godoy Alcayaga, was apoet and educator. She was trainedto be a teacher and became the direc-tor of a school for girls in Santiago,Chile. In 1922, she was invited by theMexican government to introduce educationalprograms for the poor in that country. Later, she took upresidence in the United States and taught at Middleburyand Barnard Colleges.

In 1945, she became the first Latin American authorto win the Nobel Prize for literature. Her poems exploredthe many dimensions of love, tinged with an element ofsadness.

Economic Challenges

Latin American art and architecture were stronglyinfluenced by international styles after World War II.In painting, abstract styles were especially important.Perhaps the most notable example of modern archi-tecture can be seen in Brasília, the capital city ofBrazil, built in the 1950s and 1960s. Latin America’sgreatest modern architect, Oscar Niemeyer, designedsome of the major buildings in Brasília.

Identifying What novel is the fore-most example of magic realism?Reading Check

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Guide to Reading

Mexico, Cuba, andCentral America

Preview of Events

Nancy Donovan, a Catholic missionary in Nicaragua, described her encounter withthe military forces known as the contras:

“It is not easy to live in a war zone. The least of it was my being kidnapped by con-tras early this year. The hard part is seeing people die and consoling families. . . . Inthose eight hours I was held, as I walked in a column of 60 or so men and a fewwomen—all in uniform—I could hear shooting and realized that people I knew werebeing killed. Earlier I had seen bodies brought back to town, some burned, some cut topieces.”

—Latin American Civilization: History and Society, 1492 to the Present,Benjamin Keen, 1996

Financed by the United States, the contras were trying to overthrow the Sandinistarulers of Nicaragua in one of several bloody wars fought in Central America.

The Mexican WayThe Mexican Revolution at the beginning of the twentieth century created a

political order that remained stable for many years. The official political party ofthe Mexican Revolution—the Institutional Revolutionary Party, or PRI—came todominate Mexico. Every six years, leaders of the PRI chose the party’s presiden-tial candidate, who was then elected by the people.

Voices from the Past

688 CHAPTER 22 Latin America

!1950 !1960 !1970 !1980 !1990 !2000

1959Castro’s revolution-aries seize Havana

1961United States breaks diplo-matic relations with Cuba

1979The Sandinistas overthrowSomoza rule in Nicaragua

1983Noriega takes control of Panama

2000Vicente Fox defeats the PRI candi-date for the presidency of Mexico

Contra soldiers

Main Ideas• Mexico and Central America faced polit-

ical and economic crises after WorldWar II.

• The United States feared the spread ofcommunism in Central American coun-tries, which led to active Americaninvolvement in the region.

Key Termsprivatization, trade embargo, contra

People to IdentifyVicente Fox, Fidel Castro, Manuel Noriega

Places to LocateHavana, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Panama

Preview Questions1. What problems did Mexico and the

nations of Central America face after1945?

2. What were the chief features andimpact of the Cuban Revolution?

Reading StrategyCategorizing Information Use a tablelike the one below to identify the politicaland economic challenges faced by El Sal-vador, Nicaragua, and Panama after1945.

El Salvador Nicaragua Panama

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During the 1950s and 1960s, steady economicgrowth led to real gains in wages for more and morepeople in Mexico. At the end of the 1960s, however,students began to protest Mexico’s one-party gov-ernment system. On October 2, 1968, university stu-dents gathered in Mexico City to protest governmentpolicies. Police forces opened fire and killed hun-dreds. Leaders of the PRI grew concerned about theneed for change in the system.

The next two presidents, Luís Echeverría and JoséLópez Portillo, made political reforms and openedthe door to the emergence of new political parties.Greater freedom of debate in the press and universi-ties was allowed. Economic problems, however,would soon reappear.

In the late 1970s, vast new reserves of oil were dis-covered in Mexico. The sale of oil abroad increaseddramatically, and the government became moredependent on oil revenues. When world oil pricesdropped in the mid-1980s, Mexico was no longer ableto make payments on its foreign debt. The govern-ment was forced to adopt new economic policies.One of these policies was privatization, the sale ofgovernment-owned companies to private firms.

The debt crisis and rising unemploymentincreased dissatisfaction with the government. Sup-port for the PRI dropped, and in 2000, Vicente Foxdefeated the PRI candidate for the presidency.

Evaluating How was Mexico’s econ-omy affected by its oil industry?

The Cuban RevolutionAs you will learn, the Bay of Pigs

invasion was an attempt by the United States to moveforcefully against Fidel Castro and the threat of com-munism that he represented.In the 1950s, a strong opposition movement arose

in Cuba. Led by Fidel Castro, the movement aimedto overthrow the government of the dictator Fulgen-cio Batista, who had controlled Cuba since 1934. Cas-tro’s army used guerrilla warfare against Batista’sregime. As the rebels gained more support, theregime collapsed. Castro’s revolutionaries seizedHavana on January 3, 1959. Many Cubans who dis-agreed with Castro fled to the United States.

Relations between Cuba and the United Statesquickly deteriorated when the Castro regime beganto receive aid from the Soviet Union. Arms from East-ern Europe also began to arrive in Cuba. In October1960, the United States declared a trade embargo,

Reading Check

prohibiting trade withCuba, and just threemonths later, on January 3,1961, broke all diplomaticrelations with Cuba.

Soon after that, in April1961, the American presi-dent, John F. Kennedy,supported an attempt tooverthrow Castro’s gov-ernment. When the inva-sion at the Bay of Pigsfailed, the Soviets were encouraged to make an evengreater commitment to Cuba. In December 1961, Cas-tro declared himself a Marxist, drawing ever closer tothe Soviet Union. The Soviets began placing nuclearmissiles in Cuba in 1962, an act that led to a show-down with the United States (see Chapter 20).

The Cuban missile crisis caused Castro to realizethat the Soviet Union had been unreliable. If the rev-olutionary movement in Cuba was to survive, theCubans would have to start a social revolution in therest of Latin America. They would do this by startingguerrilla wars and encouraging peasants to over-throw the old regimes. Ernesto Ché Guevara, anArgentinian and an ally of Castro, led such a war in

689CHAPTER 22 Latin America

A Cuban refugee is carried ashore by a U.S. Marinein 1975. Over the past few decades, thousands ofCuban refugees have entered the United States.In what year did the United States break diplomatic relations with Cuba?

History

HISTORY

Web Activity Visitthe Glencoe WorldHistory—Modern Times Web site at

and click on Chapter 22–Student Web Activity to learn more about Fidel Castro.

wh.mt.glencoe.com

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690 CHAPTER 22 Latin America

MilitaryRegime

CivilianRule

1955: MilitaryoverthrowsPerón.1973: Perónis reelected.1976: Militarytakes overagain.

1964: Militaryseizes control.1982: Severerecessionundermines military control.

1985:Free electionsheld.1989: 80 millionBrazilians vote.1999: Military putunder civilian control.

1973: Military,under Pinochet,overthrowsMarxist Allendeand establishesregime.

1989: Pinochetis defeated in freeelections.2000: Socialist Ricardo Lagos Escobar elected president.

1990:Sandinistaslose freeelections butremainstrongest party.1996: Elections resultin peacefultransfer ofpower.

1972: Militaryprevents freeelections.1979: Militarytakes over.

1979:Sandinistas(Marxistguerrilla forces)bring downdictatorshipof Somozafamily.

1989:U.S. troops arrest Noriega; democracyreturns.1999: Female, Mireya Moscosode Gruber, electedpresident.

1983: NationalGuard, underNoriega, seizescontrol.1989: Norieganullifies electionresults.

1980: Civilianrule returns.1990–2000:Fujimori isdictatorialpresident.2001: Toledowins freeelections.

1968: Military,under Alvarado,takes over.1975: MilitaryremovesAlvarado.

1984:ModerateDuarte iselected but civilwar continues.1992: Peacesettlement endscivil war.

Argentina Brazil Chile El Salvador Nicaragua Panama Peru

1983: Civilianrule returns;Alfonsín iselected.1994: Constitution is reformed.

Government Reforms in Latin America

Many Latin American countries have had problems maintaining stable governments.

1. Problem Solving Use a problem-solving process and the information in this chapter to list options and choose possible solutions to suggest how these countries might avoid takeovers bymilitary regimes in the future.

Bolivia but was killed by the Bolivian army in the fallof 1967. The Cuban strategy failed.

Nevertheless, in Cuba, Castro’s Marxist regimecontinued, but with mixed results. The Cuban peopledid secure some social gains. The regime providedfree medical services for all citizens, and illiteracywas nearly eliminated.

The Cuban economy continued to rely on the pro-duction and sale of sugar. Economic problems forcedthe Castro regime to depend on Soviet aid and thepurchase of Cuban sugar by Soviet bloc countries.After the collapse of these Communist regimes in1989, Cuba lost their support. Economic conditions inCuba have steadily declined. Nevertheless, Castrohas managed to remain in power.

Describing How was Castro’s Cubaaffected by the collapse of Communist governments in EasternEurope?

Upheaval in Central AmericaCentral America includes seven countries: Costa

Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador, Panama,

Reading Check

Belize, and Guatemala. Economically, Central Amer-ica has depended on the export of bananas, coffee,and cotton. Prices for these products have variedover time, however, creating economic crises. Inaddition, an enormous gulf between a wealthy eliteand poor peasants has created a climate of instability.

Fear in the United States of the spread of commu-nism often led to American support for repressiveregimes in the area. American involvement was espe-cially evident in El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Panama.

El Salvador After World War II, the wealthy eliteand the military controlled the government in El Sal-vador. The rise of an urban middle class led to somehopes for a more democratic government. The army,however, refused to accept the results of free electionsthat were held in 1972.

In the late 1970s and the 1980s, El Salvador wasrocked by a bitter civil war. Marxist-led, leftist guer-rillas and right-wing groups battled one another.During the presidency of Ronald Reagan, the UnitedStates provided weapons and training to the Sal-vadoran army to defeat the guerrillas.

In 1984, a moderate, José Duarte, was elected pres-ident. However, the elections failed to stop the sav-age killing. By the early 1990s, the civil war had ledto the deaths of at least 75,000 people. Finally, in 1992,a peace settlement brought the war to an end.

Nicaragua In Nicaragua, the Somoza family seizedcontrol of the government in 1937 and kept control forthe next 42 years. Over most of this period, the Somoza

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regime had the support of the United States. TheSomozas enriched themselves at the nation’s expenseand used murder and torture to silence opposition.

By 1979, the United States, under President JimmyCarter, had grown unwilling to support the corruptregime. In that same year, Marxist guerrilla forcesknown as the Sandinista National Liberation Frontwon a number of military victories against govern-ment forces and gained virtual control of the country.

The Sandinistas inherited a poverty-stricken nation.Soon, a group opposed to the Sandinistas’ policies,called the contras, began to try to overthrow the newgovernment. The Reagan and Bush administrations inthe United States, worried by the Sandinistas’ align-ment with the Soviet Union, supported the contras.

The war waged by the contras undermined sup-port for the Sandinistas. In 1990, the Sandinistasagreed to free elections, and they lost to a coalitionheaded by Violeta Barrios de Chamorro. They lostagain in 2001 but remained one of the strongest par-ties in Nicaragua.

Panama Panama became a nation in 1903, when itbroke away from Colombia with help from the UnitedStates. In return for this aid, the United States wasable to build the Panama Canal and gained influenceover the government and economy of Panama. Awealthy oligarchy ruled, with American support.

After 1968, military leaders of Panama’s NationalGuard were in control. One of these, Manuel Nor-iega, became so involved in the drug trade that Pres-ident George Bush sent U.S. troops to Panama in

1989. Noriega was later sent to prison in the UnitedStates for drug trafficking.

A major issue for Panamanians was finally settledin 1999 when the canal was returned to Panama. Theterms for its return were set in a 1977 treaty with theUnited States.

Summarizing What factors led toconflicts in Central America from the 1970s to the 1990s?Reading Check

691CHAPTER 22 Latin America

Checking for Understanding1. Define privatization, trade embargo,

contra.

2. Identify Vicente Fox, Fidel Castro,Manuel Noriega.

3. Locate Havana, Nicaragua, Panama, El Salvador.

4. Explain why the Cubans attempted tospur revolution in the rest of LatinAmerica.

5. List the political reforms enacted byMexican presidents Luís Echeverría and José López Portillo.

Critical Thinking6. Evaluate Why did relations between

the Soviet Union and Cuba becomemore difficult after 1962?

7. Cause and Effect Use a chart like theone below to show how Mexico hasreacted to political and economic crisessince World War II.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the photo of Castro on page

682 and the photo of a Cuban refugeeon page 689. What inferences can youdraw about Castro’s reign in Cuba fromlooking at these photos?

Crisis Reaction

Rigoberta Menchú 1959– Guatemalan activist

Rigoberta Menchú is a reformerwho worked to save her fellowQuiché Indians from the murdersquads of the Guatemalan govern-ment. She grew up in a poor family.Her father helped organize a peasantmovement, but he and other family memberswere killed by government troops.

Rigoberta Menchú then began to play an active rolein her father’s movement. Condemned by theGuatemalan government, she fled to Mexico. Her auto-biography, I . . . Rigoberta Menchú, brought world atten-tion to the fact that 150,000 Native Americans had beenkilled by the Guatemalan authorities. In 1992, shereceived the Nobel Peace Prize and used the moneyfrom the award to set up a foundation to help NativeAmericans.

9. Persuasive Writing The UnitedStates has increasingly tried to nego-tiate conflicts using economic toolsrather than military force. Researchthe trade embargo imposed uponCuba. Write a persuasive argumentfor or against this embargo.

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692

Student Revolt in MexicoA GROWING CONFLICT BETWEEN THEgovernment and university students in Mexicocame to a violent climax on October 2, 1968, justbefore the Olympic Games were tobegin in Mexico City. The official government report said that Mexicanauthorities were fired upon, and theyreturned the gunfire. This excerpt istaken from an account of the events bythe student National Strike Council.

“ After an hour and a half of a peaceful meetingattended by 10,000 people and witnessed by scoresof domestic and foreign reporters, a helicopter gavethe army the signal to attack by dropping flares into the crowd. Simultaneously, the plaza was sur-rounded and attacked by members of the army andpolice forces.

The local papers have given the following infor-mation, confirmed by firsthand witnesses, about the attack:

1. Numerous secret policemen had infiltrated themeeting in order to attack it from within, withorders to kill. They were known to each other by the use of a white handkerchief tied aroundtheir right hands. . . .

2. High-caliber weapons and expansion bulletswere used. Seven hours after the massacrebegan, tanks cleaned up the residential build-ings of Nonoalco-Tlatelolco with short cannonblasts and machine-gun fire.

3. On the morning of October 3, the apartments of supposedly guilty individuals were still beingsearched, without a search warrant.

4. Doctors in the emergency wards of the city hos-pitals were under extreme pressure, being forcedto forego attention to the victims until they hadbeen interrogated and placed under guard. . . .

5. The results of this brutal military operationinclude hundreds of dead (including womenand children), thousands of wounded, anunwarranted search of all the apartments in

the area, and thousands of violent arrests. . . . Itshould be added that members of the NationalStrike Council who were captured were strippedand herded into a small archaeological excava-tion at Tlatelolco, converted for the momentinto a dungeon. Some of them were put upagainst a wall and shot.

All this has occurred only ten days before thestart of the Olympics. The repression is expected tobecome even greater after the Games. . . .

We are not against the Olympic Games. Welcometo Mexico.”

—Account of the Clash Between the Govern-ment and Students in Mexico, October 2, 1968

Student demonstrators in Mexico City

MexicoCityPACIFIC

OCEAN

Gulf ofMexico

MEXICO

UNITED STATES

Analyzing Primary Sources

1. What was the reason for the military attack on the students?

2. Why do you think the government reacted with such violence?

3. Do you think the government handled the situation well? Why or why not?

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1946Juan Perón is electedpresident of Argentina

1982Argentina sends troopsto the Falkland Islands

Guide to Reading

The Nations of South America

Preview of Events

1973Military forces overthrowAllende presidency in Chile

2001Alejandro Toledo iselected president of Peru

!1945 !1955 !1965 !1975 !1985 !1995 !2005

In 1974, a group of Brazilian Catholic priests talked about an economic miracle thathad taken place in Brazil:

“Beginning in 1968, Brazil’s gross domestic product grew at an annual rate of about10 [percent]. . . . The consequences of this ‘miracle’ were the impoverishment of theBrazilian people. Between 1960 and 1970 the 20 [percent] of the population with thehighest income increased its share of the national income from 54.5 [percent] to 64.1[percent], while the remaining 80 [percent] saw its share reduced from 45.5 [percent]to 36.8 [percent]. . . . In the same period the 1 [percent] of the population that repre-sents the richest group increased its share of the national income from 11.7 [percent]to 17 [percent].”

—Latin American Civilization: History and Society, 1492 to the Present,Benjamin Keen, 1996

The countries of South America shared in the economic, political, and social prob-lems that plagued Latin America after 1945. Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, andPeru provide examples of these problems.

ArgentinaArgentina is Latin America’s second largest country. For years, it had been

ruled by a powerful oligarchy whose wealth was based on growing wheat and

Voices from the Past

CHAPTER 22 Latin America 693

Brazilian city, 1971

Main Ideas• South American nations have experi-

enced economic, social, and politicalproblems.

• Democracy has advanced in SouthAmerica since the late 1980s.

Key Termscooperative, Shining Path

People to IdentifyJuan Perón, Salvador Allende, AugustoPinochet, Juan Velasco Alvarado

Places to LocateArgentina, Falkland Islands

Preview Questions1. What obstacles does the new demo-

cratic government in Brazil face?2. What factors have been the greatest

causes of South American instability?

Reading StrategyCategorizing Information Use a tablelike the one below to describe the factorsleading to the change from military ruleto civilian rule in Argentina, Brazil, andChile.

Argentina Brazil Chile

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raising cattle. Support from the army was crucial tothe continuing power of the oligarchy.

In 1943, in the midst of World War II, a group ofarmy officers overthrew the oligarchy. The new mili-tary regime was unsure of how to deal with theworking classes until one of its members, JuanPerón, devised a new strategy.

Using his position as labor secretary in the mili-tary government, Perón sought to win over the work-ers, known as the descamisados (the shirtless ones).He encouraged them to join labor unions. He alsoincreased job benefits, as well as the number of paidholidays and vacations.

In 1944, Perón became vice president of the mili-tary government and made sure that people knew hewas responsible for the better conditions for workers.As Perón grew more popular, however, other armyofficers began to fear his power, and they arrestedhim. An uprising by workers forced the officers toback down.

Perón was elected president of Argentina in 1946.His chief support came from labor and the urbanmiddle class, and to please them, he followed a pol-icy of increased industrialization. At the same time,he sought to free Argentina from foreign investors.The government bought the railways and took overthe banking, insurance, shipping, and communica-tions industries.

Perón’s regime was authoritarian. He created Fascist gangs modeled after Hitler’s Brownshirts.The gangs used violent means to terrify Perón’sopponents.

Fearing Perón’s power, the military overthrewthe Argentinian leader in September 1955. Perónwent into exile in Spain. Overwhelmed by prob-lems, however, military leaders later allowed Perónto return. He was reelected as president in 1973 butdied a year later.

In 1976, the military once again took over power.The new regime tolerated no opposition. Perhaps36,000 people were killed.

At the same time, economicproblems plagued the nation.To divert people’s attention,the military regime invadedthe Falkland Islands, off thecoast of Argentina, in April1982. Great Britain, which hadcontrolled the islands since thenineteenth century, sent shipsand troops and took theislands back. The loss discred-ited the military and opened the door to civilian rulein Argentina.

In 1983, Raúl Alfonsín was elected president andworked to restore democratic practices. The Peró-nist Carlos Saúl Menem won the presidential elec-tions of 1989. This peaceful transfer of power gaverise to the hope that Argentina was moving on ademocratic path.

Explaining How did Juan Perón freeArgentina from foreign investors?

BrazilLike other Latin American countries, Brazil expe-

rienced severe economic problems following WorldWar II. When democratically elected governmentsproved unable to solve these problems, the militarystepped in and seized control in 1964.

The armed forces remained in direct control of thecountry for the next 20 years. The military set a neweconomic direction, reducing government interfer-ence in the economy and stressing free market forces.Beginning in 1968, the new policies seemed to beworking. Brazil experienced an “economic miracle”as its economy grew spectacularly.

Ordinary Brazilians benefited little from this eco-nomic growth. Furthermore, rapid development ledto an inflation rate of 100 percent a year. Over-

Reading CheckEva Perón1919–1952—Argentine first lady

Eva Perón, known as Evita to herfollowers, was the first lady ofArgentina from 1946 to 1952. Raisedin poverty, Eva dreamed of being anactress. At 15, she moved to BuenosAires, Argentina’s largest city, where sheeventually gained fame as a radio performer.

Eva met Juan Perón in 1944 and became his wife ayear later. She was an important force in her husband’srise to power. Together, they courted the working-classpoor with promises of higher wages and better workingconditions. As first lady, Eva Perón formed a charitableorganization that built hospitals, schools, and orphan-ages. She campaigned for women’s rights. The massesadored her. To this day, monuments and street names inArgentina keep her memory alive. The American musicaland movie Evita are based on her life.

694 CHAPTER 22 Latin America

ATLANTICOCEAN

PACIFICOCEAN

ARGENTINAFalklandIslands

U.K.

SOUTHAMERICA

Buenos Aires

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whelmed, the generals retreated and opened thedoor to a return to democracy in 1985.

The new democratic government faced enormousobstacles: massive foreign debt and an inflation rateof 800 percent in 1987. In the 1990s, democratic pres-idents restored some stability to the economy, but thegap between rich and poor remained wide. Dissatis-faction with this gap helped elect Luiz Inacio Lula daSilva, in 2002. Lula was Brazil’s first left-wing presi-dent in four decades.

Evaluating What factors led to thereturn to democracy in Brazil in 1985?

ChileIn elections held in 1970, Salvador Allende

(ah•YEHN•day), a Marxist, became president ofChile. Allende tried to create a socialist society byconstitutional means. He increased the wages ofindustrial workers and nationalized the largestdomestic and foreign-owned corporations.

Allende’s policies were not popular with every-one. Nationalization of the copper industry, Chile’smajor source of export income, angered the coppercompanies’ American owners, as well as the Ameri-can government. Wealthy landholders were angrywhen radical workers began to take control of theirestates and the government did nothing to stop thesetakeovers.

In March 1973, new elections increased the num-ber of Allende’s supporters in the Chilean congress.Afraid of Allende’s growing strength, the Chileanarmy, under the direction of General AugustoPinochet (PEE•noh•CHEHT), moved to overthrowthe government. In September 1973, military forcesseized the presidential palace, resulting in Allende’sdeath. The military then set up a dictatorship.

The Pinochet regime was one of the most brutal inChile’s history. Thousands of opponents were impris-oned. Thousands more were tortured and murdered.The regime also outlawed all political parties and didaway with the congress. While some estates andindustries were returned to their owners, the copperindustries remained in government hands.

The regime’s horrible abuses of human rights ledto growing unrest in the mid-1980s. In 1989, freepresidential elections led to the defeat of Pinochet,and Chile moved toward a more democratic system.

Explaining Why did the armedforces of Chile overthrow the government of Salvador Allendein 1973?

Reading Check

Reading Check

PeruThe history of Peru has been marked by instabil-

ity. Peru’s dependence on the sale abroad of its prod-ucts has led to extreme ups and downs in theeconomy. With these ups and downs have comemany government changes. A large, poor, and land-less peasant population has created an additionalsource of unrest.

A military takeover in 1968 led to some change.General Juan Velasco Alvarado sought to help thepeasants. His government seized almost 75 percent ofthe nation’s large landed estates and put ownershipof the land into the hands of peasant cooperatives(farm organizations owned by and operated for thepeasants’ benefit). The government also nationalizedmany foreign-owned companies and held food pricesat low levels to help urban workers.

Economic problems continued, however, andPeruvian military leaders removed General Alvaradofrom power in 1975. Five years later, unable to copewith Peru’s economic problems, the militaryreturned Peru to civilian rule.

New problems made the task of the civilian gov-ernment even more difficult. A radical Communistguerrilla group based in rural areas, known as Shining Path, killed mayors, missionaries, priests,and peasants. The goal of Shining Path was to smashall authority and create a classless society.

695CHAPTER 22 Latin America

Salvador Allende had lost the Chilean election?

In 1970, Salvador Allende beat Jorge Alessandri,former president of Chile, by 40,000 votes out ofalmost 3 million cast in the general election. SinceAllende won by a plurality rather than a majority(over 50 percent of the vote), the election wasreferred to the Chilean National Congress for afinal decision. The Congress chose Allende, bring-ing the Western world its first democraticallyelected Marxist president.

Consider the Consequences What ifAlessandri had been reelected to continue hisregime? Explain why the United States wouldnot have had the same incentives to opposeAlessandri as it had to oppose Allende.

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In 1990, Peruvians chose Alberto Fuji-mori as president. Fujimori, the son of aJapanese immigrant, promised reforms.Two years later, he suspended the constitu-tion and congress, became a dictator, andbegan a campaign against Shining Pathguerrillas. Corruption led to his ousterfrom power in 2000. In June 2001, Alejan-dro Toledo became the first freely electedpresident of Native American descent.

Identifying How didGeneral Juan Velasco Alvarado earn the support ofmany Peruvian peasants?

ColombiaColombia has long had a democratic political sys-

tem, but a conservative elite led by the owners of cof-fee plantations has dominated the government.

After World War II, Marxist guerrilla groupsbegan to organize Colombian peasants. The govern-ment responded violently. More than two hundredthousand peasants had been killed by the mid-1960s.Violence continued in the 1980s and 1990s.

Peasants who lived in poverty turned to a new cashcrop—coca leaves, used to make cocaine. The drugtrade increased, and so, too, did the number of druglords. Cartels (groups of drug businesses) used bribesand violence to dominate the market. Colombiabecame the major supplier of the international drugmarket. Violence has increased as rebel guerrillas

Reading Check

made deals with the drug cartels to oppose the gov-ernment.

The government used an aerial eradication pro-gram to try and wipe out cocaine fields, but withoutmuch success. The United States funded the antidrugprogram, and in 2003 sent special forces troops tosupport it.

The Colombian economy remained weak becauseof high unemployment and because of the civil war.A new president elected in 2002, Alvaro Uribe, prom-ised to crack down hard on rebel groups.

Explaining Why have some Colom-bian peasants turned to the production of coca leaves?Reading Check

696 CHAPTER 22 Latin America

Checking for Understanding1. Define cooperative, Shining Path.

2. Identify Juan Perón, Salvador Allende,Augusto Pinochet, Juan VelascoAlvarado.

3. Locate Argentina, Falkland Islands.

4. Explain why the Argentine militaryinvaded the Falkland Islands. What wasthe impact of this invasion on the gov-ernment of Argentina?

5. List the obstacles Brazil’s new demo-cratic government faced in 1985. Howdid economic conditions help this dem-ocratic government come to power?

Critical Thinking6. Analyze Why is it often easier for the

military to seize power in a nation thanit is for the military to rule that nationeffectively? Which countries discussed inthis chapter seem to support this theory?

7. Organizing Information Use a chartlike the one below to show howdemocracy has advanced in SouthAmerica since the late 1980s.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the photograph of a Brazilian

city shown on page 693 of your text.How does this photograph reflect theproblems created by the Brazilian “economic miracle”?

9. Informative Writing Pretend youare an American journalist sent toArgentina to cover Perón’s presi-dency. Write an article based onyour interviews with the workersand government officials. Include the pros and cons of living under the Perón regime.

Drug lords often use terrorism to threaten thosepeople who try to stop the flow of illegal drugs.

How Democracy Advanced

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Developing a Database

Practicing the SkillFidel Castro is one of the Latin American leaders

discussed in this chapter. Follow these steps to builda database of the political events that have takenplace during his years as Cuba’s leader.

1 Determine what facts you want to include inyour database.

2 Follow the instructions in the DBMS that youare using to set up fields.

3 Determine how you want to organize the factsin the database—chronologically by the date ofthe event, or alphabetically by the name of theevent.

4 Follow the instructions in your computer program to place the information in order of importance.

Why Learn This Skill?Do you have an address book with your friends'

names; addresses; and phone, fax, pager, and cellnumbers? Do you have to cross out informationwhen numbers change? When you have a party, doyou address all the invitations by hand? If youraddress book were stored in a computer, you couldfind a name instantly. You could update youraddress book easily and use the computer to printout invitations and envelopes.

When you collect information in a computer file,the file is called an electronic database. The data-base can contain any kind of information: listsdetailing your CD collection; notes for a researchpaper; your daily expenses. Using an electronic data-base can help you locate information quickly andorganize and manage it, no matter how large the file.

Learning the SkillAn electronic database is a collection of facts that

is stored in a file on the computer. Although youcan build your own database, there is special soft-ware—called a database management system(DBMS)—that makes it easy to add, delete, change,or update information. Some popular commercialDBMS programs allow you to create address books,note cards, financial reports, family trees, and manyother types of records.

A database can be organized and reorganized inany way that is useful to you.

• The DBMS software program will usually giveclear instructions about entering and arrangingyour information.

• The information in a database is organized intodifferent fields. For example, in an address book,one field might be your friends’ names andanother could be their addresses.

• When you retrieve information, the computerwill search through the files and display theinformation on the screen. Often it can be organ-ized and displayed in a variety of ways, depend-ing on what you want.

Fidel Castro with farmers

697

Applying the Skill

Research and build a database that organizes informa-tion about current political events in Latin Americancountries. Explain to a partner why the database is organized the way it is and how it might be used inthis class.

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698

Using Key Terms1. Corporations with headquarters in several countries are

called .2. The anti-Communist forces that fought the Sandinistas in

Nicaragua were called .3. A style of literature that combines elements of the real world

with imaginary events is called .4. Selling government-owned companies to individuals or to

corporations is called .5. The refusal to import or export goods to or from another

country is a .6. The Communist guerrilla movement in Peru is called the

.7. Farms owned and operated by groups of peasants are called

___________.

Reviewing Key Facts8. History What is the purpose of the Organization of Ameri-

can States?9. Economics What did Fidel Castro do in 1960 that probably

contributed to the decision of the United States to sponsoran invasion of Cuba at the Bay of Pigs in 1961?

10. Culture Who is considered the most famous of the LatinAmerican novelists?

11. History How was the U.S. involved in El Salvador?12. History What happened that ended Manuel Noriega’s con-

trol of Panama in 1989?13. Government Why was President Carter unwilling to con-

tinue support of the Somoza family?14. Government What was the goal of the guerrilla group

known as Shining Path?15. Economics What effect does the wide gap between the rich

and the poor have in Latin American countries?16. Government Why was Castro able to maintain control of

Cuba even after he lost his foreign support?

Critical Thinking17. Compare and Contrast Compare the policies of the United

States toward Latin American countries to those of the SovietUnion toward countries in Eastern Europe.

18. Drawing Inferences Analyze why the United States used itsmilitary power to arrest Manuel Noriega after ignoring manyother dishonest and corrupt leaders in Latin America.

Writing About History19. Expository Writing Analyze how Cuba’s revolution affected

the United States and the Soviet Union. Explain the back-ground and context of the revolution. How were theseevents particular to the time period?

Cuba

Corruption and canceledelections create unrest.

Castro ousts Batista. Castro improves socialwelfare system butsuspends elections.

Castro allows limited foreigninvestment, improvingrelations with Canada andother countries.

NicaraguaRepressive Somozaregime owns a quarter of the country’s land.

Social movement led bySandinistas overthrowsSomoza in 1979.

Sandinistas initiate socialreforms but are hamperedby contras.

Sandinista regime agrees tohold free elections in 1990;Chamorro is elected president.

Mexico PRI dominates. University students protestgovernment policies.

PRI allows new politicalparties and more freedoms.

Mexico elects non-PRIcandidate as president.

ArgentinaEconomy is poor. Argentine military

overthrows Perón.Economy recovers;many citizens lose livesto death squads.

Democracy is graduallyrestored after FalklandIslands disaster.

El Salvador Elites control mostwealth and land.

Leftist guerrillas andright-wing groups battle.

U.N.-sponsored peace agree-ment ends civil war in 1992.

Economy grows; ties withneighbors are renewed.

Country Conflict Revolution Change Cooperation

Several Latin American countries have moved from conflict to cooperation.

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Self-Check QuizVisit the Glencoe World History—Modern Times Website at and click on Chapter 22–Self-Check Quiz to prepare for the Chapter Test.

wh.mt.glencoe.com

HISTORY

Directions: Choose the best answer to thefollowing question.

Why are Latin American countries economically importantto the United States?A American banks need countries such as Brazil and

Mexico to default on their loans. B Latin American countries are popular destinations for

American tourists.C Latin American countries are colonies of European

nations.D America imports raw goods such as oil, coffee, and cop-

per from Mexico, El Salvador, Colombia, and Chile.

Test-Taking Tip: Read test questions carefully becauseevery word is important. This question asks why LatinAmerica is economically important. Therefore, you caneliminate any answer choices that do not offer explanationsabout their economic importance.

CHAPTER 22 Latin America 699

Analyzing SourcesRead the following excerpt from Nancy Donovan, a Catholic mis-sionary in Nicaragua:

“It is not easy to live in a war zone. The least of itwas my being kidnapped by contras early this year. The hardest part is seeing people die and consolingfamilies. . . . In those eight hours I was held, as I walkedin a column of 60 or so men and a few women—all in uniform—I could hear shooting and realized thatpeople I knew were being killed. Earlier I had seen bodies brought back to town, some burned, some cutto pieces.”

20. Why did the United States finance the contras?21. What role do you think the United States should play in

Central America? Should the United States have supportedrebels capable of the type of warfare described in thispassage?

Applying Technology Skills22. Create a Database Research the major political events in

South America since 1945. Include the following informationin your database:• Year• Country• Event

Making Decisions23. Identify one of the challenges faced by the countries of

Latin America today. Create a poster that illustrates theissue you have selected. Include a clear statement of theissue, information you have gathered about the backgroundof the challenge, and key individuals or countries involvedwith the issue. Identify options, predict consequences, andoffer possible solutions.

Analyzing Maps and ChartsUsing the map above, answer the following questions:24. Which South American country has the largest geographic

area? Which countries have the largest populations?

EQUATOR

60°W100°W 80°W 20°W

20°S

40°S

20°N

40°W120°W

Caribbean Sea

PacificOcean

AtlanticOcean

BRAZIL

MEXICO

COLOMBIA

VENEZUELA

BOLIVIA

PERU

ECUADOR

PARAGUAYCHILE

URUGUAY

ARGENTINA

CUBA DOMINICANREPUBLICHAITI

GUYANA

SURINAME

FRENCHGUIANAFr.

GUATEMALA

EL SALVADOR

BELIZE

HONDURAS

NICARAGUACOSTA RICA

PANAMA

Lambert AzimuthalEqual-Area projection

1,000 kilometers

1,000 miles0

0

N

SEW

Population of Latin America, 2000

StandardizedTest Practice

Under 15million

Over 100million

30–100million

15–30million

Population:

25.How do the populations of Central American countries com-pare to the populations of other Latin American countries?

26. Which South American countries are landlocked? Betweenwhat degrees of latitude and longitude are they located?

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