66 Peace Education and the Peace Movement since 1815*

by Clinton Fink

In these days of an ac t ive and expanding academic peace movement, it i s commonly assumed that both peace research and peace education a r e essent ia l conditions f o r peace. Peace researchers assume tha t peace depends on the appl icat ion of knowledge tha t we now lack, hence the need f o r research t o acquire t h a t knowledge. Peace educa- to rs assume t h a t peace depends on worldwide dissemination of cer ta in ideas, information, values, and a t t i tudes which a r e presently shared by only a small portion of humanity, hence the need for a major educational e f f o r t . of current work i n the f i e l d , despite the lack of any general agreement on j u s t what kinds of education a re actual ly conducive t o peace. This s i tua t ion r e f l e c t s the more general s t a t e of a f f a i r s i n the peace movement as a whole: underlying agreement t h a t action i s necessary i n order t o bring about world peace, but a great d ivers i ty of no- tions as to what const i tutes peace and what s o r t s of actions a r e conducive to it . thermore, there appears t o be considerable confusion (or debate) concerning the re la t ions between research, education, and other forms of action i n the pursui t of peace. This creates a continuing need f o r c l a r i f i c a t i o n of the a l te rna t ives and some sa t i s fac tory means for making wise choices among them.

Elsewhere I have argued tha t a h i s t o r i c a l c r i t ique of peace research would help put some of these questions i n perspective, par t icu lar ly by examining the development of peace research as goal-oriented a c t i v i t y i n the context of developments i n the peace move- ment and of major world events (Fink, 1973). I t seems plausible t h a t a s imilar h i s t o r i c a l c r i t ique of peace education would be equally valuable. As a preliminary s tep, the present paper presents a br ief sketch of the development of peace education s ince the ear ly 19th century, and suggests some of the uses of a c r i t i c a l study of t h a t development. The Nineteenth Century

movement. Noah Worcester's manifesto, A Solemn Review of the Custom of War, is based on the assumption tha t "there Is nothing i n the nature of mankind, which renders war neces- sary and unavoidable -- nothing which incl ines them t o it which may not be overcome by the power of education . . . I 1 (Worcester, 1815, p. 2 0 ) . Accordingly, he recommended the establishment of peace soc ie t ies " in every nation of Christendom" whose purpose would be tha t of "diffusing l i g h t , and the s p i r i t of peace i n every direct ion" and of l'exciting a jus t abhorrence of war i n every breast" ( Ib id . , p. 17). These educational e f f o r t s were to be carr ied out through newspapers, t r a c t s , and per iodical works, through churches and rel igious observances, and through educational ins t i tu t ions . Concerning the l a t t e r :

These assumptions underlie a grea t deal

Fur-

Education has played a central ro le from the very beginning of the organized peace

"Another means of advancing the object [ i . e . , the abol i t ion of war], deserves par t icu lar consideration; namely, ear ly education. This grand object should have a place i n every plan of education, i n families, common schools, academies, and univers i t ies .

w i l l not depart from i t ' . The power of education has been t r i e d , to make children of a ferocious, blood-thirsty character. Let it now have a f a i r chance, to see what it w i l l do towards making mild, f r iendly and peaceful citizensI1 ( Ib id . , p. 17) .

'Train up a chi ld i n the way he should go, and when he i s old, he

Putting h is ideas into action, Worcester (a Unitarian minister of Brighton, Massachusetts), helped found the Massachusetts Peace Society i n 1815, began publishing a quarter ly journal ( the Friend of Peace, 1816-1828), and was soon publushing numerous peace t r a c t s Including some designed f o r children (Curt i , 1929, p. 11). He was joined by many others i n North America and Europe i n the internat ional peace movement, which grew rapidly during the next few decades and generated a substant ia l body of t r a c t s and journals.

The emphasis i n much of the ear ly peace movement l i t e r a t u r e was on arousing wide- spread anti-war sentiments by demonstrating the ev i l s of war and the war system, using a var ie ty of re l igious, moral, h i s t o r i c a l , and prac t ica l arguments. In 1817-1820, the

67 Massachusetts Peace Society even went so f a r as to conduct s t a t i s t i c a l s tudies on the causes and ef fec ts of wars i n order t o strengthen t h e i r arguments with empirical evi- dence, and disseminated the resu l t s of these s tudies along with t h e i r other peace t r a c t s (Fink, 1976). In 1838, the Bowdoin S t ree t Young Men's Peace Society i n Boston issued a pamphlet e n t i t l e d Dialogues between Frank and W i l l i a m , I l l u s t r a t i n g the Prin- c ip les of Peace, which was "seemingly the f i r s t attempt a t peace education of youth i n a consciously p a c i f i s t s p i r i t " (Bmck, 1958, p. 513). These are but two examples of the educational e f for t s of the ear ly peace soc ie t ies , whose major a c t i v i t i e s may be said t o have been peace education i n the broad sense of the term.

i n the Advocate of Peace (organ of the American Peace Society) discussed the "wide and powerful influence" already exerted by the peace movement, both through i t s own l i t e r a - ture and through the impact of tha t l i t e r a t u r e on o ther departments of knowledge. That impact was seen " in theology and ethics , i n p o l i t i c a l economy and internat ional law, i n philosophy and his tory, i n poetry, eloquence, and even romance, i n the pulp i t and the school, i n our quar te r l ies , weeklies and d a i l i e s , more o r l e s s i n a l l the issues of the press" (Anonymous, 1851, p. 6 ) .

However, it i s c lear from subsequent events tha t abol i t ion of t h e war system was not imminent, and tha t peace education e f f o r t s would remain an uphi l l struggle. Indeed, during the l a t t e r half of the 19th century, the growth of m i l i t a r i s t i c tendencies i n society, par t icu lar ly i n the expanding public educational system, began to pose new problems and drew more expl ic i t a t ten t ion to peace education. Effor ts to influence the curriculum and teaching materials of the public schools were evident i n the 18801s. For examDle, a DamDhlet

The impact of these e f f o r t s was assessed opt imist ical ly by mid-century. An a r t i c l e

Whether t h i s assessment was j u s t i f i e d would make a fascinat ing study.

by Joseph W. Leeds argued Against the Teaching of War i n History Textbooks (ieeds, 1885). The American Advocate of Peace and Arbitration (organ of the American Peace Society) f o r December 2 4 , 4 0 u r n a l of Education e n t i t l e d "Teach the children -- a woman's word1! (Blake. 18871. This a r t i c l e weed school teachers t o Dromote the cause of internat ional a rb i t ra t ion , 'one of the major goals of the peace movement during t h i s period. In t h e same issue, the American Peace Society advertised two of i ts own peace education publications: 1) Topics for Essays and Discussions i n Schools, Col- leges, and Debating Societ ies , which presented a l i s t of 200 peace-related topics and a l i s t of relevant reference books, and 2 ) the Angel of Peace, an i l l u s t r a t e d monthly maga- zine f o r children. The first Universal Peace Congress i n 1889 launched a d i rec t a t tack on school textbooks as a source of internat ional misunderstanding, recommending the re- moval of f a l s e ideas about the nature and causes of war, and a rad ica l reduction i n the amount of space devoted t o mil i tary a f f a i r s and war (Unesco, 1949, p. 10).

Subsequent annual meetings of the Universal Peace Congress regular ly dea l t with peace education. his tory teachers to emphasize the e v i l s of war, protest ing the use of mil i tary d r i l l s i n connection with physical education, urging boards of examiners t o formulate questions which would guide the minds of children toward peace, and urging parents and teachers t o honor peaceful deeds and t h e i r doers and t o express sorrow concerning the losses and misery caused by war. a growing mil i tary education movement which had so f a r made greater gains than peace education i n several countries, thus contributing greater urgency t o the peace education movement. One speaker reported a message from a member of the Dutch peace movement, urging the Congress to give top p r i o r i t y i n i t s programme t o education, and urging the establ ish- ment of an internat ional council of education to coordinate worldwide e f f o r t s t o develop education t h a t would promote internat ional understanding (Peace Congress Committee, 1890, pp. 85-104). period. Bri ta in awarded a pr ize t o a French schoolmaster f o r the best llmode$ chapter" on ques- tions of peace and war t o be used i n elementary school textbooks (Seve, 1894). small body of l i t e r a t u r e dealing with problems of peace education began t o accumulate, so tha t by 1904 Henri La Fontainels major bibliography of the peace movement included a special sect ion of 38 pamphlets and a r t i c l e s under the heading "Enseignement", a l l published s ince 1890 (La Fontaine, 1904, pp. 249-253).

A session of the 1890 meeting i n London passed three resolut ions urging

Speakers favoring these resolut ions made it c l e a r tha t there was

The more concrete focus on curriculum materials a lso continued i n t h i s Thus i n 1695 the Internat ional Arbitration and Peace Association of Great

And a

68

The Early Twentieth Century By the turn of the century, special organizations had emerged to supplement the

work of the general peace soc ie t ies i n the f i e l d of peace education. A t the Thirteenth Universal Peace Congress held i n Boston in 1904, delegates were present representing such groups a s the Alliance Universelle des Femmes pour l a Paix par 1'Education (France), the Socie'te'de 1'Education Pac i f i s te de Crois i l les (France), and the Wiener Akademischer Friedensverein (Austria). The Congress held a special session on "The Responsibility of Educators i n Creating Right Ideals of Internat ional Life" (Peace Congress Committee, 1904, pp. 167-loo), and passed a resolut ion urging the establishment of propaganda cen- t e r s in 14 o r 1 5 world capi ta l s , each endowed with a half million dol la rs to carry on a "great campaign of education on the f u t i l i t y and e v i l s of armed peace" (Ibid. , p. 211) . A t the same Congress the publisher, Edwin Ginn, argued the need f o r a serious, business- l ike , long-term educational e f f o r t carr ied out by full-time peace educators, who would focus t h e i r e f f o r t s i n the same three direct ions emphasized by Noah Worcester a century e a r l i e r -- the press, the churches, and the schools. the establishment of a well-endowed "school of peace" (Ginn, 1904).

of peace education a c t i v i t i e s and organizations. three important organizations were formed a t the college level . Conference on International Arbitration appointed a committee on colleges and univers i t ies which subsequently induced many ins t i tu t ions t o hold regular observances of Peace Day ( the 18th of May, anniversary of the f i r s t Hague Conference), debates and ora tor ica l contests, and special lectures on the peace movement (Andrews, 1912, p. 2 2 ) . In the same year, President Noah Byers of Goshen College and Professor Elbert Russell of Earlham College founded the Intercol legiate Peace Association to promote peace-oriented a c t i v i t i e s among facul ty and students, especially through in te rco l leg ia te and i n t e r s t a t e ora tor ica l contests for students, which by 1912 involved a t l e a s t 300 undergraduates from 80 colleges i n 16 s t a t e s (Lochner, 1913, p. 4 ) . In 1907, several campus clubs composed of foreign and American students formed the National Association of Cosmopolitan Clubs, whose aim was to promote internat ional understanding and friendship (Moritzen, 1912, pp. 150-151; Lochner, 1913).

A t the primary/secondary level , the American School Peace League was i n i t i a t e d a t the f i r s t national peace congress i n 1907, and formally organized i n 1908. It held its annual meetings i n conjunction with the National Education Association (beginning with the 1909 NEA convention i n Denver), and organized i t s e l f in to s t a t e branches which held annual meetings i n conjunction with the s t a t e teachers' associations. The League dis- tributed l i t e r a t u r e , supplied speakers, gained the observance of Peace Day i n the schools, developed curriculum materials, organized peace study groups f o r teachers, and held essay contests on peace questions for students i n high schools and normal schools (Andrews, 19121, becoming through these and other a c t i v i t i e s "perhaps the most in f luent ia l of a l l the juvenile propagandist bodies i n the world" (Beales, 1931, p. 259).

Two independent ins t i tu t ions devoted to full-time peace research and education were also established i n t h i s period. endowed i n 1909, and the next year renamed the World Peace Foundation), was organized on the model of a university, but took the l1unconverted populacet1 as i t s student body (Marchand, 1972, pp. 104-105). The Carnegie Endowment f o r Internat ional Peace, founded i n 1910, gave much more emphasis t o research, but nevertheless did have an education division ( Ib id . , pp. 128-129). peace organizations, and continue t h e i r work today.

Similar developments were taking place i n Europe and elsewhere. The Internat ional Federation of Students (llCorda Fratres") , founded i n 1898 t o promote world peace through internat ional understanding, a f f i l i a t e d i n 1911 with t h e Cosmopolitan and Internat ional Clubs of North America and of Germany, and with the League of South American Students, a l l of whom had s imilar objectives (Lochner, 1913). In the Netherlands from 1901 t o 1910, the peace movement confined i ts propaganda t o the schools. After 1910, while ex- panding i t s a c t i v i t i e s t o other domains, i t a l so continued work on ge t t ing the school his tory tex ts revised so a s t o eliminate na t iona l i s t ic bias (Beales, 1931, p. 254) .

I n pursui t of t h i s goal he suggested

During the next decade these suggestions were implemented i n a v i r t u a l explosion In the United S ta tes alone, a t l e a s t

In 1905, the Mohonk

Edwin Ginn's Internat ional School of Peace (formally

Both ins t i tu t ions cooperated with and supported other

69

Under the influence of Fannie Fern Andrews, secretary of the American School Peace League, similar leagues were formed in Great Britain and other countries, and a move- ment began for the establishment of an international education council (Mead, 1912, p. 5). By 1915 there was an Ecole de la Paix in Paris which sent a message of support to the first International Congress of Women (1915, D. xliv). .~ - The League of Nations Era

vided the motivation for a vast post-war expansion of these activities. The First World War temporarily disrupted many peace education efforts, but pro-

The work of the older organizations was bolstered by the entry of many new groups into the field. American School Peace League became the American School Citizenship League. International League for Peace and Freedom began in 1919 a new multi-faceted program through its education committee. The League of Nations, especially through its Inter- national Institute of Intellectual Cooperation engaged in a variety of peace education projects. In 1923 there was established a World Federation of Education Associations, whose central purpose was !!the mobilization of teachers in all lands, most immediately in America, in order that their combined influence and that of their pupils may be thrown solidly on the side of peace" (Jordan, 1925, p. 287). David Starr Jordan was awarded a $25,000 prize offered under the auspices of the Federation for the best educational Plan designed to produce world accord (Jordan, 1925). A number of university-level programs of international studies were also established in this period, some of them clearly oriented toward world peace (League of Nations Institute of Intellectual Cooperation, 1929).

since nationalism was widely blamed as a cause of World War I, and since excessively nationalistic tendencies in education were seen as an important factor. Peace Congresses, revived in 1921, urged the abandonment of the traditional dogma of national sovereignty, and as one means to this end, appealed again and again for a uni- versal revision of history textbooks to I1unteach1l the doctrine of state omnipotence (Beales, 1931, p. 317, 323). report on the impact of curriculum materials related to war and peace, based on a quanti- tative and qualitative content analysis of typical school histories used in the United States. Numerous other peace organizations, teachers' organizations in many countries, and the League of Nations joined in a wide variety of demands and programs for textbook revision (Matthews, 1931; Unesco, 1949, pp. 10-42).

of relevant literature was accumulating by the 1930's. The first volume of the Education Index, covering the period from January 1929 to June 1932, listed at least 40 items under the heading "Peace" and considerably more under llInternational Education". cluded books, pamphlets, and articles on various facets of peace education in a variety of education journals and magazines. volume of Education Index, and had at least doubled by the third volume (July 1935 to June 1938). works and teaching materials, appeared throughout this period (e.g. Matthews, 1927; Murphy, 1931; International Bureau of Education, 1932; King, 1935; Matthews, 1936; Wilson, 1937; Matthews, 1939; White, 1944). Some notable works included in these lists are B. E. Lowe's International Education for Peace (1929), E. M. and J. L. Lobingierls Educating for Peace (1930), Florence Brewer Boeckel's The Turn Toward Peace (1930), Maria Montessori's "Peace and Education" (1932), Peace Digest, a quarterly journal of education for peace (1932 --I, Albert Einstein's "Education and World Peace" (1934), Imogene McPherson's Educating Children for Peace (1936), and a special issue of the Journal of Educational Socioloa entitled Which Way Peace Education?" (1939). The Unesco Era

World War I1 ushered in a new era in which the felt need for peace education was more urgent than ever before. Like other international groups before it, Unesco assumed that "since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defences of peace must be constructed", and in 1946 launched its own programs aimed at promoting international understanding through education (Unesco, 1966, 1971). Among other things,

The The Women's

The movement for school textbook revision became a worldwide crusade in this period,

The Universal

The Association for Peace Education (1924) published a

Peace education activities in general became so numerous that a substantial body

These in-

The number of such entries increased in the next

Special bibliographies on peace education, listing hundreds of relevant

70

it issued a Handbook for the Improvement of Textbooks and Teaching Materials as Aids to International Understanding, which gave a historical survey and bibliography of previous efforts at textbook revision, outlined Unesco's program, and recommended a series of activities and projects that could be carried out by others in cooperation with Unesco (Unesco, 1949). League of Nations associations in various countries changed their names to United Nations associations, and resumed various educational activities designed to strengthen support for the international organization and its peacekeeping efforts. Manchester College in Indiana established an undergraduate Peace Studies pro- gram in 1948, and International Studies programs with varying degrees of concern with peace were established at universities in several countries during the period from 1945 to 1960 (Unesco, 1966). independent organizations such as the Institut Francais de Polemologie (1945 --I, the In- stitute for International Order (1951 --), the Stanley Foundation (1956 --I, The Gandhi Peace Foundation (1959 --), the Fund for Education Concerning World Peace through World Law (1961-1964; World Law Fund, 1964-1972; Institute for World Order, 1973 --I, and others too numerous to mention.

expanded rapidly. in 1966 marks the beginning of a new wave of peace studies programs in American colleges and universities, and on a smaller scale in Europe and elsewhere. At the same time, new organizations concerned with developing curriculum materials and promoting peace education at the primary and secondary levels were established, notably the Center for War/Peace Studies (New York Friends Group, inc.) and the Center for Teaching about Peace and War (Wayne State University). These and many other old and new groups have joined the Consortium on Peace Research, Education and Development (COPRED), founded in 1970 to promote the expansion and integration of peace research, peace education, and peace action in North America, and to act as a liaison with the International Peace Re- search Association (IPRA), which performs similar functions for other parts of the world. To keep up with this rapidly expanding field, the Center for Peace Studies at the Univer- sity of Akron in 1971 began publication of the International Peace Studies Newsletter, which serves as a clearinghouse for information on peace studies and peace education programs at all levels, and on relevant books, journals, and other materials.

since 1945. Education -- Keystone of Peace (1947), K. G. Saiyidainls Education for International Understandin (1948), Herbert Read's Education for Peace (1949), Maria Montessori's Educazione e'Pace (1949), the Japanese National Commission fo r Unesco' s Teaching Materials and Aids in Education for International Understanding (19581, Joseph H. Garber's Educational Dilemma: Peace Education and Teacher Salaries (19591, the Indian National Commission for Unesco's Report of Teachers' Workshops on Education for International Understandin (1964), Herman R8hrs' Friedens ada ik 1970 , William H. Ebyer's Edu- cation for kihilation (1972), Christoph Wu!fIs?kdbAok oh Peace Education (197K and Magnus Haavelsrud's Education for Peace: Reflection and Action (1976). This is but a tiny sample of the literature emanating from this broad and diverse field in recent years. Conclusion

From such a brief survey, one can gain but a hazy impression of the number, nature, and variety of peace education efforts that have occurred since 1815. detailed historical surveys of certain aspects of the field (e.g. Unesco, 1949, pp. 9- 55; Buergenthal and Torney, 1976, pp. 22-41) strengthen the impression that it is a large-scale enterprise of great importance. Whether or not one agrees that "Education for peace is easily the most important and pressing problem of the age" (Saiyidain, 1948, p. l7), it does seem worth asking how effective it has been and whether it is in fact leading toward world peace.

In some respects we are in the more advanced stages of the difficulties already perceived in the 19th century. Wars have increased in frequency and severity, and the institutional supports for war appear to be stronger than ever. As William H. Boyer

New initiatives in promoting peace education also came from

After 1960, and especially after the advent of the Vietnam War, peace education Establishment of the Pacem in Terris Institute at Manhattan College

In line with this expansion, the literature of peace education has grown enormously The numerous books in the field include such items as Ralph F. Strebel's

Somewhat more

71

(1972) has shown, most Americans a re now educated, through schools, churches, mass media, e t c . , to regard mi l i ta ry i n s t i t u t i o n s and war as necessary i n dealing with some human problems. ment e f f o r t s and the continuing world-wide arms race give a s t rong indicat ion t h a t peace education has not yet achieved what i ts promoters and prac t i t ioners had hoped to achieve.

for t h i s fa i lure . By careful ly examining the assumptions, aims, strategy, t a c t i c s , and actual e f fec ts of previous peace education e f f o r t s , it should be possible t o gain a b e t t e r understanding of the r o l e of peace education i n peace-oriented soc ia l change. One may inquire, for example, whether par t icu lar l i n e s of e f f o r t , such as new curricu- lum materials o r textbook revision, have produced t h e kinds of changes i n internat ional a t t i tudes t h a t they were intended t o produce. have simply not been carr ied f a r enough, o r whether, on the other hand, they have been misdirected, as suggested by Herbert Read's view on peace education p r i o r i t i e s :

"Nothing l e s s than a complete recast ing o r reor ientat ion of our edu- cat ional system can promote peace, can save mankind from annihi la t ing wars. But what i s needed cannot be covered by the timid approaches of the average educational reformer . . . . I mean a complete trans- formation of the methods and aims of education"(Read, 1949, p. 34).

The same is t rue i n other countries. The repeated f a i l u r e of disarma-

A h i s t o r i c a l c r i t ique of peace education might help shed some l i g h t on the reasons

I f not, one might ask whether those e f f o r t s

Perhaps peace education e f f o r t s have not been based on an adequate analysis of t h e ob- s tac les which must be overcome, as suggested by Boyer: "If we a r e t o survive, we must become more aware of the ways in which miseducation occurs. cu l tura l and ins t i tu t iona l change be undertaken" (Boyer, 1972, p. v i i ) . Alternatively, it may be t h a t peace education w i l l remain inef fec t ive until cer ta in in- s t i t u t i o n a l changes occur tha t w i l l e s tab l i sh the necessary conditions t o make it effect ive.

theless, they should be placed higher than they have been on the agenda of peace research. comon framework f o r current thinking on peace-oriented curriculum development and edu- cat ional change, so as t o improve the coordination, integrat ion, and evaluation of these e f for t s , and perhaps improve t h e i r chances f o r success against the monolithic weight of the war system.

Only then w i l l necessary

These a r e large questions, and w i l l undoubtedly prove d i f f i c u l t t o answer. Never-

Perhaps a h i s t o r i c a l inquiry in to these kinds of questions can provide a

NOTES

1. Famie Fern Andrews, ed. , Peace Day (May 18): Suggestions and Materials f o r I t s Observance i n the Schools, U. S. Bureau of Education Bullet in 8 (Whole Number 4761, (19121, 46 pp.

2. Anonymous, The Li terature of Peace, Advocate of Peace 9 (January 1, 18511, pp. 5-6. 3. Association for Peace Education, An Analysis of the Emphasis upon War i n Our Elementary

School Histories (Chicago: Association for Peace Education, 19241, 23 pp. 4. A. C. F. Beales, The History of Peace (New York: Dial Press, 1931). 5. Mrs. M. E . Blake, Teach the children -- a woman's word, American Advocate of Peace

6. Florence Brewer Boeckel, The Turn Toward Peace (New York: Friendship Press, 1930). 7. W i l l i a m H. Boyer, Education f o r Annihilation (Honolulu: Hogarth Press, 1972). 8. Peter Brock, Pacifism i n the United States: From the Colonial Era t o the F i r s t World

9. Thomas Buergenthal and Judith V. Torney, InternaLional Human Rights and Internat ional

and Arbitration 49 (December 24, 1887), p. 200.

War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968 . Education (Washington, D. C . : U. S. National Commission f o r Unesco, 1976).

University Press, 1929).

Association, ProKressive Education 11 (December, 19341, p. 440.

A. Michael Washburn, eds., Toward the Study of Peace: A Guide t o Peace Studies Development [Boulder, Colorado : Consortium on Peace Resarch, Education and

10. Merle E. Curti, The American Peace Crusede, 1815-1860 (Durham, North Carolina: Duke

11. Albert Einstein, Education and World Peace: A Message t o the Progressive Education

12. Clinton F. Fink, Origins and Development of Peace-Related Research,in Paul Wehr and

72

Development, 19731, draft, not for publication or quotation. 13. Clinton F. Fink, Research Projects of the Massachusetts Peace Society, 1817-1820.

Working paper submitted to the National Endowment for the Humanities, October, 1976. Polemology and Irenology Since 1800, Working Paper no. 2, 21 pp. To appear in the Occasional Papers Series of the Center for the Study of Armament and Disarmament, California State University, Los Angeles.

14. Joseph H. Garber, Our Educational Dilemma: Peace Education and Teacher Salaries -- Research Papers on Educational Problems Facing America and the World (New York: Exposition Press, 1959).

15. Edwin Ginn, A School of Peace, Peace Congress Committee, Official Report of the Thirteenth Universal Peace Congress (Boston, l904), pp. 216-222.

16. Magnus Haavelsrud, ed., Education for Peace: Reflection and Action (Proceedings of the First World Conference of the World Council for Curriculum and Instruction, U. University of Keele, September, 1974) (Guildford, Surrey: I. P. C. Science and Technology Press, 1976).

17. Indian National Commission for Unesco, Report of Teachers' Workshops on Education for International Understandin (New Delhi: Indian National Commission for Cooperation with Unesco. Ministrv of E%cation. November. 1964).

18. International Bureau" of Education, ' Genega, Children's Books and Inte,rnational Goodwill: Book List and Report of an Inquiry (Geneve: Bureau International d'Education, 1932), 2nd ed.

19. International Congress of Women, ReDort (The Hague -- April 28th to May lst, 1915) 20. International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation, School Text-Book Revision and

(Amsterdam: International Women's Committee for Permanent Peace, 1915).

International Understanding (Paris : League of Nations International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation, 1933).

21. Japanese National Commission for Unesco, Teaching Materials and Aids in Education for International Understanding: Some Suggestions (Tokyo: Japanese National Commission for Unesco, 1958).

22. David Starr Jordan, A Plan of Education to Develop International Justice and Friend- ship . . .: The Raphael Herman $25,000 Award (Augusta, Me.: World Federation of Education Associations, 1925), 20 pp. Reprinted in Advocate of Peace Through Justice 87 (May 5 19251, PP. 287-293.

23. Journal of Educational Sociology, Which Way Peace Education? (special issue) Journal of Educational Sociolo 12 (March 7 1939), pp. 385-448.

24. o l d Friendship: A Bibliography; Sources of Educational Material (Boston: Chapman and Grimes, 1935).

25. Henri La Fontaine, Bibliographie de la Paix et de 1'Arbitrage International. Tome Premier: Mouvement Pacifique (Monaco, etc. : Institut International de la Paix, etc., 1904)

26. League of Nations Institute of Intellectual Cooperation, Handbook of Institutions for the Scientific Study of International Relations (Boston: World Peace Foundation, 1929).

27. Jose h W. Leeds, Against the Teaching of War in History Textbooks (Philadelphia,

28. Elizabeth Miller Lobingier and John Leslie Lobingier, Educating for Peace (Boston and Chicago: Pilgrim Press, 1930).

29. Louis P. Lochner, Internationalism among Universities, World Peace Foundation Pam-

30. ioutelle Ellsworth Lowe, International Education for Peace (Brooklyn: F. Weidner,

31. C. Roland Marchand, The American Peace Movement and Social Reform, 1898-1918

32. Mary Alice Matthews, Education and International Peace (Washington, D.C. : Carnegie

33. Mary Alice Matthews, History Teaching and School Text-Books in Relation to Inter-

88855, 10 PP.

hlet Series, Part I1 3 (July 1913).

1929).

(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972).

Endowment for International Peace Library (8eading List No. 15) (May 17 1927), mimeo.

national Understanding: Select List of Books, Pamphlets, and Periodical Articles (Washington, D. C. : Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Library) (Rdg. List No. 29)

73 (March 4, 19311, 14 pp. Mary Alice Matthews, Education for World Peace: The Study and Teaching of International Relations: Select List of Books, Pamphlets, and Periodical Articles, with Annotations (Washington, D. C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Lib.) (Rdg. List No. 33) (June 30 1936), rev. ed., 37 pp. Mary Alice Matthews, Peace Education: Select List of References on International Friendship, for the Use of Teachers, Students, and Study Groups: with Information Regarding Source Material for Teachers, and Goodwill Books for Children (Washington, D. C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Lib.) (Reading List No. 38) (May 22 19391, 24 PP. Imogene M. McPherson, Educating Children for Peace (New York, N.Y.: Abingdon Press, 1936). Lucia Ames Mead, Educational Organizations Promoting International Friendship,

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40. 41.

42.

43.

44. 45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

51. 52.

53.

_ . World Peace Foundation Pamphlet-Series, Part IV 2 (July 1912). Maria Montessori. Peace and Education (Geneva: International Bureau of Education. 19321, 22 PP. Maria Montessori, Educaaione e Pace (Milano: Garzanti, 1949), 3rd. ed., 1953. Trans- lated by Helen R. Lane as Education and Peace (Chicago: Regnery, 1972). Julius Moritzen, The Peace Movement of America (New York: Putnam's, 1912). Albert J. M u r p h y , p n for World-Mindedness (New York: Abingdon Press, 1931), pp. 341-354. Peace Congress Committee, Proceedings of the Universal Peace Congress, Held in the Westminster Town Hall, London, from 14th to 19th July, 1890 (London: Peace Congress Committee, 1890). Peace Congress Committee, Official Report of the Thirteenth Universal Peace Congress Held at Boston, Massachusetts, U. S. A., October Third to Eighth, 1904 (Boston: Peace Congress Committee, 1904). Herbert Read, Education for Peace (New York: Scribner's, 1949). Hermann Rllhrs , ed., Friedensplldagogik (Frankfurt am Main: Akademische Verlagsgesell- schaft (Eraiehungswissenschaftliche Reihe, Band 11, 1970). K. G. Saiyidain, Education for International Understanding (Bombay: Hind Katabs, April, 1948 1. A. Shve, Peace and War (London: International Arbitration and Peace Association, 1894), 32 PP. Ralph F. Strebel, Education -- Keystone of Peace (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1947). Unesco, A Handbook for the Improvement of Textbooks and Teaching Materials as Aids to International Understandin (Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (Pubdtion hTo. 3681, 1949). Unesco, International Repertory of Institutions Specializing in Research on Peace and Disarmament (Paris: Unesco(Reports and Papers in the Social Sciences, no. 23), 1966). -,..,.

Unesco, Looking at Unesco (Paris: Unesco, 1971). John Browning White, Bibliography of Materials on Education for Peace in the Public Schools of the United States during the 1920's: Part I, Part 11, Bulletin of Biblio- graphy 18 (January-April, 1944), pp. 66-68; (May-August, 19441, pp. 87-91. E. Raymond Wilson, with assistance of Frances M. Williams and the Foreign Policy Association Staff, Provisional Bibliography on Materials for Peace Education: for Use in Institutes of International Relations and Summer Conferences (Philadelphia: American Friends Service Committee, June, 19371, 16 pp., mimeo.

of Popular Delusion and Proposing a Remedy (Hartford: 1815), 23 pp. Reprinted in Peter Brock, ed., The First American Peace Movement (New York and London: Garland Library of War and Peace, 1972).

Peace Research Association, Education Committee, 1974).

54. [Noah WorcesteI], A Solemn Review of the Custom of War; Showing that War is the Effect

55. Christoph Wulf, ed., Handbook on Peace Education (Frankfurt/Main, Oslo: International

'This paper is based partly on research sponsored by National Endowment for the Humanities, Grants #RT-21490-75-670 and RT-27298-78-45 to Univ. of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.