people by period

8/13/2019 People by Period

1/64

EuropeanHistoryReview

WarsandRevolutions

100YearsWar 13371453Englandvs.France

WarsoftheRoses 14551485 EnglandHouseofLanscastervs.York

wars

of

religion

1555

Treaty

of

Augsburg

defeatoftheSpanishArmada1588

30YearsWar 16181648PeaceofWestphalia

WarofDevolution16671668Francevs.Spain TreatyofNijmegen

WaroftheLeagueofAugsburg16891697Fr.Vs.Gr.States TreatyofRyswick

GloriousRevolution 1688 WilliamofOrangeandMaryStuart

WarofSpanishSuccession 17011714treatyofUtrecht Fr.Vs.HRE

WarofAustrianSuccession17401748treatyofAixlaChapelle Hapsburgs

SevenYearsWar 17561763 Hubertusburg Eng.&Franceovercolonies

FrenchandIndianWar 17561763 TreatyofParis

FrenchRevolution 1789

NapoleonicWars17921815CongressofVienna18145

DatestoRemember

PeaceofAugsburg 1555

DefeatoftheSpanishArmada1588

DeathofElizabethI 1603

30YearsWar16181648

GloriousRevolution1688

DeathofLouisXIV1715

FrenchRevolution1789

FrenchRepublic 1792

Napoleondeclareshimselfemperor 1804

CongressofVienna 1814UprisingsthroughoutEurope 1848

CommunistManifesto 1848

Dynasties

Hollenzollerns Prussia

Valois France

Bourbons France,Spain

Romanovs Russia

Habsburgs Spain,HolyRomanEmpire,Austria

Tudors England

Orange

Netherlands

APReview

originalsourceZhangPeiRevised1/2006 K.Stokes

AGEOFEXPLORATION


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TheTreatyofTordesillas:1495wasagreeduponbytheSpanishandthePortuguesetoclearupconfusiononnewlyclaimedlandintheNewWorld

Explorers:Magellan,Balboa,Cortez,Diaz,etc.

THE

RISE

OF

EUROPE

HolyRomanEmpireAlooselyfederatedEuropeanpoliticalentitythatbeganwiththetheMiddleAgeslastedtheinstigationofNapoleonin1806.

excommunicationAformalecclesiasticalcensurethatdeprivesapersonoftherighttobelongtoachurch.

transubstantiation The doctrine holding that the bread and wine of the Eucharist aretransformedintothebodyandbloodofJesus,althoughtheirappearancesremainthesame.

StThomasAquinas 12251274. Italian Dominican monk, theologian, and philosopher. Theoutstanding representative of Scholasticism, he applied Aristotelian methods to Christian

theology.HismasterworkisSummaTheologica.feudalism medieval relationship in which a lord granted land to his man in return for

militaryservice. Economicpowerisinthehandsoflordsandtheirvassalsandisexercised

fromthebaseofcastles,eachofwhichdominatedthedistrictinwhichitwassituated.

simonyThebuyingorsellingofecclesiasticalpardons,offices,oremoluments.

lay investiture under which feudal kingsand the emperor were accustomed to placing theirownvassalsinhighchurchpositions.

HanseaticLeague A former economicand defensive confederation of free towns in northernGermany and neighboring areas. Traditionally dated to a protective alliance formedby

LbeckandHamburgin1241,itreachedtheheightofitspowerinthe14thcenturyandheld

itslastofficialassemblyin1669.

THEUPHEAVALINCHRISTENDOM.1300 1560

Hundred Years War Hundred Years War, common name given to the series of armedconflicts,brokenbyanumberoftrucesandpeacetreaties,thatwerewagedfrom1337to1453

betweenthetwogreatEuropeanpowersatthattime,EnglandandFrance.

Unamsanctam1302inwhichBonifaceVIIIassertedthesupremacyofthepopeoverallrulersintemporalaswellasinspiritualaffairs.

JohnHuss 1372?1415. Czechoslovakian religious reformer who was excommunicated (1409)for attacking the corruption of the clergy. His De Ecclesia questioned the authority andinfallibilityoftheCatholicChurch.
http://campus.northpark.edu/history/WebChron/Americas/Tordesillas.htmlhttp://campus.northpark.edu/history/WebChron/Americas/Tordesillas.htmlhttp://campus.northpark.edu/history/WebChron/Americas/Tordesillas.htmlhttp://campus.northpark.edu/history/WebChron/Americas/Tordesillas.htmlhttp://campus.northpark.edu/history/WebChron/Americas/Tordesillas.htmlhttp://campus.northpark.edu/history/WebChron/Americas/Tordesillas.htmlhttp://campus.northpark.edu/history/WebChron/Americas/Tordesillas.htmlhttp://campus.northpark.edu/history/WebChron/Americas/Tordesillas.htmlhttp://campus.northpark.edu/history/WebChron/Americas/Tordesillas.htmlhttp://campus.northpark.edu/history/WebChron/Americas/Tordesillas.html


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Babylonian Captivity 70 year period starting in 1305 when the papacy was located inAviynon,France.

CouncilofConstanceChurchcounciltosettlethequestionofthepapalsuccession,byplacingMartinVaspope.

MartinLuther(14831546)aGermanmonkandchurchreformer.Histeachingsof faithonly forsalvationinspiredtheReformation.

LeonardoDaVinciItalianpainter,engineer,musician,andscientist.ThemostversatilegeniusoftheRenaissance.bestknownforTheLastSupper(c.1495)andMonaLisa.

LorenzoVallaThelinguisticstudiesoftheItalianhumanistLorenzoValla(140757)ProvetheDonationofConstantinetobeforged.

ChristianhumanismErasmusofRotleroam SirThomasMore groupofpeoplewhoworkedforspiritualandreligioninahumanpointofview.

Copernicus Polish astronomer who advanced the theory that the earth and other planetsrevolvearoundthesun,disruptingthePtolemaicsystemofastronomy.

FredinandandIsabellaByachanceofdynasticfortunetheaccessionofISABELLAItothethroneofCastilein1474andofherhusbandFERDINANDIItothatofAragonin1479the

twomostimportantkingdomsofSpainwerejoined.The Catholickings, astheyareknown,

wereexceptionallygifted,IsabellaininternalpoliticsandFerdinandinforeignpolicy.

Spanish Inquisition A tribunal held in the Roman Catholic Church and directed at thesuppressionofheresy.

MoriscosSpanishMuslimswhoconvertedtoChristianityduringandaftertheexpulsionoftheMoorsfromSpainwereknownasMoriscos.

MarranosASpanishorPortugueseJewwhowasforciblyconvertedtoChristianityinthelateMiddleAgesbutwhocontinuedtopracticeJudaisminsecret.

MaximilianI14591519.KingofGermany(14861519)andHolyRoman emperor (14931519)whothrougharrangedmarriagesaddedgreatlytotheterritoryandpoweroftheHapsburgs.

Wars of theRoses series of dynastic civil wars in England foughtby the rival houses of

LancasterandYorkbetween1455and1485

conquestofGranadaTheyear1492wasthemostnotableofFerdinandsreign.ItopenedwiththeconquestofGranada,whichmarkedthevictoriousconclusionofthelongstruggleagainst

theMoors.

Indulgences The remission of temporal punishment still due for a sin that has beensacramentallyabsolved.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1483http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1546http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1546http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1483


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AnabaptistsAmemberofaradicalmovementofthe16thcenturyReformationwhichbelievedin the primacy of the Bible, inbaptism as an external witness of thebelievers personal

covenant of inner faith, and in separation of church from state and of believers from

nonbelievers.

predestination

The

doctrine

that

God

has

foreordained

all

things,

especially

that

God

has

electedcertainsoulstoeternalsalvation.

HenryVIIIHenryVIII,KingofEngland(15091547),instigatedtheREFORMATIONoftheEnglishchurchinordertosecureadivorcefromthefirstofhissixwives.Henrysupervised

thegeneraldirectionoftheReformation. Between1536and1540allofthemonasteriesand

nunneriesinEnglandweredissolvedandtheirpropertyconfiscatedbythegovernment. An

oathofsupremacy,promisingloyaltytothekingasheadofthechurch,couldberequiredof

all subjects, and those who refused it, like Sir Thomas MORE, couldbe executed. In 1521,

HenryhadwrittenatreatiseagainstMartinLuther,forwhichPopeLeoXhadawardedhim

thetitle DefenderoftheFaith. Whenhedied,onJan. 28,1547,hissonbecameEDWARDVI. HisdaughterslatersucceededinturnasMARYIandELIZABETHI.

ThirtyNineArticles ThirtyNine Articles,a set of doctrinal statementsgenerally accepted intheAnglicanCommunionashavingprimarydoctrinalsignificance.

Julius II Originally Giuliano della Rovere. 14431513. Pope (15031513) who ordered theconstructionofSaintPetersinRomeandcommissionedMichelangelotodecoratetheSistine

ChapelintheVatican.

HabsburgsAroyalGermanfamilythatsuppliedrulerstoanumberofEuropeanstatesfromthelateMiddleAgesuntilthe20thcentury.TheHapsburgsreachedtheheightoftheirpower

underCharlesVofSpain.WhenCharlesabdicated(1558),theempirewasdividedbetween

theSpanishandAustrianlines.TheSpanishbranchceasedtoruleafter1700andtheAustrianbranchafter1918.

John Wyclif 1328?1384. English theologian and religious reformer. His rejection of thebiblicalbasisofpapal poweranddisputewith thedoctrine of the transubstantiation of the

hostanticipatedtheProtestantReformation.

GreatSchismThetermGreatSchism isusedtorefertotwomajorevents inthehistoryofChristianity: the divisionbetween the Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Roman) churches,

and the period (13781417) during which theWestern church had first two, and later three,

linesofpopes.

MediciFamilyTheMedici,themostfamousofItaliandynasties,governedFLORENCEunderaveiled despotism from1434 to 1494 and from1512 to1527andas overthereditary rulers

from1530to1737.ItsmemberswereamongthegreatpatronsoftheItalianRenaissance.

Raphael 14831520. Italian painter whose works, including religious subjects, portraits, andfrescoes,exemplifytheidealsoftheHighRenaissance.


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BookoftheCourtierUndertheveneerofmagnificentworksofartandtherefinedcourtlifedescribedinBALDASSAICCASTIGLIONEsBookoftheCourtier.

PraiseofFollybyDesideriusERASMUSisanironicandsatiricalmockencomiumdeflatingthe pretensions of worldly dignity and learning. Those who regard themselves as wise

philosophers,

theologians,

and

scholars

are

merely

pretentious

fools

who

work

against

divineandnaturalorder.

TudorsafamilyofWelshorigin,ruledEnglandfrom1485to1603.

Protestant A member of Protestantism movement in Western Christianity. Most of themstresstheBIBLE.

NinetyFiveThesesTheReformationbeganinGermanyonOct. 31,1517,whenMartinLuther,anAugustinianuniversityprofessoratWittenberg,posted95thesesinvitingdebateoverthe

legitimacyofthesaleofindulgences.

SchmalkaldicWar *** In 1525 a group of Lutheran princes formed the League of Schmalkaldagainst the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Religious in namebut politically the princes

wanted independence from the Holy Roman Empire. War resulted in 1546. The Peace of

Augsburgendedthewarin1555.Thereligionoftheprincewouldbethereligionoftheland.

Cuiusregio,eiusreligio

InstitutesoftheChristianReligiondevelopedacomprehensivetheology,whichJohnCalvindetailedinsuccessiveeditionsofInstitutesoftheChristianReligion

St. IngatiusLoyola (14911556), Spanish ecclesiastic, who founded the Society ofJesus, theOrderoftheJesuits.

CouncilofTrentTheCouncilofTrent,innorthernItalybetween1545and1563.ItmarkedamajorturningpointintheeffortsoftheCatholicchurchtorespondtothechallengeofthe

Protestant REFORMATION and formed a key part of the COUNTERREFORMATION. In

theareaofreligiousdoctrine,thecouncilrefusedanyconcessionstotheProtestantsand,in

the process, crystallized and codified Catholic dogma far more than everbefore. It directly

opposedProtestantismbyreaffirmingtheexistenceofsevensacraments,transubstantiation,

purgatory, the necessity of the priesthood, andjustificationby works as well asby faith.

Clericalcelibacyandmonasticismweremaintained,anddecreeswereissuedinfavorofthe

efficacyofrelics,indulgences,andthevenerationoftheVirginMaryandthesaints.Tradition

wasdeclaredcoequaltoScriptureasasourceofspiritualknowledge,andthesolerightofthe

churchto

interpret

the

Bible

was

asserted.

At

the

same

time,

the

council

took

steps

to

reform

manyofthemajorabuseswithinthechurchthathadpartlyincitedtheReformation:

LorenzotheMagnificentMedici,Lorenzode,calledTheMagnificent(144992),Italianbankerandstatesman,whowasaleadingpatronofartandscholarshipduringtheRenaissance.

QueenMaryruledEnglandasQueenMaryIfrom1553andearnedtheepithetBloodyMaryfortheexecutionsofProtestantsthatoccurredduringherreign.


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Pragmatic Sanction An edict or a decree issuedby a sovereign thatbecomes part of thefundamental law of the land. [Translation of Late Latinpragmatica sancti, imperial decreereferring to the affairs of a community : Latinpragmatica, relating to civil affairs + Latin

sancti,ordinance.]

Michelangelo

1475

1564.

Italian

sculptor,

painter,

architect,

and

poet

who

created

some

of

the

greatestworksofartofalltime,includingthemarblesculptureDavid(1501),thepaintingson

theceilingoftheSistineChapel(15081512),andtheplansforSaintPetersChurchinRome.

The Prince World Literature, Philosophy, and Religion The bestknown work of NICCOLMACHIAVELLI,inwhichheassertsthataprincemustusecunningandruthlessmethodsto

stayinpower.

Erasmus (14661536) ***Northern Humanist* Handbook ofa Christian Knight and Praise of Folly.Knewthechurchneededreformbutdidnotbreakwithit.

CharlesV Charles V, Holy Roman emperor (151956) andas Charles Iking of Spain(151656),dominatedthepoliticsofEuropefor40years.Fromhisfather,whodiedin1506,he

inherited the Netherlands.From his maternal grandfather, FERDINAND II of Aragon,

Charlesbecame ruler of the kingdoms of Spain and the Spanish dependencies in Italythe

kingdoms of Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia. The HABSBURG possessions of Austria and

several smaller south German lordships came to him on the death (1519) of his paternal

grandfather,HolyRomanEmperorMAXIMILIANI,asdidhereditaryclaimstothecrowns

ofHungaryandBohemia.In155556,CharlesVvoluntarilyabdicated inseveralstages.He

lefttheHolyRomanEmpiretoFerdinandandallhisotherdominionstohisson,PHILIPIIof

Spain.CharlesretiredtoacomfortablevillabuiltnexttothemonasteryofSanYusteinSpain.

PeaceofAugsburgIn1555thediet(assemblyofprinces)oftheHolyRomanEmpiremetin

Augsburg to make peacebetween the warring Roman Catholic and Lutheran princes ofGermany. It adopted the formula cuius regio, eius religio, whereby each prince was to

determinethereligiouscharacterofhisterritory.TheexclusionoftheCalvinistscausedlater

problems.

AnglicanChurchChurchofEnglandestablishedunderHenryVIII.

Lollards followers of the English religious reformerJohn WYCLIFFE, were members of awidespread Christian movement of the late 14th and early 15th centuries that was highly

criticalofthepowerandwealthofthechurch.

Machiavelli

1469

1527.

Italian

political

theorist

whose

book

The Prince (1513) describes theachievement and maintenance of power by a determined ruler indifferent to moral

considerations.

Erasmus1466?1536.DutchRenaissancescholarandRomanCatholictheologianwhosoughttoreviveclassicaltextsfromantiquity,restoresimpleChristianfaithbasedonScripture,and

eradicate the improprieties of the medieval Church. His works include TheManual of theChristianKnight(1503)andThePraiseofFolly(1509).


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ECONOMICRENEWALANDWARSOFRELIGION.1560 1648

daGama14691524FirstEuropeantoreachIndiabysearoute.

Magellan 1480?1521. Portuguese navigator. While trying to find a western route to the

Moluccas

(1519),

Magellan

and

his

expedition

were

blown

by

storms

into

the

strait

that

now

bearshisname(1520).HenamedandsailedacrossthePacificOcean,reachingtheMarianas

andthePhilippines(1521),wherehewaskilledfightingforafriendlynativeking.Oneofhis

shipsreturnedtoSpain(1522),therebycompletingthefirstcircumnavigationoftheglobe.

BourgeoisApersonbelongingtoatownandofthemiddleclass.

JunkerAmemberofthePrussianlandedaristocracy,aclassformerlyassociatedwithpoliticalreactionandmilitarism.

EscorialAmonasteryandpalaceofcentralSpainnearMadrid.Builtfrom1563to1584,itwascommissionedbyPhilipIItocommemorateavictoryovertheFrench.

LepantoThenavalBattleofLepanto,foughtoffthecoastofGreeceonOct.7,1571,wasthefirstmajordefeatoftheOttomanTurksbytheChristianstatesofwesternEurope.

SirFrancisDrake1540?1596.EnglishnavalheroandexplorerwhowasthefirstEnglishmantocircumnavigate the world (15771580) and was vice admiral of the fleet that destroyed the

SpanishArmada(1588).

MaryQueenofScotsMary,QueenofScots,alsoMaryStuart(154287),daughterofJamesV, king of Scotland,by his second wife, Mary of Guise. Born in 1542, Marybecame queen

beforeshewasaweekold.Raised inFrance, in1558shewasmarriedtotheDauphin,who

succeededtotheFrenchthroneasFrancisIIin1559butdiedthenextyear.MaryreturnedtoScotland in 1561. Marys marriage in 1565 to her cousin, the Catholic Scottish nobleman

HenryStewart,LordDarnley,wasperformedwithRomanCatholicrites. Early in1567the

houseinwhichDarnleylaysickwasblownupbygunpowder,probablyattheinstigationof

the Scottish noblemanJames Hepburn, 4th earl of Bothwell, who hadbeen favoredby the

queen.Sheabdicatedinfavorofherson,whowascrownedasJamesVI.Shesoughtrefugeat

thecourtofElizabethI,ofEngland,only tofindherselfaprisonerofElizabeth for life.She

wassentencedtodeathforconspiracyagainstElizabethandexecuted.

JamesI(ofEngland) (15661625),kingofEngland (160325)and,asJamesVI,kingofScotland(15671625).FirstStruartking

AlbertWallenstein.DukeofFriedlandandMecklenburg.15831634.AustrianmilitaryleaderwhofoughtfortheHapsburgsduringtheThirtyYears War(16181648).Hewasvictorious

duringtheearlystagesofthewar,butwaslaterassassinatedbyhisownmen

LouisXIII 16011643.KingofFrance (16101643) whoreliedheavilyonhispoliticaladviserCardinalRichelieutoovercomefamilialinsurgenceandwarwithSpainandtheHapsburgs.


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BattleofWhiteMountainWhiteMountain,hillnearPrague,Bohemia;battle(1620).ThefirststageorBohemiaStageoftheThirtyYears War.

PeaceofWestphaliaThePeaceofWestphaliacomprisestheseriesoftreatiesthatendedtheTHIRTYYEARS WARinGermanyin1648.Thesetreatiescreatedanenduringcompromise

settlement

between

Protestants

and

Roman

Catholics,

destroyed

the

Holy

Roman

Empire

as

a

significant entityby recognizing the virtual sovereignty of the German states, established

FranceasthemajorEuropeanpower,andmadeSwedenthedominantBalticnation.

Richelieu.15851642.Frenchprelateandpolitician.AschiefministerofLouisXIIIheworkedto strengthen the authority of the monarchy and directed France during the Thirty Years

War(16181648).

Cervantes Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra,b. Sept. 29?, 1547, d. Apr. 23, 1616, a Spanishnovelist,dramatist,andpoet,wastheauthorofthenovelDONQUIXOTE(Part1,1605;Part

2,1615),amasterpieceofworldliterature.

St.FrancisXavier15061552.SpanishJesuitmissionary.AcofounderoftheJesuitorder(1534)withIgnatiusofLoyola,heestablishedmissionariesinJapan,Ceylon,andtheEastIndies.

Conquistadores A conqueror, especially one of the 16thcentury Spanish soldiers whodefeatedtheIndiancivilizationsofMexico,CentralAmerica,orPeru.

Guild An association of persons of the same trade or pursuits, formed to protect mutualinterestsandmaintainstandards.

usury The practice of lending money and charging theborrower interest, especially at anexorbitantorillegallyhighrate

Austrian Succession, War of the (17401748), conflict caused by the rival claims for thehereditary dominions of the Habsburg family. The conflict arose on the death in 1740 of

Charles VI, Holy Roman emperor and archduke of Austria. Before his death, many of the

great powers of Europe, including Great Britain, France, Prussia, Russia, and the

Netherlands, had guaranteed that Charless daughter Maria Theresa would succeed him.

However,otherclaimantsappearedwhenhe died.KingFrederickII of Austriastarted the

warby invading and occupying Silesia in 1740. The War of the Austrian Succession was

ended in 1748by the Treaty of AixlaChapelle, which provided that all conquests made

duringthewarreverttotheiroriginalpossessors,withsomeexceptions.MariaTheresakept

mostofher landsexceptSilesia,whichwasgrantedtoPrussia.Theprincipalbeneficiaryof

thewaraside

from

Maria

Theresawas

Prussia,

which,

through

its

military

successes

and

itsacquisitionofSilesia,becameoneofthestrongerpowersinEurope.Alaterattemptonthe

part of Austria to regain Silesia led to the Seven Years War, which also continued the

indecisivecolonialconflictbetweenFranceandBritain.

Union of Utrecht The northern provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland,Overijssel, Friesland, and Groningen formed (1579) the Union of Utrecht and declared

themselvesarepublicin1581.


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TwelveYearsTruce1609 End religious war inNetherlandsby guarantying the leavingoftheSpanishsecuredfullybythePeaceofWestphalia

St.BartholomewsDayMasskillingofFrenchProtestantsbyCatholics,beganonAug.24,1572.ManyotherProtestantnobleshadcometothecapitaltoattendtheweddingofHenry

of

Navarre

(later

Henry

IV)

and

Margaret

of

Valois.

CATHERINE

DE

MEDICIS.

The

killing

began in Paris and was extended to the provinces, continuing until October. There were

approximately13,000victims.

PhilipII(15271598)HabsburgkingofSpain,ruledavastdomainthatincludedSpainandits possessions in America and Italy, the Low Countries, and (from 1580) Portugal and its

empire.Heacquired these territories whenhis father,HolyRomanEmperorCHARLESV,

abdicated in 155556. Revoltbroke out in the Low Countries in 1566 and Philipwith his

exalted concept of royal authority and devotion to the Roman Catholic faithbecame

enmeshed ina struggle that lasted until 1648. . English and French efforts onbehalf of the

rebels ledhim toattempt (1588)an invasionofEnglandwithdisastrousresults (SPANISH

ARMADA).Theexpenseoftheseeffortsandof thestrugglewith theTurkswasmore than

even the enormous resources of his empire couldbear, precipitating the economic decline.

His forces defeated (1571) the Turks at Lepanto, regained the southern part of the

Netherlands,andweregenerallysuccessful inprotectinghisAmericanpossessions.Philips

familylifewashauntedbytragedy. Hisfirstwife,MariaofPortugal,died(1545)after2years

of marriage, leaving him with a son, Don CARLOS, whose violence and instability forced

Philiptoimprisonhim. Asecondmarriage(155458)toMARYIofEngland,wasunhappy

andbarren. In 1568, when Don Carlos died in prison and Philips third wife, Elizabeth of

Valois, died a few months later, Philip was wrongly accused of murdering them both.

Elizabeth left him with two daughters to whom he was devoted. In 1570, Philip married

AnneofAustria; theyhadfoursons,threeofwhomdiedinchildhood. Theirsurvivingson,

PhilipIII,inheritedapowerfulbutexhaustedempire.

Velzquez 15991660. Spanish painter whose works, including portraits, notably of PopeInnocentX(1650),historicalscenes,suchasTheSurrenderofBreda(1635),stilllifes,andgenrescenes,displayhisextraordinarytechniqueandmasteryoflight.

THEESTABLISHMENTOFWEST EUROPEANLEADERSHIP

William III William III, King of England, Scotland, and Ireland (16501702) prince ofOrangeandlaterkingofEngland,Scotland,andIreland,devotedmostofhislifetoresisting

theexpansionistdesignsof thepowerfulFrenchmonarchy.Hewas theposthumoussonof

WilliamII,princeofOrange;hismother,PrincessMary,wasthesisterofEnglandsCharlesII

andJames

II.

In

1672,

when

French

and

British

troops

invaded

the

Netherlands,

William

III

was summoned to direct the defense of the country. Appointed captain general and

stadholder for life, William formed alliances with Austria and Spain, made peace with

England in 1674, and compelled the French to accept the treaty of Nijmegen in 1678.

Meanwhile,inordertocementanEnglishalliance,hehadmarried(1677)hisEnglishcousin

Mary,daughterofthefutureJamesII.In1688,William,aProtestant,was invitedto invade

Englandbythepoliticalenemiesofhisfatherinlaw,aCatholicconvert.JamesfledEngland,

and on Feb. 13, 1689, William and his wife werejointly offered the throne. They (she as


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MARYII)werecrownedonApr.11,1689,andthuswasconcludedthebloodlessGLORIOUS

REVOLUTION.InMay,William inducedtheEnglishParliamenttojointheallianceagainst

France. After crushing Jamess invasion of Ireland in 1690 he spent the next 7 years

campaigningintheSpanishNetherlands.In1697heconcludedafavorablepeaceatRyswick,

which also secured French recognition of his kingship.

He wasalso compelled to accept a BILL OF RIGHTS (1689) William was succeeded on the

BritishthronebyMaryssister,QueenAnne.

EnglishDutchWarsEnglandandtheDutchRepublicfoughtfourwars(calledtheDutchWarsby the English and the English Warsby the Dutch)between 1652 and 1784. The principal

issue was the maritime and commercial rivalrybetween the two countries, sharpenedby

conflictsoverthetiesbetweentheHouseofORANGEandtheBritishrulingfamily.

Puritan A member of a group of English Protestants who in the 16th and 17th centuriesadvocatedstrictreligiousdisciplinealongwithsimplificationoftheceremoniesandcreedsof

theChurchofEngland.

JamesVIofScotlandJamesI,theonlychildofMARY,QUEENOFSCOTS,wasthefirstkingtorulebothEnglandandScotland,thelatterasJamesVI.BornonJune19,1566,Jameswas

only15monthsoldwhenhesucceededhismothertotheScottishthrone.

LongParliamentInNovember1640,KingCHARLESIofEnglandsummonedaParliamentthatretained legal identity foran unprecedented 20years; it iscalled the Long Parliament.

TheParliamentimmediatelyquarreledwiththekingandsubstantiallyreducedhispowers.

LevellersMembersofanEnglishradicalpoliticalmovementthatcameintobeingin164647attheendofthefirstENGLISHCIVILWAR.Itsappeal,however,wastothe lowermiddle

classes,anditfoundsupportintheranksofthearmy.

CharlesIICharlesII,b.May29,1630,d.Feb.6,1685,kingofEngland,Scotland,andIreland(166085), was one of the laziestbut cleverest of English kings. after the death (1658) of

Cromwell, many English people favored restoring Charles to the throne. Accordingly, the

RESTORATIONtookplacein1660.

TreatyofDoverBytheTreatyofDover(1670),LouisXIVofFrancehadsecretlypromisedtopay subsidies to Charles,who in turnpromised toconvertEngland toRoman Catholicism,

butthesepaymentsprovedinsufficienttosustainanotherwar.

TestAct Test acts were laws passed in postReformation England, Scotland, and Ireland to

limitoffice

holding

to

those

professing

the

established

religion.

Thus

non

Anglicans

were

formallyexcludedfrompubliclife.

Colbert16191683.FrenchpoliticianwhoservedasanadvisertoLouisXIV.Colbertreformedtaxes, centralized the administration, and improved roads and canals in an effort to

encouragetrade.


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FrenchEast IndiaCo. Established in 1664byJean Baptiste Colbert, finance minister of KingLouisXIV,thecompanyfoundeditsfirsttradingpostatSuratinBombayin1675.

PeaceofRyswick pact signed on September 20, 1697, at Ryswick, a Dutch village on theoutskirtsofTheHague.ThetreatyendedthewarbetweenLouisXIV,kingofFrance,andthe

Grand

Alliance,

a

coalition

including

England,

Spain,

the

Netherlands,

and

the

Holy

Roman

Empire. Louis agreed to recognize William of Orange as William III, king of England, and

wasforcedtoreturnmostoftheterritorycapturedduringthewar.

CharlesIIofSpain(16611700),kingofSpain(16651700).HewasthesonofPhilipIV.

SunKingLouisXIV(16381715),kingofFrance (16431715),knownas theSunKing,whoimposedabsoluteruleonFranceandfoughtaseriesofwarstryingtodominateEurope.His

reign, the longest inEuropean history,was markedby a great floweringofFrench culture.

His parents, King Louis XIII and Anne of Austria were grateful for an heir after 20barren

yearsofmarriage.

BaruchSpinoza Amsterdam (16321677 was one of the most important philosophers of theEuropeantraditionofRATIONALISM.

Presbyterian Presbyterianism is the form of church government in which elders,both laypeopleandministers,govern.

Diggers members of a communistic movement that flourished during the EnglishCommonwealth (164960) and favored the abolition of private ownership of land. The

Diggers were deeply religious pacifists, and their doctrines were social and economic, not

political.TheyareoftenincorrectlyidentifiedwiththeLevellers,whoseprogramwaschiefly

political.

DissentersOnewhorefusestoacceptthedoctrinesorusagesofanestablishedoranationalchurch,especiallyaProtestantwhodissentsfromtheChurchofEngland.

Whigs and Tories Whig, member of a former British political party, traditionally inoppositiontotheToryparty.ThenameisprobablyderivedfromWhiggamore,aderogatory

term first applied to the Covenanters of 17thcentury Scotland, who were supporters of

Presbyterianism.

Later in the 17th century the Whig party of England emerged in opposition to King Charles II

andtotheaccessionoftheRomanCatholicdukeofYorkasJamesII.Thepartywaslargely

responsiblefor

the

Glorious

Revolution

of

1688,

which

established

the

supremacy

of

Parliamentovertheking.BackedbythegrowingBritishmercantileandindustrialinterests,

the landedbut untitled gentry, and the Protestant dissenters, or nonconformists, the Whig

party achieved control of the government in 1714 on the accession of King George I. For

nearly50yearstheWhigsremainedinpower,untilin1760theoppositionTorypartyrodea

waveofconservativesentimentintooffice.


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For70yearstheWhigpartywasintheminorityinGreatBritain.In1830,however,theirreform

platformwonpopularsupport,andtheywerereturnedtooffice.Duringthenextfewyears

theypassedimportantreformlegislation,knowncollectivelyastheReformBills.Atthesame

time, the Whig party became known as the Liberal party and the Tory party as the

Conservativeparty.

Tory, memberof a former British political party, traditionally inopposition to the Whig party.Thename,derivedfromanOldIrishwordmeaningrunawayorfugitive,wasfirstappliedto

mid17thcenturyIrishmenwho,dispossessedbytheEnglish,becameoutlaws.

Later inthe17thcenturytheWhigsemployed thewordasatermforsupportersof theRoman

Catholic king James II in particular and the monarchy in general. After the Glorious

Revolution of 1688, which gave Parliament permanent supremacy over the king, the Tory

partywasthepartyofthelandedaristocracy,favoringagriculturalinterestsandtheChurch

ofEngland.DuringthelatterpartofthereignofQueenAnne,beginningin1710,theTories

reachedtheheightoftheirpower.After1714,however,theywereagaintheminorityparty.

In 1760 the Tories regained control of the government under George III; at this time, those

American colonials who supported the British in the American Revolution were known as

Tories.For70yearstheToriesretainedpowerinGreatBritain,butin1830theirconservative

domestic policies caused their defeatby the Whigs. During the early 1830s the Tory party

became known as the Conservative party and the Whig party as the Liberal party,but the

termToryisstilloftenusedasasynonymforConservative.

BattleoftheBoynein1690JamesIIarmywasdefeatedbyWilliamattheBattleoftheBOYNEinIreland.

Fronde(164853)wasaseriesofmajorrevolts inFranceduring theminorityofLOUISXIV.

TheytemporarilyblockedthecontinuationbytheregentANNEOFAUSTRIAandherablebut hated advisor, Cardinal MAZARIN, of the harsh policies of Louis XIII and Cardinal

Richelieu.

Revocationof theEdictofNantesTheEdictofNantes,establishingthe legaltolerationofCalvinisminRomanCatholicFrance,wasauthorizedbyKingHENRYIVin1598.Itresulted

fromhardbargainingwiththeHUGUENOTSandmarkedtheendoftheWarsofReligion.

Theedictdeclared libertyofconscienceandequalityof legalandeducationalrights.Itallowed

French Protestants to hold government office and provided special courts to adjudicate

disputesbetweenthefaiths.

CardinalRICHELIEUmodifiedtheedict;Huguenotslosttheircapacityforarmedselfdefense.In

1685,LOUISXIVwithdrewtheedictanddeclaredFranceentirelyCatholic.

TreatyofNimwegenEndedLouisssecondwar.

WaroftheLeagueofAugsburg(168897)nineyearswar.AgainstLeagueofAugsburgwhichisdesignedtopreventLuisXIVsFrancefromgrowing.


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JohnChurchill,DukeofMarlboroughJohnChurchill,1stdukeofMarlborough,b.May26,1650,d.June 16,1722,wasanEnglishstatesmanandoneofhistorysoutstandinggenerals.

helpingdefeat(1685)therebellionofthedukeofMONMOUTH.

HouseofOrangeThehouseofOrangeistheroyalfamilyoftheKingdomoftheNetherlands.

The

dynasty

originated

in

the

medieval

principality

of

Orange,

in

southern

France.

EnglishNavigationActsseriesof lawsbyParliament,beginning inmid1600s,toprotect theshippingtradeofEnglandanditscolonies;theselawsrepealed1849.

Roundheads A supporter of the Parliamentarians during the English Civil War and theCommonwealth.

TheRumpThegroupthatremainedafterPridesPurgewascalledtheRumpParliament.TheRumpsentencedCharlestoexecution,andhewasbeheadedonJan.30,1649

GloriousRevolutionThenamegiventotheoverthrowin1688oftheRomanCatholicJAMESII of England and the accession to the throne of his daughter MARY II and her Dutch

Protestant husband, WILLIAM III. Invited to invade Englandby seven English noblemen,

WilliamhopedtobringEnglandintotheimminentWaroftheGRANDALLIANCEagainst

France. He feared thatJames would ally himself with the French king LOUIS XIV or that

JamessfavoritismtowardhisCatholicsubjectswouldsoprovoketheProtestantmajorityas

tocauseanothercivilwar,thusmakingEnglandimpotentinEurope.

Williams triumph was bloodless; Jamess forces, under John Churchill, later duke of

MARLBOROUGH,deserted,andJames himself fled. When William and Mary were made

jointsovereigns(1689),theyacquiescedinaDeclarationandBILLOFRIGHTS,whichopened

theroadtoconstitutionalmonarchy.

CardinalMazarin (160261), French statesman and cardinal, who controlled the Frenchgovernment during the minority of Louis XIV and helped make France the predominant

powerinEurope.

On the death of Louis XIII (1643), his widow, Anne of Austria, chose Mazarin as her chief

minister and tutor of the fiveyearold Louis XIV. Mazarin continued Richelieus absolutist

policies.Abroad,hebroughttheThirtyYears Wartoasuccessfulconclusion,weakeningthe

HabsburgdynastyandgainingAlsaceforFrance.Athome,however,hewas insensitive to

populardiscontentoverfoodshortagesandhightaxescausedbythewar.

Versailles

city,

northern

France,

capital

of

Yvelines

Department,

near

Paris.

It

is

primarily

a

residentialcommunityand isnotedas thesiteof the palaceandgardens ofLouisXIV; the

cityalsohassomeindustry.Thecoreofthepalaceisthesmallchteau(16241626),builtfor

LouisXIIIandlaterenlarged.Constructionofthemainedificebeganin1661;LouisXIV,his

court,andthevariousdepartmentsofgovernmentoccupieditin1682.Duringthe1680sthe

greatnorthandsouthwingswereadded.Theoveralllengthofthewesternfacadesisabout

580m(about1900ft).Thefrontofthepalacefacesalargecourtcontainingstatuesoffamous

Frenchmen. Numerous galleries, salons, and royal apartments, all lavishly decorated and


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HabsburgsAroyalGermanfamilythatsuppliedrulerstoanumberofEuropeanstatesfromthelateMiddleAgesuntilthe20thcentury.TheHapsburgsreachedtheheightoftheirpower

underCharlesVofSpain.WhenCharlesabdicated(1558),theempirewasdividedbetween

theSpanishandAustrianlines.TheSpanishbranchceasedtoruleafter1700andtheAustrian

branchafter1918.

King in Prussia Frederick proclaimed himself king in Prussia. His new crown was animmediatesourceofprestigefortheHOHENZOLLERNdynastyandservedasasymbolof

unityfortherisingstateofBrandenburgPrussia.

FrederickIItheGreat,ruledPRUSSIA(17401786).Hisearlyinterestinliteratureandmusicbroughthim intoconflictwithhis authoritarian father,FREDERICK WILLIAMI.Frederick

tried to escape. He was captured and imprisoned. His father forced him to witness the

executionofhisclosefriendLieutenantKatte.

FrederickbeganhisreignbyinvadingSILESIA,apossessionoftheAustrianHabsburgs.Having

claimedtheprovinceashisown,hespentthenext23yearsdefendingthisvaluableconquest.

IllustriouscampaignsintheWaroftheAUSTRIANSUCCESSION(174048)andtheSEVEN

YEARS WAR(175663)demonstratedhisextraordinarymilitarytalentsandenabledhimto

consolidatePrussiaspositionasaleadingpowerintheEuropeanstatesystem.

StephenRazinmadetherevoltagainstRussiaofthepeasantsandcossacksin16701671.

St.Petersburg city in northwestern European Russia, called Leningrad during most of theCommunistperiod(19241991). WindowtotheWest

JohnSobieskib. Aug. 17,1629,d. June17,1696,ruledPolandasKingJohnIIIfrom1674to1696. He isbest known for saving Vienna from the Turks on Sept. 12, 1683, thereby

achieving the last great Polish military victorybefore the Partitions of Poland in the 18thcentury.

Janissaries (Turkish yeniceri, recruit), standing Ottoman Turkish army, organized byMuradI

Treaty ofRastadt (1714). Supplemented Treaty of Utrecht. Signedby Austria and France.TreatyofUtrecht(1713).ClosedWarofSpanishSuccession(QueenAnnesWar);crownsof

FranceandSpainseparated;EnglandreceivedGibraltar,NovaScotia,andNewfoundland.

Frederick I b.July 11, 1657, d. Feb. 25, 1713, the first king of PRUSSIA, was the son of

FREDERICKWILLIAM,

the

Great

Elector,

whom

he

succeeded

as

elector

of

Brandenburg

on

May 9,1688.AsElectorFrederickIII, hedemonstrated more interest in culturalaffairsand

courtlifethaninhisgovernment,whichheallowedtofallintothehandsofcorruptfavorites.

FrederickWilliamI16881740.KingofPrussia (17131740)whostrengthenedthearmyanddiversifiedtheeconomyofhisdominion.


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TimeofTroublesInRussianhistory,theTimeofTroubleswastheperiodthatfollowedthedeath (1598) of Tsar Fyodor I, the last ruler of the Rurik dynasty, and lasted until the

crowning(1613)ofthefirstRomanov.

Old Believers are Russian Christians who refused to recognize the liturgical reforms

introduced

by

Nikon,

the

patriarch

of

Moscow,

in

1653.

PetertheGreatPeterI16721725tsarofRussia(16821725)andthefirstRussianemperorwas an unusually powerful and prepossessing ruler; his military achievements and

westernizing reforms of the Russian government, army, and society laid the foundation of

themodernRussianstate.

Peterbegan his reign in earnest in 1700, when hejoined a European alliance that initiated the

GreatNORTHERNWAR(170021)againstSweden. Hehopedtoannexterritoriesalongthe

BalticcoastandtherebyopenwarmwaterportstogiveRussiaa windowtothewest.

Peters desire to strengthen Russia also speeded the trend toward the secularization and

modernization ofculture. Peterbuilt a new city andcapital,SAINT PETERSBURG,on the

BalticlandstakenfromSweden. HeintendedthecitytobeasymbolofthenewRussia,free

ofoutmodedtraditions.

ElectorsoftheHolyRomanEmpire7rulerspeoplewhoelecttheHolyRomanEmperor

SiegeofViennaof168358daysBesiegedbytheTurks,relievedbyJohnSobieski.Raised.

Michael Romanov b. 1596, d.July 23, (N.S.), 1645, tsar of Russia (161345), founded theROMANOVdynasty.

WarofthePolishSuccessionIntheWarofthePolishSuccession(173335),whichtookplaceprimarily in Italy and the Rhineland, France, Spain, Bavaria, and the Kingdom of Sardinia

fought against Austria, which was supportedby Russia. established Russia as a dominant

influenceinPolishaffairs.

THESTRUGGLEFORWEALTHANDEMPIRE:

GeorgeI16601727.ElectorofHanover(16981727)andkingofGreatBritainandIreland(17141727)wholefttheaffairsofhiscountryinthehandsofSirRobertWalpole.

RobertWalpole First Earl of Orford. 16761745. English politician who as first lord of the

treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer (17151717 and 17211742) led the WhigadministrationandwasregardedasBritainsfirstprimeminister,althoughtheofficewasnot

officiallyrecognizeduntil1905.

Robert Clive Baron Clive of Plassey. 17251774. British soldier and statesman who wasinstrumentalinsecuringGreatBritainsinterestsinIndia.


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CatherineII,TheGreatempressofRussia(176296),didmuchtotransformRussiaintoamoderncountry. GermanbornwideofPeterIII

At the age of 33, Catherine was not only a handsome woman (whose numerous love affairs

dominatethepopularaccountsofherlife),butalsounusuallywellreadanddeeplyinvolved

in

the

cultural

trends

of

her

age.

Imbued

with

the

ideas

of

the

Enlightenment,

Catherine

aimedatcompletingthejobstartedbyPeterIwesternizingRussia.

Finally, Catherine vastly expanded the Russian empire. Following two successful wars against

Turkey (the RUSSOTURKISH WARS of 176874 and 178792), Russia secured the Crimea

andthusrealizedacenturiesolddreamofestablishingitselfonthenorthshoreoftheBlack

Sea. Thefertile landsoftheUkrainewerealsoopenedforsettlementandsoonbecamethe

granary of Europe. Catherinealso participated in thepartitions ofPoland (1772, 1792,and

1795),bringingalargepartofthatcountryunderRussianrule.

MississippiBubbleTheMississippiSchemeof171720wasagrandioseprojectdevisedbythe Scottish financierJohn LAW to generate private prosperity and state income in France

through colonial and commercial exploitation of French Louisiana. Panic selling of shares

burstthe Mississippibubble inOctober1720,andLawsschemecollapsed.Thefiascobred

extremepublicdistrustofstatebanking.

MariaTheresa Maria Theresa ruled the Austrian Habsburg domains from 1740 to 1780.Archduchess of Austria, queen of Bohemia and Hungary, and consort of Holy Roman

Emperor FRANCIS I, she was one of the most effective rulers of the HABSBURG dynasty.

managedtomaintaintheunityoftheHabsburgmonarchyinCentralEurope,whilecarrying

outaprogramofreformthatmodernizedAustriaandhelpedittosurviveasanation.

William Pitt First Earl of Chatham. Known as Pitt the Elder. 17081778. British political

leader and orator who directed his countrys military effort during the Seven Years War(17561763).

WilliamPittII.SecondEarlofChatham.KnownasPitttheYounger.17591806.Britishprimeminister(17831801and18041806).HeaccomplishedtheActofUnionbetweenIrelandand

Britain(1800)butwasunsuccessfulinhiseffortstoachieveCatholicemancipation.

French&IndianWarsTheFrenchandIndianWarswereaseriesofarmedconflictsbetweenEnglands colonies in North America on the one side and rival European colonies on the

otherduringtheperiod16891763. EachconflictwaspartofalargerwarinEuropeandon

thehighseas.

BlackHoleofCalcuttan1756theBritishgarrison inCalcuttawascapturedbythenawab(ruler)ofBengalandimprisonedforthenightinasmallroomknownastheBlackHole.Most

oftheprisoners(123of146,accordingtotheoriginalBritishaccount;43outof64,byrecent

research)stifledtodeath.The incidentbecameacausecelebreinBritishimperialhistory,butthedetailsremainthesubjectofdebate.


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EastIndiaCompaniesTheBritishEastIndiaCompanywascharteredbyQueenElizabethIin1600fortradeintheEasternHemisphere.ItwasinitiallyformedtobreakintotheIndonesian

SPICETRADE,whichwasdominatedbytheDutch.AlthoughHenryIVofFrancegranteda

charter to an East India Company in 1604, that commercial enterprise faded from sight. In

1664,JeanBaptisteCOLBERT, the financeminister to LouisXIV,provided the stimulus for

thecreationofanewFrenchEastIndiaCompany,withamonopolyontradespanningfrom

the Cape of Good Hope east to the Strait of Magellan. The Dutch East India Company

establishedandmaintainedtheDutchcolonialempireinSoutheastAsiainthe17thand18th

centuries.

CardinalFleury (16531743), French prelate and statesman,born in Lodeve, France;becamecardinal1726;actedasprimeminister172643.

JacobitesAsupporterofJamesIIofEnglandoroftheStuartpretendersafter1688.

South Sea Bubble The South Sea Bubble is the name given to a speculativeboom inEngland that collapsed in 1720. The financial disaster was caused by the South Sea

Company,foundedfortradein1711.Stockinthecompanysoldwell,andby1718investors

were receiving 100 percent interest. In 1720 the company proposedand Parliament

acceptedthat it take over much of the national debt. This move created a wave of

speculationinthecompanysstock,whichrosefrom128.5poundsinJanuaryto1,000pounds

in August. In September thebubbleburst. Stocksplummeted,banks failed,and investors

wereruined. RobertWALPOLE,however,wasabletorestorethecompanyscreditandsave

theWhiggovernment.

Warof JenkinsEar Commercial rivalrybetween Britain and Spain produced the War ofJenkins Earnamed for the alleged mutilation of an English sea captainby theSpanishin

1739.

THESCIENTIFICVIEWOFTHEWORLD:

DeductivemethodthemethodofproofthatisusedinanysituationforwhichthereexistsasetofunderlyingassumptionsThesciencethatemergedfromthiswasqualitative,strongly

groundedincommonsense,anditsphysicswaspurgedofmathematics.

CogitoErgoSum Ithink,thereforeIam ReneDescartes

NovumOrganum(TheNewOrganon,1620),whichwastoreplaceAristotlesOrganon.

WilliamHarvey

1578

1657.

English

physician,

anatomist,

and

physiologist

who

discovered

the

circulationofbloodinthehumanbody(1628).

TychoBrahe15461601.DanishastronomerwhoseaccurateastronomicalobservationsformedthebasisforJohannesKeplerslawsofplanetarymotion.

SirIsaacNewtonEnglishmathematicianandscientistwhoinventeddifferentialcalculusandformulatedthetheoriesofuniversalgravitation,terrestrialmechanics,andcolor.Histreatise


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on gravitation, presented in PrincipiaMathematica (1687), was supposedly inspiredby thesightofafallingapple.

EdmundHalley 16561742. English astronomer who applied Newtons laws of motion topredictcorrectlytheperiodofacomet(1705).

InductiveMethodusesnumeroustrueexamplesinanattempttoderiveageneraltruth

TheNewAtlantis1627byFrancisBaconsutopianworksuggestedtheformationofscientificacademies.

Michel Eyquem deMontaigne.: 15331592. French essayist whose discursive, lively personalessaysareconsideredthehighestexpressionof16thcenturyFrenchprose.

AntonvanLeeuwenhoek.16321723.Dutchmicroscopypioneerandnaturalistwhoformulatedearlydescriptionsofbacteriaandspermatozoa.

JohnKepler15711630. Germanastronomer andmathematician.Considered the founderofmodern astronomy, he formulated three laws to clarify the theory that the planets revolve

aroundthesun.

HeliocentricTheorybyCopernicusmarkedthebeginningofthescientificrevolution,andofanew view of a greatly enlarged universe. It was a shift away from the comfortable

anthropocentrismoftheancientandmedievalworld.

Empiricism legitimate human knowledge arises from what is provided to the mindby thesensesorby introspectiveawareness throughexperience. Mostempiricistsdonotconsider

knowledge gained through the imagination, authority, tradition, or purely theoretical

reasoninglegitimate.

Vesalius15141564.Flemishanatomistandsurgeonwhoisconsideredthefounderofmodernanatomy. His major work, On the Structure of the Human Body (1543), was based onmeticulousdissectionofcadavers.

NicolausCopernicus14731543.Polishastronomerwhoadvancedthetheorythattheearthandotherplanetsrevolvearoundthesun,disruptingthePtolemaicsystemofastronomy.OntheRevolutionsoftheHeavenlyOrbs

GalileoGalilei 15641642. Italian astronomer and physicist. The first to use a telescope to

study the stars (1610), he was an outspoken advocate of Copernicuss theory that the sunforms the center of the universe, which led to his persecution and imprisonmentby the

Inquisition(1633)

Pierre Bayle 16471706. French philosopher and critic. Considered the progenitor of 18thcentury rationalism, he compiled the famous Dictionnaire Historique et Critique (1697) andchampionedthecauseofreligioustolerance.


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THEAGEOFENLIGHTENMENT:

John Locke 16321704. English philosopher. InAn Essay Concerning Human Understanding(1690) he set out the principles of empiricism, and his Two Treatises on Government (1690)influencedtheDeclarationofIndependence.

ThomasHobbes 15881679. English political philosopher who wrote Leviathan (1651), whichoutlinedhisphilosophythathumanbeingsarefundamentallyselfish.

Physiocrats were an 18thcentury group of French economists. Their leading member,FrancoisQuesnay(16941774),believedlandwasthesourceofallwealthandthatagriculture

aloneproducedaclearsurplusoverthecostsofproduction.AgainstMERCANTILISM.

Diderot 17131784. French philosopher and writer whose supreme accomplishment was hisworkontheEncyclopdie(17511772),whichepitomizedthespiritofEnlightenmentthought.

Healsowrotenovels,plays,criticalessays,andbrilliantletterstoawidecircleoffriendsand

colleagues.

The Spirit of Laws 189697 A book by Baron de MONTESQUIEU is a comparativeinvestigationoftherelationshipbetweenthelegalandpoliticalinstitutionsofagivensociety

and the physical and social environmental conditionsgeography, climate, demography,

economy,religion,moresinwhichtheyarerooted.

Joseph II (17411790) emperor Habsburg monarchy. Drivenby a passion for reason andorder,Josephwasintolerantofopposition. Hecreatedasecretpoliceandemployedmilitary

force to implement the thousands of laws and edicts that flooded out of the Vienna court.

Withhiscuriousblendofhumanitarianidealsandautocraticmethods,JosephIIexemplified

allofthecharacteristicsusuallyassociatedwith18thcenturyenlighteneddespotism.

EdmundBurke Irishborn British politician and writer. Famous for his oratory, he pleadedthe cause of the American colonists in Parliament and was instrumental in developing the

notionsofpartyresponsibilityanda loyaloppositionwithintheparliamentarysystem.His

majorwork,ReflectionsontheRevolutioninFrance(1790),voiceshisoppositiontotheexcessesoftheFrenchexperience.

MontesquieuBarondelaBredeetdeMontesquieu.TitleofCharlesdeSecondat.16891755.Frenchphilosopherandjurist.AnoutstandingfigureoftheearlyFrenchEnlightenment,he

wrote the influential ParisianLetters (1721),aveiledattackon themonarchyand theancienrgime,andTheSpiritoftheLaws(1748),adiscourseongovernment.

PugachevYemelianIvanovichPugachev,b.c.1742,d.Jan.22(N.S.),1775,wasaRussianDonCossackwholedthegreatpeasantrebellionof177374.

philosophes a group of French intellectuals whose ideas formed the core ofENLIGHTENMENT thought in France. The principal figures involved were

MONTESQUIEU, VOLTAIRE, Denis DIDEROT,JeanJacques ROUSSEAU, CONDILLAC,

ALEMBERT, Baron dHOLBACH, TURGOT, and CONDORCET. Although their relations


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werecharacterizedbyfrequentdebateanddisagreement,theysharedadevotiontoreason,

philosophical empiricism and scientific inquiry, and abelief in the possibility of human

progress.

Marquis de Condorcet Title of Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas Caritat. 17431794. French

mathematician

and

philosopher

known

for

his

work

on

the

mathematical

theory

of

probabilityand forhisphilosophicalstudySketchforaHistoricalPictureoftheProgressoftheHumanMind(1795).

Voltaireb. FrancoisMarieArouetdeVoltaire,inParis, 16941778,wasthemostinfluentialfigureoftheFrenchENLIGHTENMENT. Consideredbyhiscontemporariesasthegreatest

poet and dramatist of the century, he is nowbetter known for his essays and tales. His

precocious wit, his upbringing among a group of libertines, or freethinkers, and his

predilection for aristocratic circles were to mark his life, as his classical educationby the

Jesuitswastoformhistaste.

Forwritingsomesatiricalverses,hespentayearimprisonedintheBastille(171718),afterwhich

he adopted the name Voltaire. Subsequently he quarreled with a nobleman, was returned

briefly to the Bastille in April 1726, then went into exile in England for 3 years. There he

absorbed the lessonsofBritish liberties,deism,and literature. Still unwelcome inParis,he

livedatCirey inLorrainefrom1734to1744with the intellectualandamorousMadamedu

Chatelet, then at Versailles, Sceaux, and Luneville. After Madame du Chatelets death in

childbirth in 1749, Voltaire was the honored guest of Frederick the Great at Potsdam,but

increasing acrimony led to their abrupt separation in 1753. After 2 years of wandering,

Voltaire settled at Les Delices, a chateau on the edge of Lake Geneva (and now a Voltaire

museum).HetriumphalreturnedtoParisinFebruary1778.

THEFRENCHREVOLUTION:

NationalAssembly The StatesGeneral met in 1789 in Versaillesbut were paralyzedby therefusal of the Third Estate to meet separately as a distinct, inferiorbody. OnJune 17 the

CommonstookthecrucialrevolutionarystepofdeclaringtheirassemblytobetheNational

Assembly,therebydestroyingtheStatesGeneral.

Great Fear of 1789 The peasants pillaged and burned the chateaus of the aristocracydestroyingtherecordsoftheirmanorialdues.

The French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was adopted by theConstituent Assembly in August 1789. It was intended as a statement of the basic

philosophicalprinciples

that

inspired

the

FRENCH

REVOLUTION.

Among

the

important

principlesdeclaredbyits17articleswerefreedomandequality; popularsovereigntyandthe

generalwill;representativegovernment; punishmentonlyforlegallydefinedoffenses; free

communication of thought and opinion; taxation onlyby popular consent; separation of

powers; andtherighttoprivatepropertyandjustcompensation.

GirondinsDuringtheFrenchRevolution,theywerethedeputieswhowenttotheLegislativeAssemblyandtheNationalConvention.LessradicalthantheJacobins.


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NationalConventionNationalConventionhorrifiedEuropebyestablishingarepublic(Sept.22,1792),inauguratingapolicyofrevolutionarywar,andsendingthekingtotheguillotine

onJan. 21,1793.

Committeeof PublicSafteyIn1793thekingandqueenwerebeheaded. ACommitteeof

Public

Safety,

led

by

the

Jacobin

Maximilien

ROBESPIERRE,

suspended

the

constitution

and

assumed dictatorial powers. In the spring of 1793, as the military and economic situation

deterioratedandasavageroyalistrisingbegan.EmergencybodiessuchastheCommitteeof

PublicSafetyandtheRevolutionaryTribunalwerethenestablished.

TennisCourtOathTheOathoftheNationalAssemblytocontinuetosituntiltheyhavegivenFranceaconstitution.

MarchonVersaillesOnOctober5,1789,amarchonVersaillesforcedKingLouisXVI(175493)tocapitulateandacceptanewlegalstructurethatwouldabolishprivilegeanddeprivehim

ofanymeaningfullegislativepower.

migrsOnewhohasleftanativecountry,especiallyforpoliticalreasons.

ReignofTerrorTheMontagnardConvention thenhadtocontendwith invasion,royalistcivil war, and widespread provincial revolts against the dictatorship of Paris. Initially,

Georges DANTON tried to placate the provinces, and the democratic Constitution of 1793

was approvedby plebiscite and celebrated at a Festival of Unity (August 10). AfterJuly,

however,MaximilienROBESPIERREs influenceprevailed,andarmiesweresent tosubdue

rebellious cities. When the city of Toulon voluntarily surrendered to the British, a

demonstration in Paris compelled the National Convention to establish (September 5) the

repressiveregimeknownastheTerror.

ThermidorianReactionTheReignofTerror(179394),aperiodofbrutaldictatorshipunderthe leadership of Maximilian ROBESPIERRE, was endedby the Thermidorian Reaction of

July 1794. Thereafter, France was ruled by a DIRECTORY until the victorious general

NapoleonBonaparteestablishedtheCosultein1799.

Louis XVIII (1755 1824),became king of France in 1814, when the Bourbon monarchy wasrestoredfollowingtheRevolutionaryandNapoleonicperiod.

CaptureoftheBastilleJuly14,1789,theFrenchRevolutionhadbegun.Thepeoplehatedthispoliticalprisonasasymbolofroyaldespotism.Italsocontainedsuppliesofgunpowderthat

theywanted.

JacobinAradicalrepublicanduringtheFrenchRevolution.

SeptemberMassacre CommuneofParis (1792), revolutionary city government of Paris,responsible for Septembermassacres inwhichsome1,200royalists,priests,aristocrats,and

criminalsdied.

SansculottesAnextremeradicalrepublicanduringtheFrenchRevolution.


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Robespierre17581794.Frenchrevolutionary.LeaderoftheJacobinsandarchitectoftheReignof Terror, he was known as an austere and incorruptible man. His laws permitting the

confiscationofpropertyandarrestofsuspectedtraitors,manyofwhomwereguillotined,led

tohisownarrestandexecutionwithouttrial.

Constitution

of

1793

Georges

DANTON

tried

to

placate

the

provinces,

and

the

democratic

Constitutionof1793wasapprovedbyplebisciteandcelebratedataFestivalofUnity(August

10).

JacquesNecker 17321804. French financier and politician who advocated the formation of theStatesGeneraltoeffectfinancialreform.HisbriefdismissalbyLouisXVI(1789)precipitated

thestormingoftheBastille.

Fouche Joseph Fouche was aJacobin leader during the French Revolution and minister ofpolice under Napoleon I. A spokesman for the radical Jacobins, Fouche served as a

convention representative in the Vendeebut isbetter known for his ruthless suppression

(1793)ofcounterrevolutionariesinLyon.

BankofFranceNapoleoncreated(1802)theorderoftheLegionofHonortorewardcivilandmilitarymerit. Bonapartealso consolidated thenationaldebt,restored the valueofFrench

bonds,balanced thebudget, established the Bank of France, and centralized equitable tax

collection.

TalleyrandCharlesMauricedeTalleyrandPerigord,b.Feb.2,1754,d.May17,1838,aFrenchbishop, political leader, and diplomat, served in the top levels of most of the regimes that

governed Francebetween 1789 and 1848. Talleyrand and one otherbishop, in defiance of

papal orders, consecrated the first new bishops of the constitutional church, thereby

preservingtheapostolicsuccession.

NAPOLEONICEUROPE:

NapoleonicCodes:,wasthefirstsuccessfulattemptinmoderntimestoproduceauniformnationalcodeoflawarrangedinlogicalorderandexpressedinclear,preciseterminology.

Retreat fromMoscow There he waited in vain for Emperor ALEXANDER I to surrender,while Russian arsonists set the city on fire. With reinforced Russian armies attacking his

outlying positions and signs of winters approach, Napoleon ordered a retreat in October.

Despite the deprivations sufferedby his troops, the miserable weather, and the pursuing

Russian army, Napoleon held the nucleus of his army together and managed to escape

Russianencirclement.

LouisXVIII 17551824. King of France (18141824). His reign was interruptedby Napoleon(1815),buthereturnedtopowerafterNapoleonsdefeatatWaterloointhesameyear.

BattlerofWaterlooTheBattleofWaterloo, fought19km (12mi) fromBrusselsonJune18,1815,markedtheendoftheNAPOLEONICWARS(180315).


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Confederationof theRhine in 1806, Napoleon organized the Confederation of the Rhine, agroupingofGermanstatesunderFrenchprotection.

Metternich Prince Metternich was the foreign minister (180948) and chancellor (182148)who guided the Austrian Empire to eventual victory in the NAPOLEONIC WARS and

established

Austria

s

central

position

in

the

19th

century

balance

of

power

in

Europe.

Deservedly or not, Metternichbecame a symbol of repression and a leading target of the

REVOLUTIONSOF1848,whichdrovehimfromoffice.

HundredDays period of one hundred days which Napoleon returned to Paris. He wasgreetedbytheFrenchasahero.ItfrightenthecongressofVienna.

Nelson Viscount Nelson. 17581805. British admiral who defeated the French fleet in theBattle of the Nile (1798), thus ending Napoleons attempt to conquer Egypt, and destroyed

FrenchandSpanishnavalforcesatTrafalgar(1805),wherehewasmortallywounded.

Alexander I 17771825. Czar of Russia (18011825) whose plans to liberalize his countrysgovernmentwereforestalledbywarswithNapoleonI.

endoffirstsemester______________________________________________________________

SecondSemesterAPModernEuropeanHistoryFinalReview

the19thand20thcenturies

WarsandRevolutions

1848 UprisingsthroughoutEurope

1848 CommunistManifesto

18541856 CrimeanWar

18591870 unificationofItaly

18661871 unificationofGermany

19141918 WorldWarI

1917 BolshevikRevolution

19361939 SpanishCivilWar

19391945 WorldWarII

Datesto

Remember

1903 deathofQueenVictoria

1905 BloodySundayinRussia

1914 assassinationofArchdukeFerdinand

1918 endofWorldWarI

19391945 WorldWarII

1962 VaticanCouncilII


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1989 BerlinWallfalls

1991 collapseoftheUSSR

RELATIONVERSUSPROGRESS18151848:

Kingdom

of

Italy

in

1861

the

Kingdom

of

Italy

was

proclaimed.

Only

Venetia

and

Rome

werenotincludedinthenewstate.Italiansatlasthadtheirowncountry.

JamesWatt17361819.Britishengineerandinventorwhomadefundamentalimprovementsinthesteamengine,resultinginthemodern,highpressuresteamengine(patented1769).

RicardosIronLawof Wagesstatesthatallattemptsbyworkerstoraisetheirincomearefutile: wages will always stay at the subsistence level. This happens, he thought,because

wagesalwaysrisetocoverthecostofnecessitiesbutgonohigher.

Jeremy Bentham 17481832. British writer, reformer, and philosopher who systematicallyanalyzedlawandlegislation,therebylayingthefoundationsofutilitarianism.

CharlesFourier17721837.Frenchsocialtheoristwhobelievedthatuniversalharmonycouldbeachievedbyreorganizingsociety intoselfsustainingunitscalledphalanxes,groupsof

1,500peoplewhowouldsharelabor,wealth,andhousing.

Leopold Von Ranke 17951886. German historian who pioneered the modern methods ofrigorously analyzing firsthand documentation. Hiswritten works include TheHistoryof thePopes(18341836).

SlavophilismApersonadvocatingthesupremacyofSlavicculture,especiallyoverwesternEuropeaninfluences,asin19thcenturyRussia.

* White Terror During the ensuing period (179495) of the Thermidorian Reaction,governmentwassoweakenedthatanarchyandrunawayinflationalmostoverwhelmedthe

republic. Inthesoutheasttheroyalistsconducteda whiteterror,

Corn Laws In British history, the Corn Laws were regulations restricting the import andexportofgrain,especiallywheat. Thegeneralpurposeofsuch laws,whichdatedfromthe

12thcentury,wastoensureastablesupplyofdomesticgrainand,later,toprotecttheBritish

producerswho,aslargelandowners,dominatedParliament.

CatoStreetConspiracyPlotedtoblowuppriminsterofentirecabnitofEngland.

JulyOrdinancesInJuly1830aninsurrectioninFranceforcedtheabdicationofCHARLESXand brought LOUIS PHILIPPE to the throne. The culmination of liberal middleclass

opposition to the reactionary Charles, the revolution was precipitatedby Charless issue of

therepressiveJulyOrdinances.OneoftheleadingliberalactivistswasAdolpheTHIERS.

ToryReforms of the 1820s Trade unions were partially legalized in 1825. Catholics wereadmitted toParliament afterastruggleofmanyyearsby the CatholicEmancipationActof


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1829. Harsh criminal laws were reformed, reducing capital offenses to about a dozen. (In

1800,200offenseshadbeenpunishablebydeath.)In1829RobertPeelsetup,forthefirsttime

inhistory,acivilianpoliceforce.

MinesActof1842Forbidfamilysworkundergroundandnochildrenunder10can.

Lord Palmerston 17841865. British politician remembered for his efforts to maintain thebalanceofpowerinEurope.Heservedasforeignsecretary(18301834,18351841,and1846

1851)andprimeminister(18551858and18591865).

ClassicalLiberalismIntheeconomicsphere,classical liberalismwasopposedtodirectionbythestate,arguingwithAdamSMITHandDavidRICARDOthattheforcesofthemarketplace

werethebestguidefortheeconomy

Radicalism Radicalism is a political stance advocating fundamental changes in the existingpolitical, economic, and social order. The radical posture tends tobe rooted in what are

perceivedtobefundamentalvalues,anditsdrivingpurposeistoforce,bywhatevermeans

necessary,thestatusquotoconformtothoseprinciples.

NicholasI 17961855. Czar of Russia (18251855) who suppressed the Decembrist movementandledRussiaintotheCrimeanWar(18531856).

JohnKayTheEnglishengineerJohnKay,b.1704,d.1764, invented theflyingshuttle,whichpavedthewayforpowerloomweaving.

SpinningJennyAnearlyformofspinningmachinehavingseveralspindles.

AdamSmith Often called the founder of modern economics, Scotland, (7231790) was awideranging social philosopher and economist whose masterwork, An Inquiry into theNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNations(1776),isoneofthemostinfluentialstudiesof

Westerncivilization.

Smiths major thesis in the WEALTH OF NATIONS was that, except for limited functions

(defense,justice, certain public works), the state should refrain from interfering with the

economiclifeofanation(seeLAISSEZFAIRE).

This position is supported in the Wealth of Nationsby an elaborate analysis of how economic

systems function and develop over time. Smith sought to show how competition in the

marketplacewouldleadbusinessmentosupplythegoodsconsumerswant,toproducethese

goods efficiently, and to charge only what they are worth. He saw monopoly, whetherprivateorstateimposed,astheeviltobecombated,andcompetitionaspromotingthebest

interestsofsociety. He further argued that economic growth,whichdepends uponcapital

accumulationandan increaseddivisionof labor,wouldbepromotedbestbyprivaterather

thanpublicefforts.


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LaissezFaireAneconomicdoctrinethatopposesgovernmentalregulationoforinterferencein commerce beyond the minimum necessary for a freeenterprise system to operate

accordingtoitsowneconomiclaws.

RobertOwen17711858.WelshbornBritishmanufacturerandsocialreformerwhoattempted

to

establish

a

cooperative

community

at

New

Harmony

in

Indiana

(1825

1828).

LouisBlanc18111882.Frenchpoliticaltheoristwhosewritings,mostnotablyOrganizationofWork(1839),areamongthemostinfluentialearlysocialisttreatises.

GrimmsFairyTalesGrimmsFairyTales (German,Kinder undHausmarchen,181215) isacollectionofGermanfolktalesgatheredbyJacobandWilhelmGRIMM.

FriedrichListFriedrichListandfreetradeeconomistshadadvocatedtheeliminationoftariffs,and in 1818 the Prussian customs union abolished all internal duties. In 1828, Prussia

extendedtheuniontothefirstofseveralneighboringstates.

PeterlooMassacrethePeterlooMassacre(1819)ofworkersinManchester.

YpsilantisGreekProjectFatherofGreekindependance.

CatholicEmancipationActin1829thegovernmentofthedukeofWELLINGTONpassedtheCatholicEmancipationActsponsoredbySirRobertPEEL.Thereafter,onlythecrown,certain

judicialoffices,andplacesintheestablishedchurchremainedbarredtoCatholics.

TenHoursActof1847limitedto10hourworkingdaysinfactories(1847).

RichardArkwright17321792.Britishinventorandmanufacturerwhopatentedamachineforspinning cotton thread (1769)andestablishedcotton mills thatwere among the first touse

machineryonalargescale.

PowerloomIn1785EdmundCartwrightpatentedapowerloom.Inspiteoftheneedfor it,weaving machinery came into use very slowly. the hand weavers violently opposed its

adoptionbecause it threw many of them out of work. Those who gotjobs in the factories

were obliged to take the same pay as unskilled workers. Thus they rioted, smashed the

machines,andtriedtopreventtheiruse.

Malthus17661834.BritisheconomistwhowroteAnEssayonthePrincipleofPopulation(1798),arguingthatpopulationtendstoincreasefasterthanfoodsupply,withinevitablydisastrous

results, unless the increase in population is checkedby moral restraints orby war, famine,anddisease

Free trade Free trade refers to commerce that is relatively unrestricted and unaidedbygovernmentregulations,suchasTARIFFS,quotas,andsubsidies.Theconceptof free trade

was first delineated in reaction against MERCANTILISMby the French PHYSIOCRATS of

the early 18th century and the classical economists, especially Adam SMITH and David

RICARDO,inreactiontoMERCANTILISMandimperialexpansion.


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Count de SaintSimon (17601825), French socialist, born in Paris. in favor of a socialorganizationdirectedbymenofscienceandindustryforthebenefitofthewholesociety.

Carbonari Italian, were a secret society founded in southern Italy early in the 19th century.Bound togetherby rituals possibly derived from Freemasonry, they were liberal patriots

dedicated

to

the

overthrow

in

Italy

of

the

Bonapartist

rulers

and

then

of

the

reactionary

regimes established after Napoleon Is overthrow in 1814. They took part in a number of

uprisings,notablyagainstFERDINANDIinNaplesin1820.TheCarbonariweresuperseded

byGiuseppeMAZZINIsYoungItalymovement,foundedin1831.

HegelianDialectic one concept, the thesis, is followedby its opposite, the antithesis; theensuingconflictbetweenthe two isbrought togetheratahigher levelasanewconcept,or

synthesis,whichbecomesthethesisofyetanothertriad.

Charles X 17571836. King of France (18241830) who attempted to restore absolutismbydissolvingtheChamberofDeputiesandterminatingfreedomofthepress.Heabdicatedasa

resultoftheJulyRevolutionof1830andlaterfledtoEngland.

Carlsbad Decrees The Carlsbad Decrees (1819), discouraging liberal teachings in Germanuniversities

SixActs Series of repressive legislation, introduce censorship and others. By parliament ofEngland.

DecembristRevoltTheDecembristsweremembersofRussiasfirstrevolutionarymovement,whichattemptedandfailedtooverthrowthegovernmentofNICHOLASIinDecember1825.

Chiefly young army officers, the revolutionaries were divided in their objectives; they

favored varying degrees of representative government, and some wanted abolition of

serfdom.

FactoryActof1833TheFactoryActof1833eliminatedsomeoftheworstabuses.

AntiCornLawLeagueThisresultedinhighbreadpricesatatimeofconsiderableeconomicand social disruption following the Napoleonic Wars. It was not, however, until the

formation(1839)oftheAntiCornLawLeaguebyJohnBRIGHTandRichardCOBDENthat

effectiveoppositionwasmounted. In1846theCornLawswererepealedbythegovernment

ofSirRobertPEEL.

Manchester School the freetrade economists of the period, including John Bright and

RichardCobden,

were

called

the

Manchester

school.

The

influential

liberal

newspaper

the

Guardian(originallytheManchesterGuardian)wasfoundedin1821.

socialism asystemofsocialorstatecontroloverproductionanddistribution.

Chartists Chartism was a premature political reform movementby hungry British workersafflicted by the stresses of the Industrial Revolution. Active in the 1830s and 1840s, it

attempted to secure a democratic constitution and thereby a more egalitarian society. The


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movement was inauguratedby the London Working Mens Association, which drew up

(1838)asixpointPeoplesChartercalling foruniversal malesuffrage,abolitionofproperty

qualifications for members of Parliament, payment of members of Parliament, and other

reforms.

REVOLUTION

AND

THE

REIMPOSITION

OF

ORDER

1848

1870:

LouisPhilipeKnownastheCitizenKing.17731850.KingofFrance(18301848).HeruledaftertheoverthrowoftheBourbons intheJulyRevolution(1830)andabdicatedduringthe

Revolutionof1848.

SecondFrenchRepublic In France the monarchy was overthrown and the Second Republicproclaimed.therepublicwassoonreplacedbyEmperorNapoleonIII.

FrederickWilliamIV17951861.KingofPrussia(18401861)whocrushedtheRevolutionof1848andrefusedthecrownofaunitedGermanyofferedtohimbytheFrankfurtParliament

(1849).

CommunistManifesto T(1848), a political pamphlet writtenby Karl MARX in associationwith FriedrichENGELS, is one of the most famousdocuments in thehistory ofMARXISM

and COMMUNISM. Intended as a platform statement for a small international workers

party,theCommunistLeague,andpublishedduringtheREVOLUTIONSOF1848,

SaintSimoniansHiswritingspresentargumentsinfavorofasocialorganizationdirectedbymenofscienceandindustryforthebenefitofthewholesociety.ThestudentsofSaintSimon

organizedandpopularizedhisideasafterhisdeath,andhisprinciplesbecameknownasthe

philosophy of SaintSimonianism. His major work is Le Nouveau Christianisme (The New

Christianity,1825).

FrankfurtAssembly 18481849 Liberal group runby lawyers and university professors.OfferedthecrownofGermanytoKaiserHesaidIwillnotpickupacrownfromthegutter.

tryingtouniteGermany.FailedProblemswerethewaytheyelected.Mostthatwereelected

was not reactionary. Most troublesome was the territory of Germany. Created dispute

betweenGreatandLittleGermans.

ZollvervainBismarckmadeacustomunion.

utopian socialism During the 19th century numerous attempts were made actually toestablish utopian communities. Most were experiments in utopian socialism, such as those

advocatedby

the

comte

de

SAINT

SIMON,

Charles

FOURIER,

and

Etienne

CABET

in

France,RobertOWENinEnglandandtheUnitedStates,andhissonRobertDaleOWENin

theUnitedStates.

SuezCanalTheSuezCanal,locatedatthecrossroadsofAsia,Europe,andAfrica,isoneoftheworldsmostimportantwaterways. Openedin1869,thesealevelartificialwaterwaycrosses

thenarrowIsthmusofSuezjoiningAfricaandAsiaandpermitsoceangoingvesselstotravel


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betweentheeasternendoftheMediterraneanSeaandtheIndianOceanviatheGulfofSuez

andRedSea.

LiberalEmpireInthe1850sNapoleonIIIgovernedasanauthoritarianruler.Beginningin1860,however, he gradually transferred power to the legislature, and by 1870 France was

essentially

a

parliamentary

monarchy,

the

so

called

Liberal

Empire.

Lamartine17901869.Frenchromanticpoetwhoservedbrieflyasministerofforeignaffairs(1848)

NationalWorkshops The first outbreak occurred on February 22 in Paris, driving LOUISPHILIPPE from his throne and bringing in a provisional government dedicated to a

democraticfranchiseand nationalworkshops toreduceunemployment. Theelectionofa

French national assembly, however,brought to Paris provincial deputies who opposed the

workshops.

THECONSOLIDATIONOFLARGENATIONSTATES18591871:

Risorgimento The period of or the movement for the liberation and political unification ofItaly,beginningabout1750andlastinguntil1870.

SevenWeeksWar also called the AustroPrussian War, military conflict (1866)betweenAustria and Prussia that left Prussia the dominant power in Germany. The war was

provokedbythePrussianforeignministerOttovonBismarck.ThePrussianssoongainedthe

advantage.

siegeofParisInthefivemonthlongsiegeofParisduringtheFrancoPrussianWar(187071),balloons were the onlymeans of communication and transportationbetweenParis and the

restofFrance.

Dual Monarchy AustriaHungary was the name of the HABSBURG empire from itsreorganization into the Dual Monarchy in 1867 to itsbreakup in 1918. (See AUSTRIA.) Its

predecessorwas known as the AustrianEmpire, founded in1804during thedissolution of

theHOLYROMANEMPIRE inordertocreateasinglecentralizedstatefromthedynastys

diverseprovinces. After1815themajorpartsofAustriaHungaryweretheAustriancrown

landsofpredominantlyGermanpopulation;

AlexanderII18181881.CzarofRussia(18551881)whoemancipatedtheserfsin1861.

Zemstvos Three other major reforms followed emancipation in Russia. The first was theintroduction (1864) of elected institutions of local government, zemstvos, which were

responsibleformattersofeducation,health,andwelfare; however,thezemstvoshadlimited

powersoftaxation,andtheyweresubjectedtoclosebureaucraticcontrols.

VictorEmmanuel18201878.Italianking(18611878).HecompletedtheunificationofItalybyacquiringVenice(1866)andRome(1870).


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GaribaldisThousand The second step toward a united Italy came the next year when thefamous soldier of fortune Giuseppe Garibaldi and his thousand redshirted volunteers

stormedtheislandofSicilyandthentherestoftheKingdomofNaplesonthemainland.The

peopleeverywherehailedhimasaliberator,andthehatedBourbonkingwasdrivenout

Italia

irredenta

The

continuing

agitation

for

Italia

irredenta

(

unredeemed

Italy

)

was

a

stronginfluenceonItalianforeignpolicyinthelate19thandearly20thcenturiesespecially

from1900to1914.AlthoughItalywaspartoftheTripleAlliancewithGermanyandAustria

Hungary,iteventuallyenteredWorldWarIonthesideoftheEntentepowers.Consequently,

ItalyrealizedmostofitsirredentistgoalsattheParisPeaceConferencein1919.

SchleswigHolstein Provinces in northern Europe which started the German wars inunification

EmsdispatchAtelegramsentbyKingofPrussiatoBismarkfromconversationwithFranceambasidor,rewritenbyBismark,triedtooffendtheFrench.Itworkedandcausedwar.

Treatyof Frankfurt In 1871 the peace treaty ending the FrancoPrussian War was signedthereandcametobeknownastheTreatyofFrankfurt.

*nihilistsNihilism,aformofphilosophicalrealismpopular inRussiaduringthe1860sand70s,reflectedascientificandmaterialistviewofhumankindandofitsplaceinthephysical

world. IvanTURGENEV,inhisnovelFathersandSons,wasthefirsttoapplythetermtothe

young radicals of the era; he used it to describe the character Bazarov, who negated

everythingthatcouldnotbeprovedscientifically.

Alexander III Alexander III,b. Feb. 26, 1845, d. Oct. 20, 1894, emperor of Russia, was anardentadherentofunfetteredautocracy.ComingtothethroneonMar.1,1881,followingthe

assassination of his father, ALEXANDER II, hebegan his reignby repudiating the limitedconstitution his father had signed on the day of his death andby dismissing the more

progressiveministerswhohadservedhisfather.

Commodore Perry Promoted (1841) to commodore, Perry commanded (184344) the U.S.Africansquadron,animplementationoftheWebsterAshburtonTreatydesignedtosuppress

theslavetrade.

CamillodiCavourstatesmanoftheItalianRISORGIMENTOwhowaslargelyresponsiblefor unifying Italy under the House of Savoy. In 1852 the new king of SardiniaPiedmont,

VICTOREMMANUELII,namedhimpremier.

AlthoughCavoursrelationshipwithGiuseppeGARIBALDIduringthelattersinvasionofSicily

in1860isunclear,heundoubtedlyseizedthisopportunitytoweldItalyintoonekingdom.

NapoleonIIINapoleonIIIwasemperoroftheFrenchfrom1852to1870,whenhe losthisthrone in the FRANCOPRUSSIAN WAR. The period of his reign is called the Second

Empire.


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OnthedeathofNapoleonIsonlysonin1832,LouisNapoleonassertedhisclaimtotheimperial

heritage. AftertheoverthrowofKingLOUISPHILIPPEintheFebruaryRevolutionof1848,

Louis Napoleon won election to the National Constituent Assembly; in September he

returnedtoParisandtookhisseat. Hesoonannouncedhiscandidacyforthepresidencyof

theSecondRepublicandinDecemberwaselectedbyanoverwhelmingmajority.

AyearlaterheestablishedtheSecondEmpireandtookthetitleNapoleonIII. Maintainingthat

thegovernmentshouldinterveneactivelyintheeconomytopromoteeconomicgrowthand

thepublicwelfare,heundertookvastprogramsofpublicworks,sawtothecompletionofthe

national railway network, encouraged formation of modern credit institutions, and

negotiated a series of commercial treaties that opened French industry to salutary

competition.

InthemeantimeNapoleonfailedtopreventanominousincreaseinthepowerofPrussia,which

defeatedAustriaintheSEVENWEEKS WARof1866. In1870,Napoleonsoughttoreassert

French influenceby challenging the candidacy of a Hohenzollern prince for the Spanish

throne. He played into the hands of the Prussian chancellor Otto von BISMARCK, who

provokedaFrenchdeclarationofwar. DefeatedbythePrussians,Napoleonsurrenderedon

Two days later republicans in Paris proclaimed the Third Republic, and Napoleons reign

ended.

CrimeanWarTheCrimeanWarof185356wasoneofthelongseriesofRUSSOTURKISHWARS, but it differed from the others as a result of British and French involvement.

DiplomaticconcernsassociatedwiththelongstandingEASTERNQUESTIONlaybehindthe

conflict. TsaristRussiacontinuedtoseekexpansionofinfluenceintheBalkansattheexpense

oftheOTTOMANEMPIRE.Britain,inturn,deemedthepreservationoftheOttomanEmpire

vitalforBritishimperialinterestsintheeasternMediterraneanandAsia. Theworstprospect

for British strategic and economic interests was Russian control of Constantinople and the

Straits. France,underNAPOLEONIII,emergedastheardentsupporterofRomanCatholicinterestsintheHolyPlacesofTurkishcontrolledPalestine. TsaristRussia,thepatronofthe

Eastern Orthodox population in the Ottoman Empire, viewed French demands in

Constantinople for greater concessionsspecifically access to certain Christian shrinesas

lossesfortheOrthodox.

GermanConfederationof1815BytheTreatyofPrague(August23),PrussiaannexedseveralnorthGermanstatesandreplacedtheGermanConfederationof1815,dominatedbyAustria,

with thePrussiancontrolled NorthGermanConfederation,whichexcludedAustria.By the

PeaceofVienna(October3),AustriacededVenetiatoItaly.

Danish

War

1864,

Bismark

and

Austria

defeated

Danmark.

BattleofSedan Defeatedby the Prussians in the Battle of Sedan, Napoleon surrendered onSept. 2, 1870. Two days later republicans in Paris proclaimed the Third Republic, and

Napoleonsreignended.


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FrancisJoseph 18301916.Emperor ofAustria (18481916) and kingofHungary (18671916)who divided (1867) his empire into a dual monarchy, AustriaHungary. His ultimatum to

Serbiaafterthe1914assassinationofhisnephewFrancisFerdinandledtoWorldWarI.

mir Aleksandr BENOISand Serge DIAGHILEV familiarized the Russian public with leading

trends

abroad

through

their

magazine

Mir

Iskusstva

(World

of

Art,

1898

1904)

and

their

art

exhibitions. They also showed Russian art (1906) in Paris and staged seasons of Russian

ballet (beginning 1909) with exotic costume designsby Leon BAKST and other Russian

painters.

GiuseppeGaribaldi Giuseppe Garibaldi,b. Nice,July 4, 1807, was Italys mostbrilliantsoldieroftheRISORGIMENTOandoneof thegreatestguerrillafightersofalltime. While

serving (183334) in the navy of the Kingdom of SardiniaPiedmont, he came under the

influence of Giuseppe MAZZINI, the prophet of Italian nationalism. He took part in an

abortiverepublicanuprisinginPiedmontin1834.

Undera death sentence, hemanaged to escape toSouth America, where he lived from1836 to

1848. There he took part in struggles in Brazil and helped Uruguay in its war against

Argentina, commanding its small navy and, later, an Italian legion at Montevideo. The

handsomewarriorachievedinternationalfamethroughthepublicityoftheelderAlexandre

Dumas.

Wearinghiscolorfulgauchocostume,GaribaldireturnedtoItalyinApril1848tofightinitswar

of independence. HisexploitsagainsttheAustriansinMilanandagainsttheFrenchforces

supporting Rome and the Papal States made him a national hero. Overpowered at last in

Rome,GaribaldiandhismenhadtoretreatthroughcentralItalyin1849. Anita,hiswifeand

companioninarms,diedduringthisretreat.

Disbanding his men, Garibaldi again escaped abroad, where he lived successively in NorthAfrica,theUnitedStates,andPeru. The herooftwoworlds couldnotreturntoItalyuntil

1854. In1859hehelpedPiedmontinanewwaragainstAustria,leadingavolunteerAlpine

forcethatcapturedVareseandComo.

In May 1860, Garibaldi set out on the greatest venture of his life, the conquest of Sicily and

Naples. This time he had no governmental support, but Premier CAVOUR and King

VICTOR EMMANUEL II dared not stop the popular hero. They stood ready to help,but

only if he proved successful. Sailing from near Genoa on May 6 with 1,000 Redshirts,

GaribaldireachedMarsala,Sicily,onMay11andproclaimedhimselfdictatorinthenameof

Victor Emmanuel. At the Battle of Calatafimi (May 30) his guerrilla force defeated the

regulararmy

of

the

king

of

Naples.

A

popular

uprising

helped

him

capture

Palermo

a

brilliant success that convinced Cavour that Garibaldis volunteer army should now be

secretlysupportedbyPiedmont.

Garibaldi crossed theStrait ofMessinaon August1819and inawhirlwindcampaign reached

NaplesonSeptember7. OnOctober35hefoughtanotherbattleontheVolturnoRiver,the

biggestofhiscareer. Afterplebiscites,hehandedSicilyandNaplesovertoVictorEmmanuel

whenthetwometneartheVolturnoonOctober26. Angeredatnotbeingnamedviceroyin


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Naples, however, Garibaldi retired to his home on Caprera, off Sardinia. Nevertheless, he

continued to plot to capture the Papal States. In 1862 the Italian government, fearing

internationalcomplications,hadtointercepthimatAspromonte,wherehewaswoundedin

theheel. WhenheledanotherprivateexpeditiontowardRomein1867,Frenchtroopshalted

him at Mentana. Subsequently, during the FrancoPrussi

people by period

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