CHAPTER ONE

OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH

1.1 Introduction

From the beginning of time, man has been inseparable from water to date. It has been

a major determinant of habitability of places, which accounts for the situation of most

ancient towns developing along river bodies. London along the Thames is topmost in

this league of water-related settlements. However, this coexistence between man and

water bodies has had a chequered history; facilitating agricultural development like

the situation in the Nile Valley in Africa, along the course of the Ganges in Asia and

sometimes causing devastation to human population and property.

Human activities in space have consequences on the environment of which they are

an integral part. Sometimes human habitation of the environment serves to improve

the environment, like the introduction of energy-efficient machines and sustainable

agricultural practices. However, in some instances, the interaction has spelt doom for

the environment by plundering and depleting natural resources.

Since humans desire comfort, and inherently have free will, they tend to live close to

their most needed commodities like water and food, accounting for early civilisations

rising in geographical areas which have abundant water and fertile soils. In some

instances large groups of people have moved from their original locations to other

places like confluences and river banks for both protection and water supply.

1.2 Problem Statement

Although many African states have implemented programmes aimed at controlling

floods and other natural hazards, the problem of flooding has persisted and seems to

be increasing in frequency. Severe flooding ravaged Mozambique in 2000, displacing

thousands of people and wiping out crops and livestock (Newitt, 2007).

The Accra Metropolitan Area perennially suffers from flooding with any sustained

downpour, although a greater percentage of the city is above sea level (50 to 100

metres) and has some form of organised drainage (AMA, 2002). The immediate areas

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of concern had been to dredge the major rivers and streams to increase their capacity

as part of the Urban Environmental Sanitation Projects. Component One of the

Second Urban Environmental Sanitation Project (UESPII) covered storm drainage at a

cost of US$16.5m. The main target group of this component was the urban population

in five towns (Accra, Kumasi, Sekondi-Takoradi and Tema) living and/or working in

low-lying areas, which are subject to flooding.

In July 2001, the French government donated US$5 million to help the Ghanaian

government de-silt, construct and restructure primary drains to solve the perennial

problem of flooding in the country's capital. It was, however, limited to only parts of

the Metropolis.

There have been various speculations on the factors causing the floods from both

ordinary residents and technocrats. In the aftermath of the June 2007 floods in the

Accra Metropolis, Ing. Dr. Hagan the then President of the Ghana Institution of

Engineers noted that the floods could not be attributed to natural causes but attributed

them to human activities. He pointed out the development of physical structures

within waterways, deposition of solid and plastic waste in drains and inappropriate

drainage structure as some of the causes of floods. A similar opinion was expressed

by the then Minister of Works, Housing and Water Resources, who attributed the

early June 2007 floods to improper disposal of solid waste.(Daily Guide, June 8,

2007).

Some people also attribute the situation to lack of co-ordination among agencies

involved in the planning, design and implementation of drainage schemes and rapid

changes in the land use pattern, resulting in higher volumes of run-offs.

Further, in the incidence of flooding, industries and commercial entities are affected

including some water treatment plants which have to shut down if their water intake

points are submerged to protect machinery. Proactively, the spillways have to be

opened to allow water to run downstream to prevent the collapse of the dams.

However, the action also results in flooding as experienced in and around Weija in the

Ga West District in July 2007.

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There appears to be a great public concern about the frequent flooding in Accra and

its social and economic consequences. The public institutions also appear to be

overwhelmed by the causes and effects of the floods. To be able to resolve the issue,

there is the urgent need for research to throw more light on the decision environment.

Some of the questions that need to be answered are:

a. What are the major causes of flooding in the metropolis?

b. Can the floods be attributed to human activities?

c. Why are the floods persisting?

d. Are there any situations which predispose the metropolis to flooding?

1.3 Objectives

Generally, the study seeks to examine the relationship between human activities and

the incidence of flooding in the metropolis. Specifically the study is to:

Identify the factors responsible for flooding in the Accra Metropolis.

Identify the land uses and activities in the flood endemic areas.

Determine whether the floods can be attributed to the prevailing land uses and

activities.

Make recommendations for managing land use and human activities to reduce

the incidence of flooding and its negative effects in the metropolis.

1.4 Research Methodology

The success of any research is based on its design and control to keep the process in

perspective and focussed on the objectives of the research. Therefore, the research has

been structured as outlined below.

1.4.1 Research Design

The research adopted the cross-sectional design and followed the logical sequence of

data collection, analysis and inferences, deductions and recommendations. Review of

relevant literature formed the initial stage in the research process. This involved a

desk study of literature concerning flooding and land use planning and management

issues in the Accra Metropolis and other relevant subjects, trying to draw out

information from previous research in the area of study. The next step involved an

analysis of the organisation of land uses and activities in the communities to see how 3

it predisposed them to flooding. Further, institutional arrangements and interventions

in land use planning, flood prevention and management were analysed for their

efficacy and shortfalls to explain the continued incidence of flooding in the Accra

Metropolis.

1.4.2 Data Requirement, Collection Techniques and Instruments

To ascertain the flooding situation and the perception of the probable causes, effects

and suggested solutions at the community level, data were collected from Dzorwulu,

Kotobabi, Alajo, Avenor and Odawna (Adabraka). This was done through a direct

personal administration of questionnaire to a sample of households to solicit for the

information.

Data were collected for the research from some public institutions, especially those

found to be major stakeholders in urban governance, by means of semi-structured

questionnaires. Information sought from the institutions included their primary

functions and specific roles in flood prevention and management, and their

perceptions of the causes and practical suggested solutions to the Accra floods. The

following institutions were covered:

a) Accra Metropolitan Works Department (AMWD/City Engineers)

b) Accra Metropolitan Town and Country Planning Department (AMTCPD)

c) Hydrological Services Department (HSD) – Head Office

d) Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMA)

e) National Disaster Management Organisation (NADMO) – Greater Accra

Regional Office

f) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) – Head Office

g) Accra Metropolitan Roads Department (AMRD)

h) Accra Metropolitan Public Health Unit (AMPHUD)

Thirdly, with the aid of Survey Department Air Sheets and Planning Schemes, a

survey was carried out in Dzorwulu and Alajo to take stock of drainage infrastructure,

capture relevant features and activities in the flood prone areas. Data collected in this

phase was mainly qualitative and was captured by means of digital photography and

note-taking. The survey was also used to validate some of the answers provided in the

sample survey.4

1.4.3 Sampling of Affected Population

Due to the fact that not all people can be covered in the data collection process within

the research time frame, sampling was adopted to delineate a representative group for

study with inferences drawn from the results. A multi stage sampling approach was

used, selecting one drainage basin from the existing four and further selecting five

settlements along the river course from the six major settlements in the lower course

which invariably were in the floodplains. The Accra Metropolitan Assembly

identified principal areas that are liable to flooding and estimated the population at

risk of flooding in the Metropolis as of 2006, which is presented in Table 1.0.

Table 1.0: Flood-prone areas and population at risk

Area Population

Dansoman/Mpoase/Gbegbeyise/Chorkor 19,031

Chokome/Faana/Tetegbu 3,173

Chemu Area 70,185

Korle/Odawna/Alajo/Dzorwulu 73,136

Nungua 1,557

Sakumo II 9,396

TOTAL 176,478

Source: AMA, 2006

The Odaw River was selected due to its dominance in the metropolis in terms of

catchment area and susceptibility to flooding. Further, Dzorwulu, Alajo, Kotobabi,

Avenor and Adabraka, which are settlements along the Odaw river course, were

selected for the study leaving out Korle due to its peculiarity of being in the proximity

of the Lagoon and the Sea. In terms of representation, Dzorwulu was the only 1 st class

residential area with Odawna, Kotobabi and Avenor being 2nd class residential areas.

Alajo forms part of the 3rd Class residential group. Hence the sample covered all but

the 4th class residential group as none of the flood prone areas fell within this group.

Proportional allocation was made based on the population of the settlement.

The sampling frame (people affected by flooding along the Odaw) was estimated by

the AMA in 2006 to be 73,136. The sample covered in the household survey was one

hundred and twenty-nine (129) households, of which thirty-six (36) were in Alajo and

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Adabraka each, twenty (20) in Dzorwulu, twenty-eight (28) in Kotobabi and nine (9)

in Avenor. The distribution of the sample among the settlements was based on

proportions of individual settlements’ populations of the total as presented in Table

1.1

Table 1.1: Sample Size Distribution among Settlements

Settlements PopulationProportions

Sample Distribution

2000 2008*Alajo 23439 35444 26.5 36Dzorwulu 9517 19708 10.7 20Avenor 6681 9200 7.5 9Adabraka 25425 35012 28.7 36Kotobabi 23,485 27559 26.5 28TOTAL 88547 126923 100.0 129

Source: Adapted from 2000 PHC, GSS and Projected*

The sample was calculated as follows:

Where n = sample sizeN = Sampling frame Population affected by flooding along the Odaw River

coursee = significance level 4% or 0.04hhs = average household size 4.8

1.4.4 Data Analyses

The data collected were analysed for the preparation of the report, with the help of

appropriate techniques. With the aid of the Statistical Package for Social Sciences

(SPSS), the responses from households were coded and entered into a database to

generate tables and cross-tabulation where necessary to present and analyse

quantitative data as well as establish relationships between variables. Some of the

data captured was combined with secondary data to establish some situations like

encroachments. Qualitative data was presented by description, but analyses included

drawing of inferences and linkages.

1.5 Scope of Study

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Geographically, the study was limited to the floodplains of the Odaw River, covering

Dzorwulu, Alajo, Kotobabi, Avenor and Adabraka in the Accra Metropolitan Area.

With regard to content, the study covered human activities which were defined as

modification of the natural environment for providing and managing social and

economic services like houses, roads, drains and shop and offices. It therefore

includes the institutions which manage the urban economy. Flooding in this study is

limited to flooding resulting directly from rainfall.

1.6 Justification

The results of this study can serve as a guide in approaching the flooding problem,

which is getting elusive. The findings of the study will provide an insight into what

factors interplay to cause the floods, so that cost-effective and appropriate measure

can be taken to reduce its incidence and negative effects on the populace.

It may also lay to rest the speculation about the causes and rather serve as a rallying

point for action as the possible causes have been identified, with some consensus

reached on solution steps. Also, owing to the fact that flooding is associated with

water borne and water related diseases, a solution to the perennial flooding situation

will reduce the national health expenditure and keep productivity at optimal levels.

Finding a solution to the flooding menace will invariably lead to a realisation of some

of the policy objectives of the nation as outlined in the GPRS II - “... the quality of

both the built and the natural environments is vital for long-term growth and

development. Increased production can only be meaningful on the one hand when it

occurs in well-managed, amenable, efficient, safe and healthy built environments”.

1.7 Organisation of the Report

The report is organised in five chapters. Chapter one gives a general orientation and

background to the research encompassing the problem statement, objectives of the

study, scope and research methodology among others. Chapter two covers review of

relevant literature in the subject matter and basic definitions and concepts. A general

profile of the study area is provided in Chapter three to understand the context within

which the phenomena are taking place. Chapter four contains data collected, analyses,

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deductions and inferences while chapter five covers findings of the research, policy

implications and suggested recommendations.

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CHAPTER TWO

FLOODING AND HUMAN ACTIVITIES IN SPACE: ISSUES AND

CONCEPTS

2.1 Introduction

Flooding, which causes much pain and havoc in almost all areas of the world has been

intellectually investigated to some extent to reduce its incidence, effects and impacts

on humans who inhabit the land. Flooding has been linked by many people to human

interventions but such interventions seem to vary from one locality to another. In

some instances, it is even dissociated from any human action whatsoever and taken as

an act of nature. However, few have actually sought to understand the relationship

between these two variables. This chapter seeks to provide an insight into how various

people and authorities consider the phenomenon.

2.2 Floods

The word comes from the old English ‘flōd’ akin to the German word ‘flut’ and the

Dutch word ‘vloed’ from the same root as is seen in flow and float (Wikepedia

Online Encyclopedia, 2007). The Oxford Reference Dictionary defines a flood as an

overflowing or influx of water beyond its normal confines. The Wikepedia

Encyclopedia further defines it as an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges

land. It is usually due to the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or

lake, exceeding the total capacity of the body, and as a result some of the water flows

or sits outside of the normal perimeter of the body.

Floods, which are the most frequent type of disaster worldwide are not recent

developments, but can be traced to biblical times. The first recorded being “the Great

Flood” in Noah’s time which was a consequence of forty days rain. Since then many

more have been chronicled with their associated destruction and disruption of social

and economic life.

Floods occur in almost all parts of the world with differing intensities and effects.

Most notable ones include the 1981, 1991 and 2002 floods along the Chiang Jiang

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(Yangtze) River in China, the Mozambican floods in 2000, the 1983 and 1993 floods

on the Mississippi River and Hurricane Katrina floods in New Orleans, USA in 2005.

Bangladesh is one of the most susceptible countries to flood disasters.  About one half

of the land area in Bangladesh is at an elevation of less than 8 meters above sea level. 

Up to 30% of the country has been covered with flood waters (Nelson, 2006).  In

1991 more than 200,000 deaths resulted from flooding and associated tropical

cyclones in Bangladesh alone.

2.2.1 Types of Floods

In a study of flooding in six African cities including Accra in 2006, ActionAid

International (2006) identified four main types of flooding in urban areas, which are

mainly differentiated by their causes and are outlined as follows:

(i) Localised flooding occurs in slum areas because there are few drains, and the ground is highly compacted and pathways between dwellings become streams after heavy rain. Drains and culverts are often blocked by solid waste and debris.

(ii) Small streams in urban areas which rise quickly after heavy rain, but often pass through small culverts under roads. Although adequate when designed, changes in the urban area and in storm intensity now produce higher flows that exceed capacity. Channels may also have so much debris in them that they are effectively smaller than they were two decades ago.

(iii) Major rivers flowing through urban areas are affected by land use changes and engineering works upstream. Dams can trap sediment, causing rivers to erode their banks downstream. Dam operation may lead to high flows when stored water is released suddenly. Often, urban growth has expanded over some of the floodplain, making parts of the city below flood level and reducing the area into which floods can naturally overflow. Levees have been raised artificially, but with the risk that they may be breached and cause devastating urban flooding.

(iv) In lowland and coastal cities, rain and river water combine to raise the levels of water in swamps that would have naturally been inundated at certain times of the year. Dumping of waste beneath dwellings in these areas tends to help raise levels further. Storm waves can also bring flooding to such areas.

2.2.2 Floods Styles

It is indicated in literature available that floods can also be distinguished also by their

style of occurrence. Flash floods occur when a wall of water quickly sweeps over an

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area, which are difficult to deal with as it is not easy to predict the amount of rain

expected within a spatial area over a short period of time.

Regional floods occur when rain falls over a large area for days or weeks causing

river flood levels to rise slowly and then fall slowly usually inundating large areas and

causing widespread economic losses (Abbott, 2006). Flash floods are called upstream

floods whereas regional floods are called downstream floods.

2.2.3 Causes of Floods

Technically, according to Nelson (2003), floods occur when a stream’s discharge

increases and overtops its bank. Streams increase in depth and width to accommodate

the water that flows into it from rainfall, tributary streams and underground water

seeping into it. The discharge of a stream is the amount of water passing any point at a

given time, and is represented by the following formula: Q ,

Where Q = Discharge (m3/sec)A = Cross-sectional area: width average depth (m2)V = Average velocity (m/sec)

As the amount of water in a stream increases, the stream adjusts its velocity and cross-

sectional area in order to form a balance, thereby going beyond its normal channel

boundaries.

Floods can be attributed to several factors, which include natural ones like the

topography of the floodplain and prolonged and heavy precipitation. However, human

activities in river courses and the floodplain can also exacerbate and increase the

frequency of flooding.

2.2.3.1 Natural Causes

Floods happen when soil and vegetation cannot absorb all the water from downpours.

The water then runs off the land in quantities that cannot be carried in stream channels

or kept in natural ponds or man-made reservoirs.

Floods also occur when a river bursts its banks and the water spills onto the flood

plain. Flooding tends to be caused by heavy rain: the faster the rainwater reaches the

river channel, the more likely it is that it will cause flooding. The nature of the

landscape around a river will influence how fast rainwater reaches the channel.

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ActionAid (2006) argues that flood hazards are natural phenomena, but damage and

losses from these floods are the consequence of human action. This stand may be

understood if one assumes floods in natural environments tend to have less drastic

effects on human life and property.

However other floods following tsunamis and coastal surges have natural causes like

earthquakes in the sea bed and high tides attributed to the pull forces of the moon.

Coastal flooding may also be the result of severe sea storms and strong winds which

create strong waves that batter the coast.

2.2.3.2 Human-induced Causes

Although human populations have been victims of natural flooding, their presence

and subsequent activities near rivers have also contributed to the problem. In naturally

occurring conditions, vegetation captures significant amounts of precipitation and

returns it to the atmosphere before it has a chance to hit the ground and be absorbed

by the earth. However, certain farming practices in urban agriculture like clear-cutting

land hamper this process. Without the natural growth of vegetation to trap the rain, the

ground absorbs more moisture than it would and the likelihood of flooding increases

when the absorption limit of the soil is reached.

Further, the construction of concrete and stone buildings contributes to the problem of

flooding. While rain is easily absorbed into sand and other porous materials, it is not

easily absorbed by man-made building materials, such as pavement and concrete.

These substances cause additional run-off which must be absorbed by the surrounding

landscape. ActionAid (2006) supports this point by singling out urbanisation as the

major cause of flooding. By restricting where flood waters can go, covering large

parts of the ground with roofs, roads and pavements, obstructing sections of natural

channels and building drains that ensure that water moves to rivers faster than it did

under natural conditions. In sum, urbanisation tends to increase susceptibility to

floods. Akin to the position held by ActionAid, the BBC (2008) believes a river is

more likely to flood when its drainage basin is in an urban area. Urban areas consist

largely of impermeable concrete, which encourages overland flow. Drains and sewers

take water quickly and directly to the river channel. Houses with sloping roofs further

increase the amount of run-off.

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2.3 Effects of Flooding

The primary effects of flooding include physical damage to buildings and weakening

of structures. Culverts, bridges and drainage systems are also seriously affected.

There are instances of loss of human lives and livestock, and the outbreak of diseases

and epidemics.

Secondary effects include contamination of water supplies, unhygienic conditions and

water borne diseases. Flooding also results in the loss of entire harvests like in the

instance of Mozambique in 2000 and Northern Ghana in 2007. The long term or

tertiary effects of flooding are increased public expenditure in rebuilding damaged

infrastructure, inflation as a result of food shortage and increased vulnerability of the

poor.

2.4 Benefits of Flooding

There are many disruptive effects of flooding on human settlements and economic

activities. However flooding can bring benefits, such as making soil more fertile and

providing nutrients in which it is deficient. Periodic flooding was essential to the well-

being of ancient communities along the Tigris-Euphrates Rivers, the Nile River, the

Indus River, and the Ganges among others.

2.5 Flooding in Accra

Accra suffers from perennial flooding in the face of several interventions like the

Urban Environmental Sanitation Projects to reduce its incidence. Some notable but

not exhaustive dates in the chronology of Accra floods since the 1990s include 5th July

1995, 27th June 2001, 26th March 2007, 3rd June 2007 and 18th May 2008.

2.5.1 Flood Frequency

Flooding in the Accra Metropolis does not appear to follow any apparent pattern and

frequency, but seems to be picking up. The only known link is that the floods come

with the rains, which are expected in two regimes annually. Flood forecasting is non-

existent because flood monitoring is apparently nil, but prior warnings are given of

rainstorms moving across the West African coast.

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2.5.2 Flood Control and Official Response

Man has long tried, not always successfully, to control and prevent the damaging

effects of flooding rivers. River or hydrological engineers may build artificial flood

banks, straighten the river course, or dredge the riverbed to make it deeper. All of

these methods of control can work, although they often have a negative effect on the

river as a habitat for other organisms.

Most African governments have national disaster and emergency policies, some, such

as Uganda, have special ministries with responsibility for disaster preparedness and

response. In Ghana, the National Disaster Management Organisation (NADMO) was

established by Act 517 of 1996 and tasked to be responsible for all disaster types and

phases in Ghana. NADMO prepares for pre-disaster, disaster, and post-disaster

phases. In order to accomplish its objectives, NADMO has set up seven (7) Technical

Sub-Committees to cover all types of disasters in Ghana, such as geological and

hydro-meteorological, pest and insect infestation, bushfires and lightening, epidemic

outbreaks, relief and reconstruction disasters.

The Ghana National Disaster Management Organization (NADMO) has to coordinate

emergency and disaster response, and general national disaster preparedness.

NADMO has established disaster management committees at the national, regional

and district levels and plans to coordinate the activities of all collaborating agencies.

Another important institution in the environmental sector is the Hydrological Services

Department, which is charged with planning, building, and maintaining all of the

waterways in the City of Accra. The Hydrological Services Department sets buffers or

no-build easement for rivers and other water bodies in the Metropolis. This serves to

fulfill the basic concept of drainage infrastructure.

In furtherance of reducing the incidence of flooding and other environmental

sanitation problems, the Government of Ghana borrowed US$71m from the World

Bank to finance the Ghana Environmental Sanitation Project in 1996. The project

covered Ghana’s five major cities (Accra, Kumasi, Sekondi-Takoradi, Tema, and

Tamale) with the aim of promoting productivity and raising living standards in the

major cities, by improving sanitation services, drainage and sanitation; help establish

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better institutional and financing mechanisms and more effective policy frameworks

so that improvements are sustained over time; and build up the capacity of the

Metropolitan and Municipal Assemblies to manage urban environmental sanitation

services.

After the devastating effects of the 1963 floods in Accra, the first Drainage Master

Plan for Accra was prepared and implemented covering certain parts of the

Metropolis. In 1991 the area covered under the Plan was extended. Currently, the

HSD is preparing another Drainage Plan for Accra West, which is now increasingly

being ravaged by floods.

2.5.3 Flood Prevention in other Places

In western countries, rivers prone to floods are often carefully managed. Defences

such as levees or dikes and reservoirs, are used to prevent rivers from bursting their

banks. London is protected from flooding by a huge mechanical barrier across the

River Thames, which is raised when the water level reaches a certain point.

The New Orleans Metropolitan Area, a low-lying area of which approximately 35

percent is below sea level, is protected by hundreds of miles of levees and flood gates.

This system failed to hold back the surging waters during Hurricane Katrina in the

central area and in eastern sections of the Metro Area, resulting in the inundation of

approximately fifty percent of the Metropolitan area, ranging from a few inches to

twenty feet in coastal communities (Wikipedia Encyclopedia).

Various central and local government bodies across the world in flood prone areas

have drawn up policies and strategies to at least reduce the incidence of flooding and

lower its effects on human populations living in the flood plains. The results of some

of these elaborate programmes are mixed, with some chalking successes. However in

the case of New Orleans as cited earlier, the defences were breached, calling for a

revision of the approach.

The People’s Republic of China and Mozambique in Asia and Africa respectively

suffer from extensive flooding. Therefore, the various governments set out to protect

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their people from the perennial floods by adopting various localised policies as the

causes of flooding differ from place to place.

China adopted a much more physical intervention approach of building dams, levees

and preserving wetlands, while Mozambique opted for a stringent land use policy.

Summaries are presented from the works of Zhang and Kang (2001) and Wisner

(1979) for China and Mozambique respectively.

2.5.3.1: Flood Control and Management in China

East China suffers from flood disasters primarily caused by rainstorms in combination with coastal storm surges and the west region is subject to the mixed-type floods from snow and glacier melting as well as the local storms.

Beginning from the twentieth century, major rivers in China were struck by a number of serious disastrous floods. In the 1990s big floods frequently hit southern part of China with the 1998 flood being the most noticeable one, resulting in floods in some major rivers as Yangtze, Songhua, pearl and Min River. The severe flood which took place in the Yangtze River is the second biggest flood in the 20th century since 1954.

In response to the flood, China built and reinforced 245,000 km of levees to protect 33 million ha of cultivated land and over 200million people by 1997. Also, over 84,000 large, medium and small reservoirs were completed with the storage capacity of 472 billion m3 to serve as flood retardation basins for major rivers.

Flood monitoring, information transmission and forecasting systems were also developed to complement activities in the sector. Far reaching water and flood laws were passed with institutional restructuring to fight the menace of the floods also adopted.

2.5.3.2: Flood Prevention in Mozambique

Mozambique seems to be battered by floods every year with annual losses close to US$43m. It is located in a geographical region with inherent risks. The region is liable to heavy rainfall variability, periods of droughts (5-7 months). Topographically, the country is much of a plain, with a greater portion barely rising beyond 200m with rivers having extensive floodplains increasing the flood hazard or risk.

The Limpopo and Zambesi with their source outside Mozambique pose the first danger with enormous flooding but there is usually considerable warning and a lower frequency. More frequent are Lurio, Nonapo, Ligonha, Messalo and Licunga rivers that have their sources in the well-watered highlands in Mozambique receiving

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rainfall between 1400 and 1800mm/year. These rivers rise fast with very little warning, but their devastation is much smaller than the international rivers.

In response to the floods, Mozambique adopted comprehensive land-use planning in floodplain management. Some other options considered are presented in the table.

Table 2.0: Flood Management OptionsModify the Flood Modify the Damage

susceptibility(Floodplain Management)

Modify the loss burden (Redistributive losses)

Do Nothing

Flood protection (channel phase)

Land-use regulation and changes

Flood insurance Bear the loss

Dykes Statutes Tax writeoffsFloodwall Zoning ordinances Disaster reliefChannel Improvement

Building codes Volunteer Private activities

Reservoirs Subdivision regulations Government aidRiver Diversions Government purchase of

lands and propertyEmergency Measures

Watershed Treatment (land phase)

Subsidised relocation Removal of persons and property

Modification of cropping practices

Flood proofing Flood fighting

Terracing Permanent closure of low level windows

Rescheduling operations

Bank stabilisation Waterproofing interiorsLand elevation and fill

Source: Wisner (1979)

Considering the fact that the 2000 Mozambican floods followed five weeks of

torrential rainfall including a cyclone landfall, the floods cannot be attributed to

failure of the chosen approach as most elaborate defences may fall under such

pressure. South Africa, Botswana and Swaziland also suffered from the floods

although on a less severe scale.

2.6 Floodplains, Wetlands and Reservoirs

The American Floodplain Management Association defined floodplains as low areas

subject to flooding from time to time. Most floodplains are adjacent to streams, lakes

or oceans although almost any area can flood under the right circumstances.

Floodplains are designated by the size of the flood that will cover them. For instance,

a 10-year floodplain is the dry land that is covered by a once in 10 years flood and the

100-year floodplain is the land covered by a once in a 100 years flood. The likelihood 17

of property being flooded varies depending on how high it is above the stream.

Buildings on a 10-year floodplain can be expected to flood on the average of once

every 10 years while buildings on higher ground will be flooded less often.

Figure 2.0: Cross-section of a Floodplain

Source: www.floodplain.org (u.d.)

Wetlands are the swampy land along the edges of some rivers. When it rains, the wet

soil and mud of a wetland acts like a sponge and stores the extra water. Anku (2006)

suggests wetlands prevent runoff from running too swiftly downstream and

overflowing, thus preventing erosion and flooding, but are under siege in Ghana.

A levee or dike is a natural or artificial slope or wall, usually earthen and often

parallels the course of a river, to control and contain its flow and protect lands beyond

it. However, levees have their drawbacks like breaches, whereby part of the levee

actually breaks away, leaving a large opening for water to flood the land protected by

the levee. Levees also fail when they are overtopped when water levels are simply

beyond the capacity of the channel lined by the levees.

2.7 Land Use and Human activities

Human activities may be segregated into economic and social sectors with various

sub-sectors. However, no matter the form it takes, such activities take place in space,

regulated or unregulated. Human activities on land is considered as land use, in the

sense that it is the human modification of natural environment into built environment

such as fields, pastures, and settlements (Wikipedia Encyclopedia, 2008).

2.7.1 Evolution of Urban Land Use Planning

Planning of human settlements had been advocated and practised from the beginning

of time, gaining prominence with the design of Greek towns and later the Roman

18

towns. These were done with safety, aesthetics and efficiency in mind. The Canadian

Institute of Planners define land use planning as “the scientific, aesthetic, and orderly

disposition of land, resources, facilities and services with a view to securing the

physical, economic and social efficiency, health and well-being of urban and rural

communities”.

The Greek Hippodamus is widely considered the father of city planning in the West,

for his design of Miletus in present day Turkey. He also planned the city of Rhodes in

Greece and the town of Thurii in Italy. He is widely known for his symmetrical and

gridiron layouts.

2.7.2 Aspects of Urban Land use planning

At its most basic level, land use planning involves zoning. It is an important part of

social policy, ensuring that land is used efficiently for the benefit of the wider

economy and population as well as to protect the environment. Further, land use

planning seeks to introduce aesthetics into the urban landscape, reducing the clutter of

physical structures by integrating landscaping with the design.

Land use planning seeks to achieve safety in the urban environment, with the

interplay of all land uses and land use activities. This is sometimes done with the help

of some planning tools like zoning ordinances to segregate conflicting uses while

integrating complimentary uses.

2.8 Accra: Land Use and Growth

The Accra Metropolis is said to have developed from a small trading post into what it

is today. The metropolis apparently had a disorderly beginning as reported by Stanley

(1874) cited by Grant and Yankson (2003) saying the area was a compact mass of

thatched buildings arranged in a haphazard manner and separated by narrow crooked

streets.

The earthquake of 1862 offered the colonial authorities the opportunity to rebuild and

reorganise the growing settlement and spurred by the transfer of the capital from Cape

Coast, the stage was set for a transformation of the old trading post into a city.

19

Grant and Yankson (2003) indicate firstly, the city was spatially organized around a

port that connected the Gold Coast economy to England. Centrally located, the docks,

warehouses and railway terminals all supported functions of trade, storage and

distribution. Most of the buildings of the colonial administration and military bases

were also located in the immediate vicinity. Slum clearance took place, and the

British attempted to impose a rectangular-style pattern on the preexisting unplanned

area.

Secondly, adjacent to the port area was a well-defined European central business

district (CBD) that served as the headquarters for foreign companies. The CBD

functioned as a commercial area for trade, banking, storage and distribution and as a

transportation center

Zoning and building codes were strictly enforced to maintain an orderly European

character and ambiance in this district. This area currently houses the Ghana

Commercial Bank, Bank of Ghana, Accra Metropolitan Assembly Offices, Barclays

Bank, and Opera Square among others.

Thirdly there was a nearby district called “native town”, where Makola No. 1 Market

was built in 1924 as a permanent market to replace the small periodic markets. The

native town assumed a crowded, cluttered and congested look with poor structures

and unhealthy conditions as a result of an apparent neglect of urban planning by

colonial authorities (Grant and Yankson, 2003). It was reported to be physically

separated from the European-styled CBD by an open green area.

Fourth, the colonial authorities enforced a rigid policy of residential segregation for

European residences near the European CBD or at retreats further away like

Cantonments. These areas have preserved their organised look till now.

By implication, land use planning has been practised since the colonial times although

not throughout the growing city, accounting for the apparent disorderly development

of certain areas, especially where there were no European interests.

Figure 2.1 shows the result of land use planning and enforcement by the colonial

authorities in Accra, as reported by Grant and Yankson (2003).

20

Figure 2.1: Spatial Organization of Colonial Accra

Source: Grant and Yankson, 2003.

The Accra Metropolis grew gradually from Jamestown, Ussher Town and

Christianborg on the coast to places like Dansoman, Airport Residential, Abeka and

La by the end of the 1960s as shown in Figure 2.2. Now the sprawling city is

conurbating with Tema and Ga East Municipalities along the city’s major arterial

roads, with very little greenery separating them.

Figure 2.2: Accra-Expansion of Residential Areas (1900-1969)

Source: Macalaster University, 2008

21

According to Møller-Jensen et al (2004), a Master Plan of Accra was produced in

1958 but it was not fully implemented. Under the Economic Recovery Programme

and Structural Adjustment Programmes, implemented from 1983, urban planning,

development and management were seriously tackled. A new Structure Plan was

produced for Accra in 1992 to cover the period 1993-2010 to be executed in phases of

5-year development plans. The Accra Master Plan sets forth a structural land use plan

for the Accra metropolitan Area.

Guidelines were provided for the development of specific land use categories:

residential, commercial, civic and cultural, institutional/special uses, industrial,

defense, major roads, transportation (terminals), and open space/recreation. After

agricultural/rural land uses, the largest category is residential. Plans for the various

categories of land use are detailed as follows:

ResidentialThe overall density of residential dwellings in the metropolitan area is approximately 8dwellings per hectare. In newly developed areas densities of less than 5 dwellings/ha are occurring. The plan expresses an interest in increasing overall density to 10 dwellings/ha by 2010. In the inner city up to 20 dwelling/ha are common. Mixed-use dwellings, especially in the inner city, are also encouraged.

CommercialIt is expressed that the areas of Accra and Tema should develop as distinct, self-sufficient “towns,” with amenities such as employment, services, retail and entertainment available to the residents of each. Additionally, there will be distinct neighborhoods with smaller shops and vendors meeting the needs of 5,000 to 8,000 residents. The Accra Central Area should have the “highest order commercial, entertainment and tourist center in the Metropolitan Area.” This, in addition to financial and administrative functions, will be located in the CBD within the Ring Road. A desire is expressed to decentralize this commerce through planning, to both preserve residential structures and more thoroughly meet the needs of residents.

Open SpaceSpecific open space areas should be designated part of the Metropolitan Open Space System and preserved, including hills and rivers to the northeast of urban areas. The plan specifies that 11,250 ha should remain as open space.

IndustrialIn 1990, industry occupied 2690 ha (6.6% of the urban area). The plan estimates that with the labor force growing at a rate of 2% per annum (density of 120 workers), that an additional 2,500 ha and 5,000 ha of land will be required by 2000 and 2010 respectively. Industrial areas are designated to be: the Ring Road West Industrial

22

Area, the North Industrial Area along Accra-Nsawam road, and the South Motorway Industrial Zone.

Institutional and Special UseThis category, which includes government and public utilities, is the second-largest land user after residential – it occupies 10.4 % of the total urban area. Uses in this sector include: the Achimota-Legon/Greenhill Presbyterian Secondary School, north of Accra; the Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital; the Military Hospital; the Trade Fair Center in Accra; and the Radio Relay Station. Government offices and public institutions are concentrated in the CBD and the Cantonments.

Military and Security (Defense)A military “enclave” is located between Accra and Tema, where the Burma Camp, the range, the Naval and Air force bases and the Military Academy and Training School are located. There is an area north of Tema where another camp is located (Michel Camp). The plan expresses an interest to limit future military development, and locate it there if necessary.

TransportationThe existing roadway is arranged as radial spines, which the plan does not comment on extensively.

New DevelopmentNew development is slated for the following areas: the Teshie-Nungua area south of the motorway; extend the Mccarthy Hill-Ofankor area; and extend the Ofankor-Oyarifa sector to the urban limits bounded by the outer ring road, up to Aburi Road.

2.9 Statutory Bodies responsible for the Built and Natural Environment

The spatial economy of any country is a very essential sector which has tremendous

influence and actually contains all the other sectors. This is because all policies,

strategies and activities manifest themselves either within the environment or serve to

modify it, but can also be catalysed by the very environment. It is for this reason that

most countries including Ghana have Ministries, Departments, Agencies and

Commissions to oversee how activities are organised within the environment with a

view to protecting it from abuse. Some of the developed European countries even

have political parties aligned to the environment, often called the Greens, which are

gradually gaining prominence in national politics.

2.9.1 Environmental Protection Agency

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was established in 1973 as the

Environmental Protection Council with policy-making and advisory functions. In

1994 it became the Environmental Protection Agency following the promulgation of 23

Act 490 to advise the Minister on the formulation of policies on all aspects of the

environment and in particular make recommendations for the protection of the

environment. Among other functions, EPA is tasked with coordinating the activities

of such bodies as it considers appropriate for the purposes of controlling pollution and

generally protect the environment.

2.9.2 Hydrological Services Department

The Hydrological Services Department (HSD) was established as a Department on its

own in 1995 when Architectural and Engineering Services Corporation (AESC)

underwent restructuring to become a limited liability company.  HSD before then

existed as the Hydrology Division of AESC.  The Hydrological Services

Department provides engineering services for the Government of Ghana in the areas

of hydrology and water resources engineering.

2.9.3 Town and Country Planning Department

The Town & Country Planning Department is, among others, responsible for planning

and management of the orderly development of human settlements, providing

planning services to public authorities and private developers and provision of layout

plans (planning schemes) to guide orderly development.

The mandate of the Department is derived from five main legal instruments, namely;

the Local Government Act, 1993 (Act 462); National Development Planning

Commission Act, 1994 (Act 479); National Development Planning (Systems) Act,

1994 (Act 480); National Building Regulation, 1996 (L.I. 1630); and the Town and

Country Planning Ordinance, 1945 (Cap 84).

2.10 Link between Human activities and Flooding

Several people attribute flooding in the metropolis to factors like administrative

failures that overlook development of buildings in waterways and the reclamation of

wetlands which would have served as reservoirs in times of heavy rains. On the other

hand, after the June 2001 floods in Accra, Hon. Kwamena Bartels, the then Minister

for Works and Housing blamed it on poor drainage and poor city planning. Recently,

the Daily Graphic of 3rd April, 2008 quoted Amos Narh, a Senior Meteorologist with

24

the Ghana Meteorological Agency as saying “we are the cause of floods in Accra, it is

our own doing”. He said other places (Tema - 56.5mm, Ho - 52.1mm, Akosombo -

46.8mm) experienced more rainfall than Accra (Airport - 41.2mm) but did not suffer

from flooding. He blames the situation on poor layout, building in water courses and

choked drains in the Metropolis.

It is therefore evident that there is no consensus on the causes of the perennial

flooding in the metropolis though issues are raised concerning possible causes.

2.11 Summary

It can therefore be concluded that floods are caused by people in built-up areas and

also by natural factors in natural environments. Although a river’s course may pass

through an urban area, flooding would not have been a consequence if people had not

settled close and in most instances in the floodplain, carrying out detrimental

activities. Available literature points to the fact that flood prevention and management

in the form of channel improvement, evacuation from floodplains, flood-proofing and

information gathering and sharing can help reduce the incidence and impact of the

floods. Further, there are statutory authorities in the Ghanaian setting that are

mandated to ensure the safety of people within the urban space, although with

apparent difficulty.

25

CHAPTER THREE

PROFILE OF STUDY AREA

3.1 Introduction

Accra is the capital city of Ghana and the largest city in the country. Like many cities

in Sub-Saharan Africa, it is experiencing a rapid rate of population growth, estimated

to be about 4% per annum (GSS, 2002). Indeed its rate of urbanization makes it one

of the fastest-growing cities in West Africa (United Nations Centre for Human

Settlements, 1999).

3.2 Location and size

The metropolis falls between longitude 0° 21’W and 0° 08’W and is bounded by

latitude 5° 37’N and 5° 30’N to the north and south respectively. The metropolis

covers approximately 200 sq km of land and is bounded by the Tema Municipality on

the East, by the Ga East Municipality to the North, Ga West to the North-west. Figure

3.0 shows the administrative limits of the Accra Metropolitan Area.

Figure 3.0: Administrative Boundaries of the AMA

Source: Centre for Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems, 2007

26

3.3 Climate and Vegetation

The city lies within the coastal-savannah zone with low annual rainfall averaging 810

mm distributed over less than 80 days (Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture and

Food Security, 2008). The rainfall pattern of the town is bimodal with the major

season falling between the months of March and June, and a minor rainy season

around October. The floods tend to occur during the major rainy season, usually in

May and June.

3.4 Drainage

The Accra Metropolitan Area is drained by many rivers and streams, mostly flowing

in a southerly direction towards the sea. The Metropolis is divided into four main

catchment areas. The largest is the Densu River Catchment with its source in the

Eastern Region and flows into the sea through the Lafa stream and the Sakumo

Lagoon and Panbros salt pans. The Lafa stream drains Dansoman, Kwashieman,

Awoshie and McCarthy Hill in the Ga West District. There is also some amount of

flooding within this river basin especially around the salt pans.

The Odaw River with its tributaries - Nima, Onyasia, Ado and Dakobi - flows into the

Korle and Chemu Lagoons, which forms the Korle-Chemu Catchment. These rivers

flow within the most urbanised areas of the Metropolis and drains East Legon, Airport

West, Dzorwulu, through Kwame Nkrumah Circle to Adabraka and some part of the

Central Business District. It also includes Darkuman, Alajo, Mamobi, and Nima. The

Odaw River is the main water body flowing through the metropolis and floods most

often.

The Kpeshie drainange basin covers the Military Academy at Teshie, La, Burma

Camp, Osu and Cantonments. Most streams in this area flow into the Kpeshie or

Korle Lagoon before emptying into the sea

The Songo-Mokwe catchment comprise of streams which flow into the Mokwe and

Songo Lagoons and covers communities like Teshie-Nungua. The drainage map of

the Metropolis is presented in Figure 3.1.

27

Figure 3.1: Drainage Map of the Accra Metropolitan District

Source: Centre for Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems (CERSGIS), 2007

28

3.5 Demographic Characteristics

According to the most recent census figures given by the Ghana Statistical Service

(GSS, 2002), the Accra metropolis grew at 4% per annum between 1984 and 2000.

On the eve of independence, in 1957, the population of Accra was only 190,000; it

increased quite appreciably to 1,658,937 in 2000 from under 1 million in 1984 (GSS,

2002). Assuming demographic factors do not change over time, the population of the

metropolis is projected to reach 2,044,762 by 2008. Table 3.1 presents a summary of

the population trend in the Accra Metropolis.

Table 3.1: Accra Metropolis Population Growth (1960-2008*)

Indices 1960 1970 1984 2000 2006 2008*Population 338,396 636,667 969,195 1,658,937 1,915,983 2,044,762Pop. Growth rate - 6.32% 7.51% 4.3% 4.3% 4.3%Source: AMA Medium Term Development Plan, 2006 and Projection*

3.5.1 Population Distribution

The Accra Metropolis has the highest population density in the country exceeding 250

persons per hectare in the dominant immigrant and oldest parts areas of Accra like

Accra New Town, James Town and Ussher Town. On the contrary, densities range

between 17.5 and 40 in the high income areas (AMA, 2002). Over 60% of Accra’s

residents live in high-density, low-rental areas like Nima, Sabon Zongo and James

Town, where there is a lack of basic amenities such as sanitation, drainage and proper

roads (Grant and Yankson, 2003). Some of the settlements with high densities have

poor social services, inadequate internal drains, and general insufficient infrastructure

and tend to suffer from localised flooding.

3.5.2 Age - Sex Distribution

Just like the national situation, females outnumber males in the Metropolis, but only

marginally. Males account for 49.3% of total population while female take 50.7%.

The age sex structure of the Metropolis differs much from the national averages

mainly as a result of it being a net receiver of migrants, who usually distort the

structure by increasing the size of the economically active age groups. For instance

the compressed national age cohort of 15-59 years contributes 51.5%, which is much

less than the Accra Metropolis’ figure of approximately 61%.

29

Majority of the population is youthful with about 80 percent below 40 years, details of

which are shown in Table 3.2

Table 3.2: Age-Sex Distribution of the Accra Metropolis

Age Cohorts Male Female Total0-4 5.54 5.76 11.295-9 5.47 5.90 11.37

10-14 5.08 5.71 10.7915-19 5.39 5.95 11.3420-24 5.65 5.61 11.2625-29 5.08 5.16 10.2430-34 3.89 3.92 7.8135-39 3.11 3.18 6.2940-44 2.56 2.52 5.0845-49 2.13 1.90 4.0350-54 1.54 1.44 2.9855-59 1.11 0.91 2.0260-64 0.82 0.76 1.5865+ 1.91 2.02 3.92

Total 49.27 50.73 100.00Source: GSS, 2002

3.6 Social Characteristics

Accra is cosmopolitan and heterogeneous. The Akan speaking grouping which

includes Asantes, Akyem, Fanti, Akwapims, Brongs, Ahanta, Wassa and Nzemas

dominate, accounting for 42% of the population. The Gas and Dangmes take up about

29% and the Ewe group 14%. Figure 3.2 shows graphically the percentage

contribution of the various ethnic groups to the population of the Metropolis.

Figure 3.2: Ethnic Composition of the Accra Metropolis

Source: GSS, 2002

30

3.6.1 Literacy Level

The AMA has the highest literacy rate of 85.1 percent in the country. Projections

show that, without investment in education, there will be backlog of 213 primary

schools in the city by 2007 (AMA, 2006), which will in the long run deny children of

school going-age the opportunity to have an education and lower literacy rates. High

literacy levels is believed to be directly related to good sanitary practices, but it is also

an opportunity in the sense that public education is more likely to be absorbed. And

yield good results.

3.6.2 Health

Similar to the national situation and against the unrelenting fight against unsanitary

condition and mosquitoes, malaria continues to be the leading disease reported at

health facilities as shown in Table 3.3. This situation may be attributed to choked

drains that are breeding mosquitoes. Diarrhoea, a sanitation-related disease follows as

the second highest with a small percentage.

Table 3.3: Leading cases reported at Health Facilities.

Disease PercentageMalaria 94.3Diarrhoea 3.9AIDS 0.8Pneumonia 0.7Male urethral discharge 0.4TOTAL 100.0Source: AMA, 2006

3.7 Spatial Organisation of the Metropolis

Much of the modern city's layout was planned in the 1920s, and since then growth has

been rapid. After independence the Nkrumah government promoted the city as the

capital and growth pole of the national economy. Successive administrations all

prioritised the central functions of Accra in the national economy (Grant and

Yankson, 2003).

Although the predominant land use in the Accra metropolitan area in 1991 was

agricultural land occupying approximately 73% of the total land, it is quickly being

overtaken by residential use as the city grows and physically expands on a daily basis. 31

Commercial activities are scattered throughout residential development. In addition,

there are several commercial centres. Despite the fact that non-agricultural open space

is scarce; the largest amount of open space is between Teshie and Tema. In the eastern

parts of the city large tracts of land are reserved here for military use as shown in

Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3: Spatial organization of Modern Accra

Source: Aryeetey-Attoh (1997) in Bradshaw et al (2004).

Accra is home to the National Museum, the Ghana Academy of Arts and Science, the

Ghana Central Library and National Archives, the Osu Castle (Seat of the

Presidency), the Ohene Djan Stadium, the Accra International Conference Centre, the

W.E.B. Du Bois Centre for Pan-African Culture and the Ghana-India Kofi Annan

Centre for Excellence.

The physical development in Accra is governed by an elaborate Master Plan and

numerous sector layouts prepared by the Town and Country Planning Department of

the AMA. As the Master Plan provides a blue print as to broad zoning of the whole of

Accra, the sector layouts detail out land use classifications for specific delineated

sectors of land areas of Accra. The Current Master plan (Strategic Plan of Accra

1992-2010) was prepared in 1992 after the elapse of the 1970 Master Plan of Accra.

To oversee the physical development of the Metropolis is the Accra Metropolitan

Planning Committee which is a multi-disciplinary committee chaired by the Chief

Executive with the Town and Country Planning Department as its Secretariat. The

32

Committee has overall responsibility for the management of the land use plans and

physical development activities. Owing to the fact that there is a Master Plan in place

and institutions duly mandated to handle spatial development, there is a basis to start

correcting the mistakes of the past that turned a blind eye to indiscipline and allowed

disorder in the urban landscape.

3.8 Political Organisation and Administration of the Metropolis

With effect from 23 July 1982, The Greater Accra Region, with its capital Accra was

created by the Greater Accra Region Law (PNDCL 26) as a legally separate region to

include the Ada Local Council Area. Since 1960, Greater Accra, then referred to as

Accra Capital District, was geographically and legally part of the Eastern Region but

was, however administered separately by the Minister responsible for Local

Government.

The Accra Metropolitan area is administered by the Accra Metropolitan Assembly

under the local government structure. Since its establishment in 1898 as the Accra

City Council, it has been mandated to manage the growth and development of the

city. Empowered by section 10 (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5) of the Local Government Act of

1993, Act 462 and established by Legislative Instrument (LI) 1500, the AMA has a

membership of 104. Its principal functions include the provision of sound sanitary and

healthy environment, provision of educational infrastructure, markets and lorry parks

within the metropolis, planning and development control of infrastructure within

Accra and the provision of public safety and comfort among others.

Currently, under the sub-district structures, there are thirteen (13) sub-metropolitan

district councils, up from the previous five in a bid to deepen the decentralisation

process and have manageable units. The on-going decentralisation process provides

an opportunity for tackling flooding issues at the various levels based on the scope of

work to be done and financial demands.

3.9 Economic Characteristics

Over 68% of the total population aged 15 years or older are economically active, with

unemployment rate estimated to be about 13%. The Metropolis is the financial and

33

commercial hub of the country, with markets spread out in suburbs like Achimota,

Accra New Town, Abeka, Mamobi and Nima. Commercial sector workers are

predominant in the Metropolis, accounting for close to 34% of persons employed and

the private informal sector engages 60% of employed people (MLGRD&E, 2006).

Doe (u.d.) indicates Accra accounts for 15-20% of Ghana's GDP and 10% of total

employment. In economic sub-sectors, the city provides 56% of national employment

in finance, insurance and real estate, 31% in construction, 30% in transportation,

storage and communication, 22% in wholesale/retail trade, and 18% in

manufacturing.

The economically vibrant Metropolis presents an opportunity for the AMA to collect

adequate revenue to finance development in its area of control. Further, using the

right approaches, the AMA can entice some corporate entities to honour their social

responsibilities by partnering with the AMA to direct them to distressed communities

to complement the AMA’s efforts.

34

CHAPTER FOURDATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSES

4.1 Introduction

The communities along the Odaw River seem to be particularly susceptible to

flooding mainly as a result of the habitation of the banks of the river. The Odaw and

its tributaries meander its way through various settlements until they merge near the

Boomerang Nite Club and further joined by another tributary behind the current

Hawkers’ Market at Circle. The study covered Dzorwulu, Alajo, Kotobabi, Avenor,

and Adabraka, on the lower course of the Odaw where flooding appears to be

endemic.

4.2 Physical Characteristics

These flood prone areas are characterised by low relief with elevations rising to only

10 metres above sea level. The areas are generally floodplains accounting for their

low elevations. The communities are surrounded by higher terrain on the east and

west and form depressions like the case of Alajo which is between Kotobabi and

Abelenkpe, both of higher grounds. Similarly, Avenor is wedged between Kpehe on

the east and the Police Training school located on a small hill to the west at Tesano.

Dzorwulu is located in a valley between Roman Ridge and the Achimota Forest.

Adabraka is located along the western slopes of a hill (Ridge) towards the Odaw

River. Based on their physical characteristics, these settlements can be concluded to

be predisposed to flooding as they fall within a floodplain.

4.3 Origin and Development

Dzorwulu and Adabraka are well laid out settlements which development control had

worked to maintain essentially the form, although squatter settlements have developed

much closer to the Odaw River, popularly known as Odawna, which means “the

shores of the Odaw”, which unsurprisingly floods often.

Alajo is largely a densely populated settlement with no apparent design, although

settlement upgrading had brought some penetration by access roads and drainage

system. Kotobabi is predominantly a settlement that has failed to live up to its design,

especially at the western end close to the Odaw. The settlement has two faces. The

35

eastern part on the elevated ground is well laid out with access roads separating

blocks. However the western part in the valley has accessibility problems as

thoroughfares have been blocked in some instances and drainage is unorganised., with

the exception of those provided along the Mamobi High Street, the Nkansa Djan

Down road, and Palm Street all running downhill to the Odaw River.

The expansion of the Accra Metropolis reached Adabraka by 1945 and got to the

other settlement in the late 1960s, with Dzorwulu being the most recent to be

developed. In the 1970 Census, it was not covered and was probably part of the

Achimota Forest that had been cut away by the construction of the Accra-Tema

Motorway.

Adabraka began as a separate Muslim village in 1908. Many Muslims at this time left

the overcrowded central city in order to avoid the bubonic plague, which spread

rapidly throughout the city centre. It was not until 1925, that Adabraka was

incorporated into Accra. Governor Guggisburg built the Achimota School, north of

Accra, which encouraged many people to begin building houses north of the city

centre, and eventually Adabraka was absorbed into this development (Pellow, 1977)

A variety of land use activities are present in settlements which makes them ‘livable’

communities and self sustaining. Some of these are by design incorporated into the

Physical Development Scheme (Layouts), whereas others evolve or are demand

driven. A reconnaissance survey of Alajo and Dzorwulu revealed some intriguing

aspects of the settlements that may partially explain their susceptibility to flooding.

4.3.1 Land Uses and Activities in Alajo

The settlement is largely residential in design and classified as second class

residential. According to the Alajo Kpehe & Accra New Town West Revised Layout

with Plan Number ACC/N/SEC1/ANT/74/2, the Scheme made provision for

commercial activities at the current location of the Alajo Market and Post Office only,

with six educational sites and one sanitary area. The situation now is very different.

There are five Schools, two Sanitary Areas, three Churches, one Mosque and two

Hotels.

36

Plate 4.0: Some Land Uses in Alajo

Source: Field Survey, April 2008.

Currently, with the exception of three houses on the Alajo Road, all residential plots

abutting the road have assumed a mixed residential-commercial outlook.

Interestingly, school sites and sanitary areas have not been encroached although the

residential sectors have been completely built. Other land uses in Alajo identified

include warehousing and light industrial. These land uses identified however has little

significance to flood, except in instance of converting stream buffers (reservations)

into residential and other uses.

There has been some level of penetration of secondary and tertiary drains, but it must

be noted that the drainage system is fraught with anomalies attributable to poor

maintenance and inadequate supervision at the construction phase of drains. Plate

4.1shows the situation in Alajo, which was also observed at Dzorwulu.

Plate 4.1: Drainage System Anomalies at Alajo

Source: Field Survey, April 2008.37

4.3.2 Land Uses and Activities in Dzorwulu

Dzorwulu was designed as first class residential area with ancillary facilities.

Information provided by the Dzorwulu Revised Layout with Plan Number

TPA/ATM/ACC/SEC6/DZOR/1, indicates four educational sites, one worship site,

two commercial sites and a sanitary area. However, just like the Alajo Road and

Mamobi High Street, the whole of Blohum Street is lined up by commercial activities

with the exception of few houses that have maintained their full residential status.

This phenomenon is apparently not being checked as parcels abutting arterials and

other major roads in the metropolis have been de facto rezoned mixed use en bloc as

part of the implementation of the current Accra Master Plan.

The Electricity Company of Ghana’s Achimota Substation is located at Dzorwulu

very close to the Odaw tributary and floods periodically, presenting a very dangerous

situation. Electrical power supply is interrupted in such situations. It also raises a

question of what factors were considered in the siting of this essential facility and

whether there was any inter-agency collaboration to consider its appropriateness.

The presence of the river, coupled with the opportunity presented by the buffer zone

of the VRA high tension pylons has promoted the development of urban agriculture in

Dzorwulu East, with its problems of occasional flooding of beds and then deposition

of fertile silt to replenish the nutrient in the soil.

Of the settlements covered by the study, Dzorwulu had the highest number of

development applications (13) lodged with the AMTCPD, followed by Adabraka and

Avenor with four (4) and three (3) respectively. All were for residential developments

except that of Avenor, which was for industrial use.

4.4 Encroachment in the Floodplain

Based on the 30 metre reservation required by the HSD, four hundred and twenty-four

(424) buildings were identified to be in the Odaw floodplain in Alajo, Kotobabi and

Avenor. The western Odaw tributary accounted for 140 structures, of which one

mosque, one sanitary facility, one cinema and four shops fall within the reservation.

On the eastern tributary, 284 structures including one church fall within the

reservation. Considering the large number of encroachment, societal indiscipline

38

alone cannot be said to be the cause. Institutional inactions have provided the catalyst

for such haphazard development.

Figure 4.0: Mapped Encroachment into the Floodplain

Source: Adapted from Survey Department, 2002

Currently, properties have been marked for demolition to create a buffer and ease

manoeuvrability during the channelling of the eastern tributary. The extent of

encroachment is shown in Figure 4.0 and Plate 4.2.

Plate 4.2: Encroachment into the Floodplain

Source: Field Survey, April 2008.

Encroachment on the western tributary is light due to the creation of a buffer of a kind

(approximately 8 metres) during the channelling of the western tributary. The buffer

39

in Adabraka was recovered during the channelling of the river and has remained so. It

is shown in Plate 4.3

Plate 4.3: Recovered Drainage Reservations at Adabraka and West Alajo

Source: Field Survey, April 2008.

Plate 4.3 shows the current state of the recovered reservations in Adabraka and Alajo.

In the case of Adabraka, it is serving as a Parking Lot for commercial minibuses

awaiting their turn to load at the Odawna Lorry Station. It is worrying that the

Hawkers’ Market falls within the reservation, no wonder it suffers from flooding

frequently. However, if steps are not taken to secure or cordon it off, squatter

settlements at Odawna will spill over and take it up again.

4.5 Flooding along the Odaw River Course

Flooding in Dzorwulu is prevalent to the east and south of Odoteye Tsui Crescent.

The walls in this part of Dzorwulu bear marks showing previous water levels from

floods. The area suffers from flash floods as run-off rushes down from north and east

Dzorwulu. The drains provided in the area appear to be smaller than required and

overflow to the carriageway and adjoining houses.

With regard to Alajo, localised and regional floods occur with no apparent pattern.

The eastern part of Alajo, encroaching into the floodplain suffer from flooding with

any sustained downpour locally and upstream, whereas the central part and other

areas with clogged drains and incomplete drainage systems grapple with localised

flooding which creates pools on the carriageways and alleys cutting off access to

40

houses and other facilities. Table 4.0 gives a general impression of floods in the

metropolis over time.

Table 4.0: Heads of Households Experience with Flooding by Length of Stay

Length of stay (years)

Suffered from flooding

TotalYes (%) No (%)

0-4 14 10.9 19 14.7 335-9 7 5.4 19 14.7 26

10-14 15 11.6 10 7.8 2515-19 6 4.7 0 0.0 620-24 13 10.1 0 0.0 1325-29 5 3.9 0 0.0 530-34 12 9.3 0 0.0 1235-39 4 3.1 1 0.8 540-44 4 3.1 0 0.0 4Total 80 62.0 49 38.0 129

Source: Field Survey, April 2008.

From Table 4.0, it can be realised that over sixty-two percent (62%) of households

covered had endured the pain of having their homes flooded, of which 52.5% have

been living at their current residence up to 20 years. However, for a better

understanding of the floods and their causes, it was imperative to approach it from the

residents and stakeholders’ perspective.

4.5.1 Perception of the Causes of the Floods

Although floods in the metropolis affect business enterprises and industries, the group

that bears the most brunt are households living in the floodplains. Recent thoughts and

accusing fingers are being pointed in the direction of residents in the metropolis as

being a contributory factor to the floods. This implies a situation where apparently

humans are bearing the consequences of their own actions in the short and long term.

Most people living in the flood-prone areas are of the opinion that the floods that

afflict the metropolis are attributable to negative human activities and attitudes. A

combination of factors were mentioned of which poor solid waste disposal practices

was believed to have resulted in the choking of secondary and tertiary drains, leading

to localised flooding. Eighty-six percent (86%) of the households covered by the

41

survey supported this claim with a further 9.3% also attributing the floods to natural

causes like heavy rainfall and low terrain.

After the early April 2008 floods at Odawna and North Kaneshie, the 7 th April 2008

Edition of the Daily Graphic reported flood victims as attributing their predicament to

dumping of refuse by some residents into the drains and inadequate capacity of the

drains to carry the runoff. Data from the sample survey confirm their belief as about a

quarter of households engage in direct dumping as shown in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1: Waste Disposal segregated by Educational Attainment

Waste Disposal

Educational AttainmentTotal (%)Basic Secondary Tertiary None

Public Dump 19 4 8 7 38 29.5Door to Door 6 22 16 0 44 34.1Direct Dumping 12 12 4 5 33 25.6Burning 5 3 0 1 9 7.0Burying 0 1 1 1 3 2.3Waste Porter 0 2 0 0 2 1.5Total 42 44 29 14 129 100.0Source: Field Survey, April 2008

From Table 4.1, it can be seen that the direct dumping is not determined by

educational levels, but may be as a result of helplessness. For instance similar

proportions (28% and 27.3%) of respondents who have had basic education and

secondary education engage in direct dumping. It is however high among respondents

with no education, accounting for 35.7%.

All the environmental related agencies and institutions covered laid the blame on

negative human activities along the course of the rivers that flood and within

settlements that have localised flooding. They noted that natural conditions could not

be altered or modified easily, but had to be adapted to.

The Accra Metropolitan Works Department (AMWD) attributed the floods to the

overwhelming devastating effect of solid waste on the drainage system in the

metropolis and the poor drainage of localities in low-lying areas. However, the Ghana

Meteorological Agency (GMA) and the Accra Metropolitan Waste Management

Department (AMWMD) were of the view that it was the interplay of human and

natural factors. Further, the AMWMD was of the view that the topography of Accra

42

in certain parts and heavy rains (natural) makes the physical region prone to floods.

Unfortunately, this situation is exacerbated by negative human activities like building

in water ways and indiscriminate littering which chokes the provided drains.

NADMO observed that the Metropolis was experiencing the floods mainly as a result

of institutional lapses by the Accra Metropolitan Town and Country Planning

Department (AMTCPD) and the Building Inspectors from the AMWD in enforcing

regulations related to building in waterways and reservations. The AMTCPD

attributes the floods to human and natural causes. The human factor includes the

tendency of landowners to even sell/lease out flood prone and reserved floodplains to

unsuspecting people and the weak institutions’ inability to effectively enforce laws

which results in non-conforming land uses.

It was also observed that since the completion of the Odaw Channelling Project, no

management activities have been carried out although siltation is taking place,

carrying earth from upstream (Abelenkpe, Abofu, Achimota) prior to channelling of

those portions. Although the drains were designed such that a ramp was incorporated

at the confluence near Avenor to allow for evacuation of silt and other unwanted

elements in the drains, it is clear it had never been utilised. Rather, it has become the

entry point of ruminants who feed on the grass that has grown on sediments in the

drain.

Plate 4.4 shows the current situation of the channelled Odaw river near Zeus Hotel

and Alajo Junction along the Nsawam Road.

Plate 4.4: Heavily Silted Primary Drains

Source: Field Survey, April 2008.

43

4.5.2 Effect on socio-economic activities

The floods virtually disrupt socio-economic activities for three days on the average.

Whereas the water level may subside quickly, recovery of displaced items, cleaning

and drying takes much longer. School children who cross the Odaw to attend classes

are stranded on either side when flooding occurs. This is because the concrete bridge

linking Alajo to Kotobabi has been destroyed by the floods about six years ago,

making residents resort to a small rickety wooden bridge across the river to cross over

at a fee.

The residents de-link their health status from the floods, though this position is

tangential to that of the Accra Metropolitan public Health Directorate (AMPHD). The

AMPHD indicates the floods coincide with the outbreak of cholera and thus quickly

move into flooded areas to provide services.

Since most households mix up economic activities with household activities, flooding

destroys inputs and sometimes carries away returns, disrupting economic activities

and possibly reducing household incomes. Further, the Alajo Street is lined up by

commercial ventures in stores and kiosks, which were also affected by the famous

1995 floods. Currently, localised floods also affect their activities although not to the

scale of the earlier one.

Transmech Industries located at Avenor, a precision machining business venture had

machinery inundated during the 1995 floods and was closed for business for an

undisclosed period to rid the machine shop of sludge and debris. Consequently, their

entrances were also barricaded like most houses, providing stairs to climb over and

gain access to the offices. The machine shop was provided with ramps and their

standby electrical power generator put on a pedestal.

4.5.3 Relief Services

The only time relief services were felt in along the Odaw River course was after the

1995 floods that hit all communities along the Odaw River. The National Disaster

Management Organisation was in charge of distributing relief items to households,

although all households that acknowledged their activities complained of inadequate

44

assistance. Table 4.2 shows the response of households about relief services during

distressed times.

Table 4.2: Recipients of Relief Services

Suffered from FloodingBenefited from Relief

TotalYes No N/A Yes 24 55 1 80No - - 49 49Total 24 55 50 129Source: Field Survey, April 2008.

Of the eighty household heads who qualified to receive relief after flooding of their

homes, only twenty-four, representing thirty percent benefited. Impliedly, about two-

thirds of the flood victims received no relief at all, a situation NADMO claims was

caused by inadequate relief items. An international Non-Governmental Organisation,

World Vision International was also involved in the distribution of relief items,

especially in Kotobabi and Alajo.

4.5.4 Response to the Floods at the Household Level

Flood response in the communities varied at individual household levels. Most

households in frequently flooded areas tend to move electronic appliances to higher

tables and wardrobes in anticipation of floods. The height is determined by previous

experiences. Some place their valuables on beds, claiming it usually floats when the

water level get high.

In times of flooding some residents are temporarily displaced and move to higher

grounds, which in the instance of Alajo and Avenor do not exist. Alternatively refuge

is sought in nearby storey buildings as some did in the 1995 floods. In extreme

circumstances when flood waters surround homes, people climb on to rooftops and

await rescue.

4.5.5 Flood Prevention at the Household Level

In the area of flood prevention, 23.2% of the houses have constructed internal drains

to quickly discharge run-off from the house. Only 6.2% of respondents had filled up

their houses with sand to prevent flood waters from entering. This may be attributed

45

to the relatively higher cost of such a measure. Details of the various flood prevention

measures adopted by the households are presented in Table 4.3.

Table 4.3: Flood Prevention Measures by Households

Flood prevention Measures

Suffered from Flooding

TOTALYes No

Number (%) Number (%)Proper waste mgt 2 1.6 20 15.5 22Construction of internal drains 8 6.2 22 17.1 30Raising ramps and retaining walls 20 15.5 2 1.6 22Filling up of houses 9 7.0 0 0.0 9No Action 24 18.6 3 2.3 27Cleanup/de-silting of drains 14 10.9 2 1.6 16Reinforced walls 3 2.3 0 0.0 3TOTAL 80 62.0 49 38.0 129

Source: Field Survey, 2008.

From Table 4.3, it is interesting to note that a third of households that have suffered

from flooding have taken no preventive measures, a sign of resigning themselves to

fate. It was also be realised that, 17.1% of respondents have raised retaining walls and

ramps above road and drain levels to keep water out the entrances of the houses and

rooms as shown in Plate 4.5.

Plate 4.5: Barricades to Prevent Flooding of Houses and Rooms.

Source: Field Survey, April 2008.

Constructing ramps, stairs and retaining walls serves to protect the houses from

floodwaters but also impedes ease of accessibility as shown in Plate 4.5. This

situation can be distressing to physically challenged people.

46

4.5.6 Effectiveness of Preventive Measures

Basically, most of the embankments or blockades erected by households and houses

to reduce the flow of runoff into their houses had reduced flood incidence at the

household and house level. However, localised flooding still occurs as there are

inadequate drains or low capacity drains to channel runoff out of the settlements.

Whereas the eastern part of Dzorwulu is provided with drains, their capacity is easily

overwhelmed by the high volume of runoff from the elevated western and northern

parts resulting in flash flooding. It must be noted that flooding in Dzorwulu is

restricted to the area between the pylons and Odaw River in the eastern part.

4.5.7 Coping strategies of Households affected by Flooding

Households cope with the floods by staying with friends and relatives during the

inundation of their homes. Daring victims return to their homes immediately the water

starts subsiding to salvage whatever remains of their property. Since foodstuff and

other consumables are destroyed by the floods, extended family members, friends and

other benevolent individuals help by supplying some food in the aftermath of the

floods. Some offer to cater for children until situations improve.

4.6 Institutional Responses

All institutions covered had stakes in the pathetic flooding situation, either being

blamed for inactions/actions or have activities that are directly linked to the causes of

the floods. Almost all the institutions acknowledged their roles in finding a solution to

the problem by collaborating efforts, but had been to little effect.

4.6.1 Ghana Meteorological Agency

The GMA collates, processes and disseminates meteorological data to the populace.

In the area of prevention, weather warnings and forecasts are issued for the concerned

agencies and institutions to be on alert and respond appropriately. Secondly, they

collaborate with other institutions in water resources management which involves

some of the rivers that bring disaster on people when the banks are overtopped.

4.6.2 National Disaster Management Organisation

NADMO relies on educational campaigns prior to the rains to help in flood

prevention, but are the lead agency in flood management. NADMO immediately

47

undertakes rescue missions while organising relief for victims. NADMO has a

representative on the Accra Metropolitan Planning Committee (AMPC), which is the

ultimate statutory body responsible for permitting new physical developments,

alterations and demolitions in the Metropolis.

NADMO has instituted a Rapid Response Team for floods in the Metropolis. It

comprises officials of NADMO, Ghana Health Service (GHS), Ghana Civil Aviation

Authority (GCAA), Ghana Red Cross Society (GRCS), Ghana National Fire Service

(GNFS), Ghana Police Service (GPS), Ghana Air Force and Ghana Navy.

4.6.3 Hydrological Services Department

The Drainage and Sewerage Unit of the HSD is responsible for primary drainage

designs and supervises the construction of such drains which are provided to carry

runoff from settlements. Additionally they do improvements, realignment and re-

channelling of earth drains and streams, which all serve to prevent flooding of built up

areas around them. Further, in the area of prevention, the HSD collaborates with other

Departments and Units of the AMA in the permitting process of the AMPC. The HSD

has established appropriate reservations for rivers and storm drains in the Metropolis,

which is presented in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4: Drainage Reservation in the Metropolis

River/Drain Reservation River/Drain Reservation

Odaw 30m Tesano Drain 12mOnyasia & Tributaries 18-24m Klottey Drain 12mNima 18m Kpeshie Drain 18mNima & Tributaries 12m Mukose Drain 12mSouth Kaneshie (Graphic Rd. to Korle Lagoon)

12m Awudome Drain & Tributaries

12m

Chemu Drain 18m Mamponse Drain 15mSource: Hydrological Services Department, 2008.

4.6.4 Accra Metropolitan Waste Management Department (AMWMD)

AMWMD in collaboration with HSD and AMRD also partakes in drain cleansing,

which is aimed at flood prevention. The AMWMD supervises the collection and

disposal of solid waste in the metropolis. This will also ensure that the provided

drains carry only liquid waste unimpeded and not overflow to houses and

carriageways.

48

4.6.5 Accra Metropolitan Public Health Directorate

In conjunction with NADMO, the AMPHD moves into flooded areas to undertake

disinfection to prevent cholera outbreaks. The disinfection is necessitated by faecal

matter carried by flood waters. This is because, pan latrines are the predominant toilet

facilities in these depressed communities and are discharged directly into the river

without any treatment. In the area of flood prevention, animations are carried out at

the community level to induce behavioural changes in waste disposal and discourage

direct dumping, which serves to choke the drains. The MPHD is also represented on

the AMPC.

4.6.6 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

Represented on the AMPC, the EPA grants Licences and Permits to prospective

developers that meet the requirements of locating in environmentally sensitive areas

like watersheds or wetlands and near water bodies. Similarly, applicants who intend to

carry out activities at a scale that may have implications for the environment like

manufacturing industries; fuel stations and the like also require such permits. The

EPA did not report of any flood management activities.

4.6.7 Accra Metropolitan Roads Department (AMRD)

The AMRD besides its supervision of drainage construction that accompanies roads

in the metropolis de-silts drains before and after the rainy seasons to keep them clear

and allow water to flow at optimal levels.

4.6.8 Accra Metropolitan Works Department (AMWD)

The enforcement unit of the AMPC has the primary responsibility of removing all

illegal physical developments, which includes those encroaching on the road and

drainage reservations.

4.6.9 Accra Metropolitan Town and Country Planning Department (AMTCPD)

The Department is the Secretariat and convenor of the AMPC. The success of flood

prevention to a large extent depends on the activities of the TCPD, which in

conjunction with the afore-mentioned institutions prepares development schemes or

layout for settlements in the metropolis. The schemes backed by law determine what

types of developments are allowed where, usually creating buffer zones for

49

environmentally sensitive areas like water bodies to preserve them as well as ensure

the safety of people.

4.7 Inter-agency Collaboration

It had been widely acknowledged that solving the problems of the metropolis requires

an inter-agency and cross-sectoral approach. It was interesting to note that all

agencies covered in the study had links with each other and were quite satisfied with

the level of collaboration, bearing in mind that all institutions were operating within

constraints. Figure 4.1 portrays a simplified layout of interaction amongst the

institutions in the governance of physical development.

The platform which provides this level of interaction is the Accra Metropolitan

Planning Committee (AMPC). The AMPC convenes monthly to deliberate and

approve physical development applications and other policy matters concerning

development in the Accra Metropolis. The AMPC is chaired by the Metropolitan

Chief Executive and comprises of Assembly members, Sub-Metropolitan District

Council Chairpersons and technical officers from the decentralised departments and

agencies in attendance, with no voting rights.

The AMPC is served by a Technical Sub-Committee which addresses technical issues

concerning applications like conformity of the intended development to the planning

schemes, allowance of adequate setbacks from road reservation, stream buffers and

considerations for the natural environment as well as public safety. The Technical

Sub-committee, which meets twice a month and is composed of representatives of the

EPA, HSD, Ghana National Fire Service (GNFS), AMRD, NADMO, AMPHD,

AMWD, Land Commission Secretariat, Survey Department and hosted by the

AMTCPD.

Figure 4.1 shows the working relationship between and among the institutions

covered by the study. Only the Ghana Meteorological Agency and Accra

Metropolitan Waste Management Department were not represented on the AMPC.

However the GMA is closely linked to NADMO in flood prevention activities by way

of warning of imminent storms and expected precipitation, whereas the AMWMD

50

also collaborates with AMRD and AMPHD in drainage management and public

education on good sanitation practices.

Figure 4.1: Inter-Agency Collaboration in Physical Development Governance

Source: Author’s Construct, April 2008.

4.8 Challenges in Flood Prevention and Managements

However, much as these institutions are aware of their individual and collective

functions in providing a safe environment for the populace, their steps are dogged by

inherent problems especially in the public service.

4.8.1 Human Capacity Problems

All the institutions covered suffered from staffing problems including acute shortages

and high labour turnover especially in the professional grade. In some instances, there

is inadequate capacity to carry out functions.

4.8.2 Financial Constraints

Since all the agencies are either part of the Metropolitan Assembly or subvented

institutions, they suffer from the common problem of inadequate inflow of funds to

finance activities. This is because most of their activities are service provision to the

51

populace and not income generating. Fees charged in some instances for services are

inadequate to meet demands of the institutions.

4.8.3 Logistics and Equipment Inadequacies

Closely linked to 4.87.2, the Departments rely on the AMA to supply logistics and

equipment. However, the flow of logistics and equipment is unreliable and therefore

most of the institutions are running at low capacity. The AMTCPD has only two Pick-

up vehicles dating to the early 1990s to undertake site inspections in until recently 13

sub-metropolitan areas. NADMO need extrication machines and official vehicles for

its activities. This problem is not limited to only decentralised departments. The GMA

lacks monitoring equipment.

4.8.4 Legal Issues

Legal issues are impeding the activities of some of the agencies. The HSD is legally

constrained as they have no laws backing their proposed drainage reservations, but

have to rely on the AMA and other District Assemblies to enforce them. The

AMTCPD desires an amendment of the legislations concerning physical

developments (CAP 84) and the Local Government Act (Act 462) to merge with the

MWD to ensure planning and implementation management (enforcement) are

coordinated and effective.

Also the will to enforce laws and regulations is absent as a result of social ties present.

This is also borne out of the perceived slow nature of the judicial system that thwarts

the efforts of the city authorities in speedily correcting defaulters.

4.8.5 Other challenges and constraints

Worthy of note is the low level of remuneration and accompanying low morale of

public servants, which invariably impinges on the commitment to render service to

the people and the nation. It may also be accountable for the low inflow of qualified

and competent personnel as well as serves to drive them out to the more financially

rewarding private sector.

4.9 Peoples’ Participation in Governance

Involvement of the populace in flood prevention and management activities instituted

by the related agencies is quite high, in spite of the fact that approximately sixty-five

52

percent of households interviewed expressed displeasure at AMA handling of the

flooding situations and provision of services.

The apparent indiscipline displayed by populace in physical development of the

metropolis can be explained by the high level of ignorance of the sample on the

permitting procedure of the AMA. Figure 4.2 shows just about a third of respondents

knew of the necessary steps to follow to legally develop a parcel of land or locate an

activity in space. The level of knowledge was low for those with basic and secondary

education and even for Diploma and Degree holders. It was alarming among illiterates

with just 7% of them expressing knowledge of the process.

Figure 4.2: Knowledge of AMA’s Permitting Procedure

Source: Field Survey, April 2008.

4.10 Future Plans

The effects of flooding on the urban population drift may not be seen at the macro

level easily; however results of the sample survey show that out of the eighty (80)

households affected by flooding in the study area, fifty-two (52) intend to move from

their present location to other places that are flood-free. It may explain the dwindling

population of Adabraka over the years, besides the displacement of residential land

use by commercial land use.

Table 4.5 presents the response of households to the possibility of relocating outside

their current place of abode as a result of the frequent flooding of their homes.53

Table 4.5: Possible link between Flooding and Migration

Suffered from floodingWill you relocate

Total(%)

Yes (%) No (%)Yes 52 40.3 28 21.7 80 62.0 No 10 7.8 39 30.2 49 38.0Total 62 48.1 67 51.9 129 100.0Source: Field Survey, April 2008.

Deducing from Table 4.5, 40.3% of respondents have endured flooding for some time

and are contemplating on relocation to areas that are flood-free. On the other hand

about a fifth of respondents have suffered from flooding but do not intend moving

out. Some of the reasons accounting for their stance include high rent advances

demanded by house owners, lucrative businesses being run in the communities and

the fact that some are owner occupants. This phenomenon is better seen in Table 4.6.

Table 4.6: Decision to relocate by room occupation status.

Occupation StatusWill you relocate

TotalYes NoFree Occupant 15 25 40 Tenant 42 21 63 Owner-occupant 5 19 24 Squatter 0 2 2Total 62 67 129

Source: Field Survey, April 2008

From the table, it is clear that majority of rent-free occupants, that is owner-

occupants, free occupants and squatters are not ready to move out of their homes even

in the light of frequent flooding, whereas two-thirds of tenants are considering

relocating.

Institutionally, the HSD is in the process of finalizing the Accra Drainage Master Plan

to use as a policy guideline in determining the development and management of

drainage infrastructure in the entire Metropolis, with the AMWD set to demolish

encroachments in the floodplains.

4.11 Emerging Issues

Borne out of necessity and a mark of growing entrepreneurship, some young men in

parts of the Metropolis have started providing services as waste porters, and are

54

popularly referred to as “Kayaborla”. These enterprising young men collect solid

waste from homes at a fee and transfer to the skip containers provided in the

communities. Due to the manoeuvrability of their carts, they are able to access almost

any part of the settlements, overcoming the impediments of huge refuse collection

trucks in areas with poor or no roads. It is a phenomenon which can be enhanced as a

supplement to door-to-door collection for areas with surface accessibility problems.

.

55

CHAPTER FIVE

FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

5.1 Major Findings

In line with the objectives set out at the beginning of the study, important

observations were made, which are outlined hereafter.

5.1.1 Factors Accounting for the Floods

It has become very clear that besides human activities in floodplains, there are natural

factors that predispose the metropolis to flooding. However, it must be noted that the

human activities in modification of the environment is more responsible as there are

other geographical areas with similar physical characteristics but do not suffer from

flooding at the magnitude of Accra. This implies an intervention that targets changing

negative human activities in the floodplain. Also, it opens a window of hope by

indicating with the right engineering works and better management of the urban

economy, Accra can be flood-free.

5.1.2 Major Causes of Flooding

Principal among the causes identified to be responsible of the phenomena is human

habitation within floodplains. This is because flooding in uninhabited regions poses

very little risk to life and property or at best destroys crops cultivated. However, when

humans choose to settle within floodplains or too close to water bodies, there is grave

consequence of their actions when disaster strikes. There is bound to be reluctance to

move when attempts are made to relocate people from the floodplain, but owing to the

severity of the effects of the floods, they may give up portions of their properties to

allow for the movement of earth moving equipment during channelling of the eastern

tributary.

Secondly, negative human activities in the settlement in the form of direct dumping of

refuse into secondary and tertiary drains causes localised flooding within the

settlements, restricting movements and impinging on other socio-economic activities.

Such flooding is also responsible for increasing the incidence of malaria in the

metropolis as mosquitoes breed in the pools of water that are trapped in the choked

56

drains and elsewhere within the settlement. However, the situation may improve if the

skip containers are always made available and lifted regularly to control dumping.

This is because of the eighty-five (85) households that do not use door-to-door waste

disposal services; forty (40) dump their refuse at the designated places. Those

engaged in direct dumping complain of being turned away from public dump where

the skips are overflowing with refuse and therefore have no other option than to use

the drains as their refuse disposal site.

Institutional lapses have also contributed in part to the pathetic situation. This is

because strict enforcement of regulations considering physical development would

have prevented encroachment into the Odaw River floodplain. It can be safely said

that these statutory regulatory institutions have become more reactionary than

proactive. The Client Services Units have become mainly complaint stations instead

of providing a medium of education of clients and enhancing service provision. This

explains the low level of knowledge of the permitting procedure of the Assembly

exhibited by the sampled households and the general disregard of building regulations

and the local authorities. The existence of these Client Services Units can be seen as

potentials that when adequately resourced can help the institutions in information

dissemination.

In as much as the institutions are culpable by inactions, one must acknowledge the

enormous constraints that hinder their effective operations. Their inability to raise

adequate funds to support their activities is the major impediment, even as they

collaborate to prevent and manage flood disasters. However, the existence of these

institutions and their existing working relationship present an opportunity to pool their

resources for better service delivery to the populace.

The inability of the Metropolitan Assembly to pay the Solid Waste Collection

Contractors to evacuate refuse over the past two years has led to situation where

residents who are turned away from the already full skip containers dump them into

the Odaw River, clogging it and reducing its capacity to adequately carry runoff. As

the depth of the river is reduced, it widens its cross-sectional area to accommodate the

discharge. This accounts for the proximity of houses to the banks of the river in

57

heavily encroached areas, where erosion had eaten away the small buffer left between

the built and ‘natural’ environments.

Sedimentation of the channelled drain is on the ascendancy and discharge levels have

been observed by residents to be rising. The amount of sedimentation is so

pronounced (see Plate 4.4) a concerned resident joked about demarcating the primary

drain into plots for development.

5.1.3 The Contribution of Land Uses to Flooding

Based on the physical development schemes prepared for the various settlements, it

was evident that the primary functions of the settlements were residential and were

integrated into the city’s system with roads. To make them self-sufficient all the

settlements were designed with supporting ancillary facilities like schools, worship

areas, small commercial areas as well as sanitary sites.

However developments have led to a situation where commercial activities have

spread throughout the settlements giving them a mixed use outlook. It is now very

difficult to delineate commercial zones from residential areas as a result of the high

level of integration. Such a transition from residential to mixed-use cannot be blamed

for the flooding situation as the commodities traded (household consumables) do not

necessarily increase susceptibility to flooding. The development of mixed uses is in

line with provisions of the current Accra Master Plan, though unregulated in most

instances. It may also be blamed on the provision of inadequate commercial zones and

sub-centres in the settlements.

The contribution of land uses and activities to flooding can be seen in the

unauthorised change of use from stream buffer and open space to residential and other

land uses. This is because, if enforcement of schemes had been stringent enough,

human habitation of the floodplains would have been prevented, reducing

vulnerability to flooding.

5.1.4 Predisposition of the Metropolis to Flooding

Without a properly managed drainage system, it will be difficult to adequately drain

any geographical region with the attributes of Accra. The Odaw River flows through

these settlements with low elevation at its late stages, depositing silt at its base and by

58

a natural means raising the river bed, which is only worsened by direct dumping of

solid waste.

However, since the communities studied were above sea level and the Metropolis in

general, it points to the fact that it can be drained using appropriate engineering

solutions into the sea.

5.1.5 Persistence of Flooding

Disaster prevention like risk is a shared responsibility between institutions mandated

to manage the settlements and the residents of these settlements who are affected by

both decisions made and disasters that strike the locality. However, a look at the level

of involvement of the populace and their rate of participation clearly shows why the

level of success in flood prevention is low.

Residents at Avenor pointed out that at the point of merging of the two major

tributaries of the Odaw, the channelled one running with high velocity effectively

blocks water from the earthen one from entering, building up behind and flooding

areas upstream. However, since the presence of the AMA is not felt much on the

ground, it will be difficult to pick up such information to incorporate into future plans.

Further, as flood monitoring has been virtually absent, it is not surprising that it

continues to prevail in the light of interventions. Although well-intentioned, these

interventions may be ill-advised. Also the design and subsequent development of

some of the drains like the entry point of the Nima Stream leaves much to be desired

invoking its wrath on traders in the Hawkers’ Market at Odawna. Since the drain goes

underground at the Circle Overhead and only emerges near the market, its

maintenance, de-silting and re-engineering in this stretch is next to impossible.

5.2 Recommendations

After analyses of the existing situation and its derived problems, it is imperative to

suggest workable solutions to improve conditions if not totally remove the problems.

Nevertheless, since not all actions can be carried out considering the financial

demands of implementation and the gestation period, short and long term

recommendations have been made.

59

5.2.1 Long Term Actions

These strategies and programmes require enormous resources to undertake and results

are not felt immediately, but serve as a basis to draw short term activities.

The Mozambican approach of floodplain management can be adopted with

modifications to suit the local situation. This approach at the macro level promotes

land use regulation, modification of statutes, zoning ordinances and building codes,

regulating of subdivisions, government purchase of lands and property and subsidized

relocation like in the instance of the channeling of the western tributary. At the micro

level it involves flood-proofing of homes, permanent closure of low level windows,

water proofing of interiors, land elevation and filling (Wisner, 1979). Schwab (1998)

as cited by Godschalk (2001) also proposes actions ranging from structural

engineering and building code standards to land use planning and property acquisition

as hazard mitigation measures.

However, considering local conditions the following steps which are assigned to

various power levels are pragmatic and achievable in the long run.

5.2.1.1 Central Government

Working through the Ministry of Works and Housing, Lands Commission Secretariat

and the Lands Valuation Board, the state must reclaim reservations as per HSD

specifications through gradual acquisition of legally developed properties

accompanied by slum clearance especially at Odawna (Adabraka) as plainly put by

Mr Ebenezer Allotey, a Senior Hydrologist with HSD, “if there is no pain there is no

cure”.

Through the Public Services Commission and the Ministry of Public Sector Reforms,

the agencies and department should be strengthened institutionally, through

employment, adequate remuneration and retention of sensitive staff. This can be

complemented by providing the necessary equipment and logistics required for

effective and efficient operation of the institutions.

60

5.2.1.2 AMA and Decentralised Departments and Agencies

The Accra Metropolitan Assembly in conjunction with the Ministry of Local

Government, Rural Development and Environment, with technical advice from the

Attorney General’s Department should review physical development legislations and

building codes to respond to current issues.

The Information Services Department of the AMA, with the Client Services Units of

the various Departments should embark on public education in the metropolis to

induce behavioural change. Issues to be tackled must include physical development

permitting procedure, good sanitary practices and honouring of tax obligations as

residents in the metropolis.

The AMA should explore other possible means of development financing besides the

District Assemblies Common Fund. The Assembly can partner the private sector in

some economic ventures to increase the inflow of funds so that it will be able to

service debts owed private waste collection firms to evacuate waste from the

Metropolis promptly and properly.

The AMA, through its Disaster Management Sub-committee should incorporate

disaster planning in plan preparation and implementation to make the metropolis

resilient and adequately respond and absorb the shocks of disasters in the wake of

increasing occurrence of disasters in cities.

5.2.2 Short-term Actions

These proposals are aimed at reducing the possibility of flooding in the short term,

some of which are apparently shirked responsibilities of the Local Government with

its Decentralised Departments and Agencies and also measures by households and

communities.

5.2.2.1 AMA and Decentralised Departments and Agencies

The AMA Management should enhance its Management Information System Unit to

improve data collation, processing, storage and sharing among the various

departments and stakeholder institutions. Local and Wide Area Networks should be

61

constructed to help in this direction as some of the most departments are physically

detached from the Assembly offices due to inadequacy of space.

The Accra Metropolitan Waste Management Department should be included in the

Accra Metropolitan Planning Committee to ensure their concerns and contributions

are also considered at the level of managing the urban economy. Also, the AMWMD

can facilitate the operation of Private waste Management Companies to extend

coverage of door-to-door collection, by institutionalising and modernising waste

porters (kayaborla).

The AMA should extend the channelling of the Odaw River to its eastern tributary

(Onyasia stream) of the Odaw River to the confluence with the western tributary by

collaborating with the Ministry of Works, Housing and Water Resources as well as

ensuring routine maintenance of drains by AMRD to avert blockage caused by

damaged slabs and collapsed portions of the drains. The AMWMD, AMRD and HSD

should de-silt the Odaw River and its tributaries - the Nima and Onyasia Streams- and

secondary drains in flood prone areas to allow for free flow of runoff water.

The AMWD, EPA and HSD must enforce existing bye-laws and building to prevent

further development in drainage reservations and wetlands. This action should be

accompanied by clearing of encroachments where appropriate.

The AMA, through its Public Health Directorate and the Information Services

Department should encourage rainwater harvesting as a means of minimising run-off

especially as most houses and communities are not well drained with the intention of

reducing localised flooding as well as providing an additional source of water for

some household sanitation activities like washing, bathing and flushing of aqua

privies.

5.2.2.2 Households and Communities

Unit Committees in the various communities should be activated to enhance people’s

participation in local government activities by attending organised fora and public

62

hearings as well as reporting of unauthorised activities in the communities to the Sub-

Metropolitan District Councils.

Under the supervision of Unit Committees and Assemblypersons, solid waste disposal

should be organised at designated points into skip containers. Indiscriminate littering

should be discouraged through sensitisation/public education and provision of litter

bins at vantage points in the settlements.

Households should be assisted by the AMWD and AMRD, with technical advice from

HSD to construct proper drains to carry run-off from houses into tertiary drains. Also,

where necessary, the erection of ramps and retaining walls should be constructed

under the supervision of the AMWD.

5.4 Conclusion

The Metropolis is a complex system with interacting related activities which ensures

the development of its constituents and demands to be managed to reap its full

benefits. Failure to effectively manage the system leads to entrenchment of

inefficiencies, poor service, high living costs, falling standards of living and

deepening of poverty. The problem of the urban economy are often hydra-headed and

requires the collaboration of all stakeholders, not only in discussing but pooling of

human and material resources to reinforce each other in finding a lasting solution.

Individually, it appears the residents of the Accra Metropolis, the institutions and the

private sector are powerless against the floods, often negating the gains made by each

other and allowing the phenomenon to go on, amidst much suffering.

It is important therefore to tackle urban flooding with zeal to extricate the urban

populace from the undesirable effects and ultimate impact of flooding (disrupting

social and economic activities) firstly by prevention and risk minimisation and finally

by preparing for the once in fifty years and once in a hundred years floods that can

hardly be forecasted. To conclude it must be noted that flood management cannot be

neglected, considering the fact even elaborate defenses are susceptible to breach.

63

REFERENCES

Abbott, P.L., (2006), “Natural Disasters”, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill Companies Inc., New York, USA.

Accra Metropolitan Assembly (2002), “2002-2004 Medium Term Development Plan”, Metropolitan Planning Co-ordinating Unit, Accra.

Accra Metropolitan Assembly (2006), “2006-2009 Medium Term Development Plan”, Metropolitan Planning Co-ordinating Unit, Accra.

ActionAid (2006), “Climate Change, Urban Flooding and the Rights of the Urban Poor in Africa”, Key findings from six African cities, retrieved on 16th

February 2008 from www.actionaid.org

Anku, S. K. (2006), “Managing Wetlands in Accra, Ghana”, African Regional Workshop, Cities, Ecosystems and Biodiversity, held at Nairobi, 21st

September 2006, Side Event at the Africities Summit.

Aryeetey-Attoh, S (1997), “Geography of Sub-Saharan Africa” in Bradshaw, W. and J. P. Dymond (2004), “Contemporary World Regional Geography: Global Connections, Local Voices”, McGraw-Hill Companies Inc., New York, USA.

BBC (2008), “Causes of Flooding” accessed on 18th March 2008 from http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/riverswater/index.shtml

Canadian Institute of Planners (2008), “Planning is…” accessed on 15th March 2008 from http://www.cip-icu.ca/web/la/en

Doe, Ben K. (u.d.), “Reaching Consensus through a City Consultation”, Accra Sustainable Project in Collaboration with UN-HABITAT, Accra.

Ghana Statistical Service (2002), “2000 Population and Housing Census Special Report on Urban Localities”, GSS, Accra.

Ghana Statistical Service (2005), “Population Data Analysis Reports”, Vol. 2, Policy Implication of Population Trend Data, Accra.

Godschalk, David R., (2002), “Urban Hazard Mitigation: Creating Resilient Cities”, Plenary paper presented at the Urban Hazards Forum, John Jay College, City University of New York, January 22-24, 2002.

Godschalk, David R., Timothy Beatley, Philip Berke, David J. Brower, and Edward J. Kaiser, (1999), “Natural Hazard Mitigation; Recasting Disaster Policy and Planning”, Washington, D.C.: Island Press.

Grant R. and P. Yankson (2003), “City Profile-Accra”, Cities, Vol. 20, No. 1, p. 65–74, 2003, Elsevier Science Ltd.

64

Graphic Communications Group (2008), “Flood Alert!” Daily Graphic, 3rd April 2008, No. 150321, edited by Ransford Tetteh, Accra

“ “ (2008), “Floods destroys property in Accra”, 7th April, 2008, edited by Ransford Tetteh, Accra.

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent (2005), “GHANA: CHOLERA (ME no. 05ME069, 30 November 2005),” retrieved on 23rd

September 2007 from http://www.ifrc.org

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent (2006), “Ghana: Cholera; (Disaster Relief Emergency Fund Bulletin no. 05ME069: Update no. 1, 3 March 2006),” retrieved on 23rd September 2007 from http://www.ifrc.org

Microsoft Corporation (2006), “Accra ", Microsoft® Student 2007 [DVD], Redmond, WA, USA.

“ “ (2006), “Hippodamus ", Microsoft® Student 2007 [DVD], Redmond, WA, USA.

Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development and Environment (2006), “Greater Accra Region Profile”, accessed 11th October 2007 from www.modernghana.com/GhanaHome/regions/greateraccra.asp

Møller-Jensen L., P.W.K. Yankson and R.Y. Kofie (2004), “Monitoring urban growth: urbanisation of the fringes of Accra, Working Paper, and accessed 1st April, 2008 from http://rdgs.dk/djg/pdfs/105/2/04.pdf

Nelson, A. Stephen (2003), “Streams and Drainage Systems”, EENS 111, Physical

Geology Lecture Notes, Tulane University accessed on 12th March 2008 from http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/geol111/streams

Nelson, A. Stephen (2006), “River systems and causes of flooding”, EENS 204, Natural Disasters Lecture Notes, Tulane University accessed on 12 th

March 2008 from http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson

Newitt, M. D. D. (2006), “Mozambique”, Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2007. ©1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation.

Pellow, D. (1977), “Women in Accra: Options for Autonomy”, Reference Publications Inc., Algonac, Michigan, USA.

Republic of Ghana (1993), Local Government Act, (Act 462).

Republic of Ghana (1997), National Disaster Management Organisation Act, (Act

517).

Resource Centres on urban Agriculture and Food Security (2008), “Accra, Ghana”

accessed on 27th March 2008 from http://www.ruaf.org/Ghana

65

Schwab, Jim (1998), “Planning for Post Disaster Recovery and Reconstruction”, PAS Report No. 483/484. Chicago, IL: American Planning Association.

Stanley, H (1874) “Coomassie and Magdala”, cited in Grant R. and P. Yankson

(2003), “City Profile-Accra”, Cities, Vol. 20, No. 1, p. 65–74, 2003,

Elsevier Science Ltd.

The Daily Guide, (2007, June 8th), “Veep and Mills Clash,” retrieved on 23rd September 2007 from http://www.ghana2008.wordpress.com/category/floods

The World Bank (2004), “Second Urban Environmental Sanitation Project”, Report No: 27884-GH Project Appraisal Document.

United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (1999), “Global Report on Human Settlement”, Oxford University Press, New York.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and HABITAT (1992), “Strategic

Plan for Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA)” ,UNDP and

HABITAT, Accra.

Wisner, B (1979), “Flood Prevention and Mitigation in the Republic of Mozambique”, Disasters, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp 293-306, Pergamon Press, Great Britain.

Zhang Hai-Lun and Wen Kang (2001), “Flood Control and Management for Large Rivers in China”, Presented during the Workshop on Strengthening Capacity in Participatory Planning and Management for Flood Mitigation and Preparedness in Large River Basins: Regional Cooperation in Flood Control and Management in Asia and the Pacific, Phase II, Bangkok, 20-23 November 2001.

Websites Accessed:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floods_in_the_United_States accessed 27th March 2008

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floods accessed 27th March 2008

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes of Floods accessed 27th March 2008

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_Planning accessed 3rd march 2008

http://science.jrank.org/pages/2754/Flooding-Human-influence-on-flooding

http://www.floodplain.org accessed 18th March 2008

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APPENDIX I: HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE

DEPARTMENT OF PLANNINGKWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

MSc DEVELOPMENT PLANNING AND MANAGEMENTSPECIAL STUDY

“Perennial Flooding in the Accra Metropolis: The Human Factor”

Questionnaire Code Number:

1. (a) Name of Respondent: ………………………………………………………………………………………(b) Sex: Male [ ] Female [ ] (c) Age: ………………………………………………..(d) Ethnicity: …………………………………….. (e) Household status: ……………………………(f) Occupation: …………………………………. (g) Educational attainment: …………………..(g) Length of stay in the community ………………………………

(h) Occupation status: Free occupant [ ] Tenant [ ] Owner-occupant [ ]

2. (a) Has your household suffered from any flooding since your habitation? Yes [ ] No [ ] (b) If yes, why are you still staying here? (Give reasons) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… (c) When was the last flood ……………………………………………………………(month & year)(d) How often does it flood? Once a year [ ] twice a year [ ] several times a year [ ]

(e) What type of flooding do you experience? Gradual [ ] Flash [ ]

3. (a)How does the flood affect your household? ………………………………………………….......i. Social (Education, Health etc)……………………………………………………………………….ii. Property Damage …………………………………………………………………………………………iii. Economically ………………………………………………………………………………………………iv. Housing (structure) ……………………………………………………………………………………..v. Others (specify) …………………………………………………………………………………………..

(b) Have you ever received any official help(relief) in times of floods? Yes [ ] No [ ](c) If yes, from which agency? ……………………………………………………………………………………..

4. (a) What does your household do during floods? …………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………(b) How do you cope with the floods? …………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

5. (a) Do you think the floods in your community are caused by human activities? Yes [ ] No [ ] (b) If yes what are they? Building in water courses [ ] Bad refuse Disposal [ ] Building Designs [ ]Hard Landscaping [ ] Lack of Drains [ ] Poor design of Drains [ ] Choked drains [ ] others ………………………………

(c) If No, what factors are responsible? ………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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6. (a) What steps has your household taken to reduce the incidence of flooding? ………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..(note how the house is drained)………………………………………………………………………....................…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………(b) As a community, what steps has been taken? …………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………7. (a) Do you harvest rainwater? Yes [ ] No [ ](b) What use do you put such water? …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

8. (a) Are you aware of any activities by the Authorities (AMA) in the area of flood prevention? Yes [ ] No [ ]

(b)If Yes, what are they? …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………9. (a) Has the authorities demolished or stopped any building in the community?Yes [ ] No [ ](b) if yes, when and where?..............................................................................................................................……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

10. (a) Are you satisfied with the city authorities’ (AMA) handling of the flooding situation in the community in particular? Yes [ ] No [ ]

(b) Give reasons for your response …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

11. (a) Are you satisfied with the city authorities’ (AMA) performance in terms of service provision in the community? Yes [ ] No [ ]

(b) Giver reasons for your response ……………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

12. (a) Waste disposal method? Public Dump [ ] Door to Door [ ] Direct Dumping [ ]Burning [ ] Burying [ ] others [ ] specify …………………………………………..(b) If not door-to-door, are you prepared to pay for such a service? Yes [ ] No [ ](c) If yes, how much? GH¢……………………

13. (a) Are you aware of the procedure to locate an activity on a parcel of land in this community? Yes [ ] No [ ]

(b) If yes, what are they? …………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

14. (a) Is the procedure being followed in this community? Yes [ ] No [ ]

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(b) If no, why? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………15. What do you suggest be implemented to solve the flooding problem in your

community by the following? Households …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Community…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………AMA……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Central Government ……………………………………………………………………………………………………

16. (a) Will you move out of the community in view of the flood problem? Yes [ ] No [ ](b) If yes, where …………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

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APPENDIX II: INSTITUTIONAL INTERVIEW GUIDES

DEPARTMENT OF PLANNINGKWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

MSc. DEVELOPMENT PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT SPECIAL STUDY

HYDROLOGICAL SERVICES DEPARTMENT

1. (a) Name of Respondent ………………………………………………………………………………………(b) Position Held ………………………………………………………………………………………………….

2. Major functions of institution(i) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………(ii) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………(iii) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………(iv) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. (a) Are you aware of any programmes/projects aimed at reducing the incidence of flooding in the Accra Metropolis? Yes [ ] No [ ](b) If yes, which one(s) ………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

4. What specific responsibilities do you have in flood prevention and management? .……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

5. Is the institution adequately resourced to carry out its responsibilities? Yes [ ] No [ ]

If No, in what areas are you challenged? i. Human……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

ii. Financial…………………………………………………………………………………………………………iii. Logistics & Equipment……………………………………………………………………………………..iv. Legal ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………v. Others (specify) ………………………………………………………………………………………………

6. (a) Do you collaborate with any agencies in flood prevention and management?Yes [ ] No [ ](b) If Yes which one(s) …………………………………………………………………………………………...

…………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...

(c) Are you satisfied with the level of collaboration? Yes [ ] No [ ](d) If no, why? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

7. Why does the Accra Metropolis suffers from persistent flooding? …………………………….......................................................................................................................................................................................……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

70

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

8. What steps are being taken to address them? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

9. (a) Do you involve the citizenry in the activities of the institution? Yes [ ] No [ ](b) If yes, how do you rate their level of participation?High [ ] Average [ ] Low [ ] Nil [ ](c) What do you think account for this level? ………………………………………………………………...…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………(d) If No, why? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

71

DEPARTMENT OF PLANNINGKWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

MSc. DEVELOPMENT PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT SPECIAL STUDY

GHANA METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES

1. (a) Name of Respondent ………………………………………………………………………………………(b) Position Held ………………………………………………………………………………………………….

2. Major functions of institution(i) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………(ii) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………(iii) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………(iv) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. (a) Are you aware of any programmes/projects aimed at reducing the incidence of flooding in the Accra Metropolis? Yes [ ] No [ ](b) If yes, which one(s) ………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

4. What specific responsibilities do you have in flood prevention and management? .……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

5. Is the institution adequately resourced to carry out its responsibilities? Yes [ ] No [ ]

If No, in what areas are you challenged? i. Human……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

ii. Financial…………………………………………………………………………………………………………iii. Logistics & Equipment……………………………………………………………………………………..iv. Legal ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………v. Others (specify) ………………………………………………………………………………………………

6. (a) Do you collaborate with any agencies in flood prevention and management?Yes [ ] No [ ](b) If Yes which one(s) …………………………………………………………………………………………...

…………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...

(c) Are you satisfied with the level of collaboration? Yes [ ] No [ ](d) If no, why? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

7. Why does the Accra Metropolis suffers from persistent flooding? …………………………….......................................................................................................................................................................................…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

72

8. What steps are being taken to address them? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

9. (a) Do you involve the citizenry in the activities of the institution? Yes [ ] No [ ](b) If yes, how do you rate their level of participation?High [ ] Average [ ] Low [ ] Nil [ ](c) What do you think account for this level? ………………………………………………………………...…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………(d) If No, why? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

10. Please suggest general preventive measures to take against flooding …………………...………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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DEPARTMENT OF PLANNINGKWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

ACCRA METROPOLITAN TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING DEPARTMENT

1. (a) Name of Respondent …………………………………………………………………………………………..(b) Official position Held ……………………………………………………………………………………………..

2. Major functions of institution(i) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………(ii)………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………(iii)……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..(iv)……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

3. (a) Do you have planning schemes for the flood prone areas of the metropolis? Yes [ ]No [ ]

(b) If yes, are they being implemented and enforced? Yes [ ] No [ ](c) Do you think land use activities are responsible for the flooding of such communities? Yes [ ] No [ ]Give reasons for response …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….................................

(d) Please supply the following informationSettlement Applications

ReceivedApproved Refused Remarks

2007 2008 2007 2008 2007 2008Alajo

Dzorwulu

Avenor

Adabraka

4. (a) Are you aware of any programmes/projects aimed at reducing the incidence of flooding in the Accra Metropolis? Yes [ ] No [ ](b) If yes, which one(s) ……………………………………………………………….……………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

5. What specific actions do you take in flood prevention and management?………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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6. Is the institution adequately resourced to carry out its responsibilities? Yes [ ]No [ ]If No, in what areas are you challenged?

i. Human………………………………………………………………………………………………………………ii. Financial……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

iii. Logistics & Equipment………………………………………………………………………………………..iv. Legal …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………v. Others(specify) …………………………………………………………………………………………………

7. What steps are being taken to address them? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

8. (a) Do you collaborate with any agencies in flood prevention and management? Yes [ ] No [ ](b) If Yes which one(s) ………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………..……………………………………………………………………………...........................................................…………………………………………………………………………………………………...............................................(c) Are you satisfied with the level of collaboration? Yes [ ] No [ ](d) If no, why? ….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

9. Why do you think the Accra Metropolis suffers from persistent flooding? ........................………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..........................................................................................................................................................................................................

10. (a) Do you involve the citizenry in the activities of the institution? Yes [ ] No [ ](b) If yes, at what level? ……………………………………………………………………………………………….(c) how do you rate their level of participation?High [ ] Average [ ] Low [ ]Nil [ ](d) What do you think account for this level? ………………………………..……………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………….………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..(e) If No, why? …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………….…………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………

75

DEPARTMENT OF PLANNINGKWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

MSc. DEVELOPMENT PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT SPECIAL STUDY

ACCRA METROPOLITAN WORKS DEPARTMENT

1. (a) Name of Institution ………………………………………………………………………………………….. (b) Name of Respondent …………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Major functions of institution(i) …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..….……….(ii)……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…..….………(iii)………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..(iv)………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..(v) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...….…………

3. (a) Do you have planning schemes for communities in the metropolis?Yes [ ] No [ ](b) If yes, are they being implemented and enforced? Yes [ ] No [ ](c) If No, why? …………………………………………………………………………………………….…….……….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…….……...……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….….……...…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…….……...(c) Do you think land use activities are responsible for the flooding of such communities? Yes [ ] No [ ]Give reasons for response …………………………………………………………………………………….……..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………................................……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..........

4. (a) Are you aware of any programmes/projects aimed at reducing the incidence of flooding in the Accra Metropolis? Yes [ ] No [ ](b) If yes, which one(s) ……………………………………………………………….……………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….................................

5. What specific actions do you take in flood management and prevention? ……..….….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

6. Is the institution adequately resourced to carry out its responsibilities? Yes [ ] No [ ]

If No, in what areas are you challenged? i. Human…………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………

ii. Financial…………………………………………………………………………………………………..………iii. Logistics & Equipment………………………………………………………………………………………iv. Legal ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

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v. Others(specify)…………………………………………………………………………………………………

7. What steps are being taken to address them? ………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………...………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………….............................................................

8. (a) Do you collaborate with any agencies in flood management and prevention?Yes [ ] No [ ](b) If Yes which one(s)……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………(c) Are you satisfied with the level of collaboration? Yes [ ] No [ ](d) If no, why? ………………………………………………………………………………………………..................……………………………………………………………………………………………………………...............................

9. Why are the floods persisting in the Accra Metropolis?.…………………………………........................................................................................................................................................................………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...

10. (a) Do you involve the people in the communities in the activities of the institution? Yes [ ] No [ ](b) If yes, at what level? ……………………………………………………(c) How do you rate their level of participation?High [ ] Average [ ] Low [ ] Nil [ ](d) What do you think account for this level? ……………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………(e) If No, why? ………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

77

DEPARTMENT OF PLANNINGKWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

NATIONAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT ORGANISATION (NADMO)

1. (a) Name of Respondent ………………………………………………………………………………..(c) Official position Held …………..……………………………………………………………………

2. Major functions of institution(i) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..(ii)………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..(iii)……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….(iv)……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

3. (a) Do you have any special regulations for activities in flood prone areas of the metropolis? Yes [ ] No [ ](b) If yes, are they being enforced? Yes [ ] No [ ](c) Do you think land use activities are responsible for the flooding of such communities? Yes [ ] No [ ]

Give reasons for response …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………........................……..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…

4. (a) Are you aware of any programmes/projects aimed at reducing the incidence of flooding in the Accra Metropolis? Yes [ ] No [ ](b) If yes, which one(s) ……………………………………………………………….………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

5. What specific actions do you take in flood prevention and management?……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

6. Is the institution adequately resourced to carry out its responsibilities? Yes [ ] No [ ]

If No, in what areas are you challenged? i. Human……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

ii. Financial…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..iii. Logistics & Equipment………………………………………………………………………………………iv. Legal ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….v. Others (specify) ……………………………………………………………………………………………….

7. What steps are being taken to address them? ………………………………………………………….

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……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………….

8.(a) Do you collaborate with any agencies in flood management and prevention?Yes [ ] No [ ](b) If Yes which one(s)………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………...............................................(c) Are you satisfied with the level of collaboration? Yes [ ] No [ ](d) If no, why? …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

9. Why do you think the Accra Metropolis suffers from persistent flooding? ……………….............................................................................................................................................................……………….......…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

10. (a) Do you involve the citizenry in the activities of the institution? Yes [ ] No [ ](b) If yes, at what level? ………………………………………………………………………………………………(c) How do you rate their level of participation?High [ ] Average [ ] Low [ ]Nil [ ](c) What do you think account for this level? …………………………………………………………….....…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………(d) If No, why? …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

79

DEPARTMENT OF PLANNINGKWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

METROPOLITAN WASTE MANAGEMENT DEPARTMENT (WMD)-AMA

1. (a) Name of Respondent ………………………………………………………………………………………… (b) Official position Held …………..…………………………………………………………………………….

2. Major functions of institution(i) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..(ii)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….(iii)……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………(iv)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

3. (a) Do you have any special regulations for activities in flood prone areas of the metropolis? Yes [ ] No [ ](b) If yes, are they being enforced? Yes [ ] No [ ](c) Do you think land use activities are responsible for the flooding of such communities? Yes [ ] No [ ]

Give reasons for response …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………........................……..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..….

4.(a) Are you aware of any programmes/projects aimed at reducing the incidence of flooding in the Accra Metropolis? Yes [ ] No [ ]

(b) If yes, which one(s) ……………………………………………………………….…………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….................................

5. (a) What specific actions do you take in flood prevention and management?……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

(b) Is the institution adequately resourced to carry out its responsibilities? Yes [ ]No [ ]

If No, in what areas are you challenged? vi. Human…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

vii. Financial…………………………………………………………………………………………………………viii. Logistics & Equipment……………………………………………………………………………………..

ix. Legal ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………x. Others (specify) ………………………………………………………………………………………………

(c) What steps are being taken to address them? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...

80

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...............................................................

8. (a) Do you collaborate with any agencies in flood management and prevention?Yes [ ] No [ ]

(b) If Yes which one(s)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….................................................(c) Are you satisfied with the level of collaboration? Yes [ ] No [ ](d) If no, why? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

9. Why do you think the Accra Metropolis suffers from persistent flooding? ……………….............................................................................................................................................................……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

10. (a) Do you involve the citizenry in the activities of the institution? Yes [ ] No [ ](b) If yes, at what level? ……………………………………………………………………………………………(c) How do you rate their level of participation?High [ ] Average [ ] Low [ ]Nil [ ](c) What do you think account for this level? ……………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………(d) If No, why? …………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

81

DEPARTMENT OF PLANNINGKWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

INSTITUTIONAL INTERVIEW GUIDE

ACCRA METROPOLITAN PUBLIC HEALTH UNIT

1. (a) Name of Respondent ……………………………………………………………………………….(c) Official position Held …………..……………………………………………………………………

2. Major functions of institution(i) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….(ii)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………(iii)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………(iv)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. (a) Do you have any special regulations for activities in flood prone areas of the metropolis? Yes [ ] No [ ](b) If yes, are they being enforced? Yes [ ] No [ ](c) Do you think land use activities are responsible for the flooding of such communities? Yes [ ] No [ ]

Give reasons for response …………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………........................…….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

4. (a) Are you aware of any programmes/projects aimed at reducing the incidence of flooding in the Accra Metropolis? Yes [ ] No [ ]

(b) If yes, which one(s) ……………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………................................

5(a) What specific actions do you take in flood prevention and management?……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

(b) Is the institution adequately resourced to carry out its responsibilities? Yes [ ] No [ ]If No, in what areas are you challenged? i. Human……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………ii. Financial……………………………………………………………………………………………………………......iii. Logistics & Equipment……………………………………………………………………………………………iv. Legal …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….v. Others (specify) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

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(c) What steps are being taken to address them? ………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………..

8.(a) Do you collaborate with any agencies in flood management and prevention?Yes [ ] No [ ](b) If Yes which one(s)……………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………(c) Are you satisfied with the level of collaboration? Yes [ ] No [ ](d) If no, why? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

9.Why do you think the Accra Metropolis suffers from persistent flooding? ………………….............................................................................................................................................................…………………...………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………

10. (a) Do you involve the citizenry in the activities of the institution? Yes [ ] No [ ](b) If yes, at what level? ……………………………………………………………………………………………….(c) How do you rate their level of participation?High [ ] Average [ ] Low [ ]Nil [ ](c) What do you think account for this level? …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………(d) If No, why? …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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