Performance = Ability x Motivation

Self-Actualization

Self-Esteem Needs

Social Needs

Safety Needs

Physiological Needs

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy

Basic needs

Equity Theory

Social comparison process where motivation is due to perceptions of inequity

Person

(forms a ratio of inputs to outcomes and compares this ratio to a comparison other)

Comparison Other

(can be a co-worker, yourself in the past, an ideal)

Inputs (e.g., experience, effort, skill, education)

Outcomes (e.g., $, benefits, flexibility, autonomy, responsibility, promotion)

Overpayment (receiving greater outcomes to inputs

compared to another)

Underpayment (receiving less outcomes to inputs compared to another)

Person: 50/75

Other: 50/50

Person: 50/50

Other: 50/75

Result:

Hourly work (salaried position) :

Greater input (e.g., effort) to reduce the perceive inequity regarding the quantity and quality of goods

Piece rate: Greater input to produce better quality goods

Equity Theory Example

Result:

Hourly work (salaried position):

Less input (e.g., effort) to produce less number and poorer quality of goods

Piece rate: Greater input to produce more quantity of goods but with less quality

Behavioral Options to reduce perceived inequity:

1) Change outcomes (e.g., ask for a raise)

2) Get other to change their inputs to outcomes (e.g., slow down their rate of production

3) Find new work (e.g., quit the job, get a job transfer)

Cognitive Options to reduce perceived inequity:

1) Distort one’s own inputs or outcomes (e.g., “I’m not really working that hard,” “I have a lot of free time”)

2) Distort the inputs or outcomes of others (e.g., he/she gets more money than me but they have to live in Buffalo)

3) Change the comparison other

Inequity Options

Expectancy Theory

Rewards (Outcomes)

Pay

Work Conditions

Benefits

Autonomy

Valences

(attractiveness of outcomes rated on a

scale from -10 to +10. A valence is given to each job

outcome)

Instrumentality

(the perceived relationship

between performance and attained

outcomes from 0 to 1.0. One instrumentality

for each valence)

Expectancy

(perceived relationship

between effort and

performance; 0 to 1.0. There is

only one expectancy

value)

Motivation force = (V x I) + (V x I) + (V x I) + (V x I) x E

9

6

7

3

.75

.50

.30

.10

Reinforcement Theory

Stimulus Response Reinforcement

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Fixed Interval (FI) e.g., reinforcement by the hour or week

• Fixed Ratio (FR) e.g., reinforce based on piece rate on the number of goods produced, behaviors performed

• Variable Interval (VI) e.g., reinforcement based on random passage of time

• Variable Ratio (VR) e.g., random (variable) reinforcement based on the number of goods produced, behaviors performed (such as gambling)

Goal Setting

Goal

Awareness

Goal

Acceptability

Knowledge of behaviors

needed to achieve goals

Feedback

It is best for goals to be:

• Challenging (difficult)

• Specific

Reasons Why Goals Setting Works (Mechanisms)• Directs actions of employees

• Aids in the development of strategies

• Energizes actions/behaviors

• Promotes persistence

Possible Limitations:

• Competition

• Production of undesirable behaviors (e.g., unethical, not reporting goal-damaging behaviors)

• Focus on certain performance criteria (e.g., quantity vs. quality)

Fulfilling valued goals leads to self-satisfaction and creates incentives to intensify efforts

• Effectiveness of assigned versus participative goal setting

a) Role of authority figure

b) Creation of confidence in employees (high self-efficacy)

c) Creates challenge

d) Helps to define standards for employees

• Role of goal acceptability and difficult goals (low expectancy goals; one’s where the probability for success is low)

• Satisfaction (easy goals) versus motivation (difficult goals)

a) Use of moderately difficult goals

b) Different points used for easy and difficult goals

c) Make goals incrementally more difficult (accomplishing earlier, easier goals can lead to satisfaction)

Interaction of goal setting and feedback (One without the other does not work)

~ Some Goal Setting Issues~

Moderating Factors Goal Commitment Feedback Ability Task Complexity Situational constraints

HighPerformance

Specific,High Goals

HighExpectancy

Self-Efficacy

Mediating Mechanisms Effort Persistence Direction Task Strategies (plans)

Contingent &Non-Contingent

Rewards

Goal Setting Model

Satisfaction(and anticipated satisfaction)

Commitment to theOrganization and its Goals

Self-Efficacy: Beliefs about one’s capabilities to produce a desired level of performance and to control events

“Whether you think you can or you can’t, you’re usually right.” --- Henry Ford

“If I have the belief that I can do it, I shall surely acquire the capacity to so it even if I may not have it at the beginning.” --- Mahatma Gandhi

“A man who doubts himself is like a man who would enlist in the ranks of his enemies and bear arms against himself. He makes his failure certain by himself being the first person to be convinced of it.” --- Alexandre Dumas

“Self confidence is the first requisite to great undertakings.” --- Samuel Johnson

Sample Self-Efficacy Items

• I can always manage to solve difficult problems if I try hard enough

• I someone opposes me, I can find means and ways to get what I want.

• It is easy for me to stick to my aims and accomplish my goals.

• I am confident that I could deal efficiently with unexpected events.

• Thanks to my resourcefulness, I know how to handle unforeseen situations.

• I can solve most problems if I invest the necessary effort.

• I can remain calm when facing difficulties because I can rely on my coping abilities.

• If I am confronted with a problem, I can usually find several solutions.

• If I am in trouble, I can usually think of something to do.

• No matter what comes my way, I’m usually able to handle it.

Perceived self-efficacy

Feelings

Thoughts

Motivation

Behavior

Bulk of motivation is due to our thoughts about what we can do, and the

anticipation of the likely outcomes of our behaviors

Failure: Attributions, resilience, effort, and future goal levels

Core Job Dimensions

Skill Variety

Task Identity

Task Significance

Critical Psychological

States

Meaningfulness of work

AutonomyResponsibility

for work outcomes

FeedbackKnowledge of work results

Employee Growth Need Strength

Personal & Work Outcomes

• High intrinsic work motivation

• High quality of work performance

• High satisfaction with work

• Low absenteeism and turnover

Job Characteristics Model

Motivation Potential Score = (Skill variety + Task identity + Task significance) /3 x Autonomy x Feedback

Combine Tasks

Put tasks into natural work units

Customer contact

Vertically load jobs

Open feedback channels

Sample Questions From The Job Diagnostic Survey

• How much autonomy is there in your job? That is, to what extent does your job permit you to decide on your own how to go about doing the work?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7Very little; the job gives me almost no personal “say” about how and when the work is done

Moderate autonomy; many things are standardized and not under my control, but I can make some decisions about the work

Very much; the job gives me almost complete responsibility for deciding how and when the work is done

• How significant or important is your job? That is, are the results of your work likely to significantly affect the lives or well-being of other people?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7Not very significant; the outcomes of my work are not likely to have important effects on other people

Moderately significant

Highly significant; the outcomes of my work can affect other people in very important ways

• To what extent do managers and co-workers tell you how well you are doing on your job?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7Very little; people almost never let me know how well I am doing

Moderately; sometimes people may give me “feedback,” other times they may not

Very much; managers or co-workers provide me with almost constant “feedback” about how well I’m doing

“Intrinsically motivated behavior is by definition self-determined. It is done freely for the inherent satisfaction associated with certain activities and with undertaking optimal challenge”

(Deci & Ryan, 1987)

Developing Self-Determination

Motivation: SDT

Intrinsic Motivation

Extrinsic Motivation

The activity itself is rewarding; you are interested, and enjoy doing it

The gains we make from the activity motivate us (e.g., money, power, prestige, endorsements)

What/where are people’s motivational incentives?

A Look at Rewards for Motivation

• Good jump ropers during recess were chosen and put in three conditions.

• Following the intervention, which group will jump rope during recess more?

Expected reward:

Students were told if they did a good job, they would get a “good jumper” badge. All got a badge.

Unexpected reward:

Students were awarded a “good jumper” badge after doing a good job on the task. All got a badge.

Control / No reward:

Students jumped rope, but were not told of a reward, and were not given one.

Intrinsic Motivation

Overall Motivation = Internal + External Rewards

Individuals who intrinsically

enjoy their workIncrease extrinsic (external) rewards

(e.g., pay)

Can lead to lowered intrinsic

motivation

Why? IntrinsicMotivation

Extrinsic Motivation

• Extrinsic (external) factors now partially account for why

individuals are motivated to perform a given task

• External rewards limit people’s sense of self-determination

Tangible extrinsic rewards reliably undermine intrinsic motivation under most circumstances. The most detrimental reward contingency involves giving rewards as a direct function of people's performance. This is the one most often used in life, seems to be the one that is most detrimental to the motivation, performance, and well-being. http://www.psych.rochester.edu/SDT/cont_reward.html