PERPUSTAKAAN UMP

ffl III Iffi III IM II 1111 llI IIll III 0000092675

EVALUATION OF CO11 - )N AND COMPRESSION INDEX OF KUANTAN CLAYEY SOIL STABILISED BY RECYCLED AND

REUSED MATERIALS MIXED WITH PORTLAND CEMENT

CHUA PENG YANG

A final year project report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Civil Engineering

Faculty of Civil Engineering and Earth Resources UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PAHANG

JUNE 2013

V

ABSTRACT

This thesis presents the evaluation for the coefficient of consolidation and compression index of Kuantan soils using variable reused and recycled materials mixed with Portland cement. The objective of this thesis is to evaluate the change of compression index, void ratio, and coefficient of consolidation of Kuantan Clayey stabilized by recycle and' reuse material mixed with Portland cement by using one-dimensional consolidation test and study the engineering properties of clay soil before and after undergoing one-dimensional consolidation test. This thesis describes the one-dimensional consolidation tests done to compute the changes of compressibility and justify the suitable amount of additives used. Crushed glass, shredded carpet fibres, fly ash, and shredded high density polyethylene plastic which are classified as recyle and reused materials were added into Kuantan clay soil and then mixed with Portland cement to study and evaluate the Kuantan clay in term of compressibility. In this thesis, the values of coefficient of consolidation and compression index soils were done using a One-dimensional consolidation test. The analysis of the test was performed semi-automatically using One-dimensional consolidation program from ELE International. After analysis by the system, the coefficient of consolidation and compression index of the samples obtained were employed as parameter to find the compressibility of Kuantan clay soil. From the results conducted, analysis of using fly ash blend is more conservative reading in coefficient of consolidation indicated better rate of consolidation. Still, soil sample added with crushed glass mixed with Portland cement performed better decrement in compression index indicated better performance in compressibility. The achieved results utilizing high density polyethylene and carpet fibres gave low performance in compressibility compared to crushed glass and fly ash. In conclusion, after comparing all the recycled and reused materials, crushed glass mixed with Portland cement is the most capable treatments to improve engineering properties of Kuantan clay. The results can also considerably reduce the cost of construction and materials to improve soils stability in Kuantan, Pahang.

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ABSTRAK

Tesis mi membentangkan penilaian untuk pekali pengukuhan dan indeks mampatan tanah Kuantan menggunakan bahan-bahan yang boleh diguna dan dikitar semula dicampur dengan simen. Objektifprojek mi adalah untuk menilai penukaran nilai pekali pengukuhan, nisbah lompang, dan indeks mampatan untuk tanah Kuantan distabilkan oleh bahan-bahan pengitar dan pengguna semula dicampuri dengan simen Portland dengan mengunakan ujian oedometer dan mengaji properti kejuruteraan sebelum dan selepas melaksanakan ujian konsolidasi satu dimensi. Thesis mi membincangkan ujian konsolidasi satu dimensi dan menghitung perubahan mampatan dan mengenalpasti jumlah kesesuaian bahan-bahan yang dicampuri dalam specimen tanah Kuantan. Kaca hancur, serat permaidani, abu terbang, dan bahan plastik polietilenayang dikiasifikasikan sebagi bahan dikitar semula dan duguna semula telah ditambahkan ke dalam tanah hat Kuantan dan dicampuri dengan simen Portland untuk mengkaji kemampatan tanah tersebut. Dalam thesis ini, nilai-nilai pekali pengukuhan dan indeks mampatan tanah Kuantan telah dilakukan dikaji melalui ujian konsohidasi satu dimensi. Ujian mi telah dianalisasi melalui program ujian semi-automatik konsolidasi yang dikembangkan oleh ELE international. Selepas dianalisasi oleh system tersebut, nilai-nilai pekali pengukuhan dan indeks mampatan akan digunakan sebagai pembolehubah untuk mencari kemampatan tanah hat Kuantan. Daripada keputusan yang diperolehi, dengan menggunakan abu terbang menghasilkan keputusan yang lebih konservatif dalam pekali pengukuhan yang menunjukkan kadar pengukuhan tanah yang cepat. Selain itu, tanah sample kacahancur yang ditambah dengan simen Portland memberi keputusan penurunan dalam indeks mampatan yang menunjukkan nilai kemampatan yang memuaskan. Walaubagaimanapun, keputusan yang diperolehi daripada kegunaan polietilena dan serat permaidani menunjukkan ciri mampatan yang tidak memuaskan dibandingkan dengan keputusan yang diperolehi menggunakan kaca hancur dan abu terbang. Secara kesimpulan, selepas membandingkan kesemua bahan-bahan mengitar semual dan mengguna semula, kaca hancur yang ditambah dengan simen Portland telah menunjukana bahawa ia adalah sesuai dijadikan rawatan yang menjanjikan dalam peningkatan properti kejuruteraan tanah hat Kuantan. Keputusan yang ketara juga boleh dipertimbangkan dalam pengurangan kos pembangunan dan bahan-bahan mentah dalam peningkatan kestabilan tanah di Kuantan, Pahang.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

SUPERVISOR'S DECLARATION

STUDENT'S DECLARATION

ACKNOWLEDGENMENTS iv

ABSTRACT.

ABSTRAK

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

LIST OF TABLES x

LIST OF FIGURES xi

LIST OF SYMBOLS xv

LIST OF ABBREVIATONS xvi

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Problem Statement 2

1.3 Objectives 3

1.4 Scope of Study 4

1.5 Background of Study 4

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction 6

2.2 Clay Soil 6

2.3 Portland Cement 7

2.4 Fly Ash 7

2.5 Crushed Glass 8

2.6 High-Density Polyethylene 8

2.7 Soil Classification 8

2.7.1 Water Content 10 2.7.2 Plastic Limit 10 2.7.3 Liquid Limit 10

VII

VIII

2.7.4 Plasticity Index 11 2.7.5 Specific Gravity 12

2.8 Three Phases of Settlement 13

2.9 Fundamental of Consolidation 13

2.10 One-Dimensional Consolidation 15

2.11 The Consolidation Test 16

2.12 Void Ratio and Pressure Plot 17

2.13 Compression Index 19

2.14 Time Rate of Consolidation 20

2.15 Coefficient of Consolidation 21

2.16 Peat Soil Stabilization Using Pond Ash 23

2.17 Portland Cement as Stabilizer 24

2.18 Soil Stabilization in Kuantan Pahang 24

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction 25

3.2 Research Methodology 26

3.3 Sample Preparation 27

3.4 Determination of Engineering Properties of Kuantan Clay 29

3.4.1 Particle Size Distribution 29 3.4.1.1 Sieve Analysis 30

3.4.2 Liquid Limit Test 30 3.4.3 Plastic Limit Test 32 3.4.4 Plasticity Index 34 3.4.5 Specific Gravity 34

3.5 Soil Classification 35

3.6 Standard Proctor Test 36

3.7 One-Dimensional Oedometer Test 37

3.7.1 Sample Preparation 37 3.7.2 Laboratory Testing 38

3.8 Data Analysis 40

ix

CHAPTER 4 RESULT AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction 42

4.2 Particle Size Distribution 42

4.3 Atterberg Limit 26

4.4 Classification of Soil 44

4.5 Standard Proctor Test 46

4.6 One-Dimensional Consolidation Test 47

4.7 Coefficient of Consolidation Versus Pressure Plot 47

4.8 Effect of Void Ratio for Soil Sample S2 62

4.9 Effect of Void Ratio for Soil Sample S24 68

4.10 Compression Index Plot 69

4. 10.1 Effect of Compression Index on Soil Sample S2 71 4. 10.1 Effect of Compression Index on Soil Sample S24 74

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion 75

5.2 Recommendation 76

REFERENCES 77

APPENDICES 80

X

LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Title Page

2.1 Chemical composition of Portland cement (Taylor, 1997) 7

2.2 Soil type based on particle sizes 9

2.3 Classification of soil by plasticity index (Das, 1985) 12

2.4 Specific gravity of some common minerals found in soils 12

2.5 Correlation for compression index, Cc 20

2.6 Primary compression index, Cc for several kind of soil. (Slamet 20 & Abdelazim, 2012)

3.1 List of percentage of additives used -by weight of dry soil 41

3.2 List of percentage of additive used by weight of dry soil 41

4.1 Atterberg limit 44

4.2 Optimum moisture content for soils without lime stabilizer 46

4.3 Optimum moisture content for soils with lime stabilizer 47

LIST OF FIGURES

A

Figure No. Title

2.1 Moisture content (%) versus cone penetration (mm)

2.2 Analogy of consolidation with cylinder and spring

2.3 Void ratio vs. effective pressure in semi-logarithm graph

2.4 Degree of consolidation, U versus time factor, T

2.5 Analysis C, by Taylor Square Root of Time Ftitting Method (Taylor, 1948)

3.1 Ordinary Portland cement

3.2 Shredded High-density polyethylene (HDPE)

3.3 Carpet fibre

3.4 Fly ash

3.5 5mm crushed glass

3.6 Sample collecting

3.7 Sample preparation

3.8 Sample prepared

3.9 One-dimensional Oedometer test

3.10 Setting up consolidation set

3.11 Supervision on consolidation test

4.1 Sieve Analysis for S2

4.2 Sieve analysis for S24

4.3 Determination of S2 soil type based on USCS plasticity chart

4.4 Determination of S24 soil type based on USCS plasticity chart

4.5 Coefficient of consolidation of original S2 clay and S2 clay mixed with various compositions of fly ash versus different pressure

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XII

4.6 Coefficient of consolidation of original S2 clay and S2 clay 48 mixed with various compositions of carpet fibre versus different pressure

4.7 Coefficient of consolidation of original S2 clay and S2 clay 49 mixed with various compositions of HDPE versus different pressure

4.8 Coefficient of consolidation of original S2 clay and S2 clay 49 mixed with various compositions of crushed glass versus different pressure

4.9 Coefficient of consolidation of original S2 clay and S2 clay 51 mixed with various compositions of fly ash stabilize by different proportion of Portland cement versus different pressure

4.10 Coefficient of consolidation of original S2 clay and S2 clay 51 mixed with various compositions of HDPE stabilize by different proportion of Portland cement versus different pressure

4.11 Coefficient of consolidation of original S2 clay and S2 clay 52 mixed with various compositions of carpet fibre stabilize by different proportion of Portland cement versus different pressure

4.12 Coefficient of consolidation of original S2 clay and S2 clay 52 mixed with various compositions of crushed glass stabilize by different proportion of Portland cement versus different pressure

4.13 Coefficient of consolidation of original S24 clay and S24 clay 53 mixed with various compositions of fly ash versus different pressure

4.14 Coefficient of consolidation of original S24 clay and S24 clay 54 mixed with various compositions of carpet fibre versus different pressure

4.15 Coefficient of consolidation of original S24 clay and S24 clay 54 mixed with various compositions of HDPE versus different pressure

4.16 Coefficient of consolidation of original S24 clay and S24 clay 55 mixed with various compositions of crushed glass versus different pressure

XIII

4.17 Coefficient of consolidation of original S24 clay and S24 clay 56 mixed with various compositions of fly ash stabilize by different proportion of Portland cement versus different pressure

4.18 Coefficient of consolidation of original S24 clay and S24 clay 56 mixed with various compositions of HDPE stabilize by different proportion of Portland cement versus different pressure

4.19 Coefficient of consolidation of original S24 clay and S24 clay 57 mixed with various compositions of carpet fibre stabilize by different proportion of Portland cement versus different pressure

4.20 Coefficient of consolidation of original S24 clay and S24 clay 57 mixed with various compositions of crushed glass stabilize by different proportion of Portland cement versus different pressure

4.21 Void Ratio versus gradually increased pressure with varying fly 58 ash content for S2

4.22 Void ratio versus gradually increased pressure with varying 59 crushed glass content for S2

4.23 Void ratio versus gradually increased pressure with varying 59 carpet fibre content for S2

4.24 Void ratio versus gradually increased pressure with varying 60 HDPE content for S2

4.25 Void Ratio versus increased pressure with varying fly ash 60 content mixed with different proportion of Portland cement for S2

4.26 Void Ratio versus increased pressure with varying crushed 61 glass content mixed with different proportion of Portland cement for S2

4.27 Void Ratio versus increased pressure with varying carpet fibre 61 content mixed with different proportion of Portland cement for S2

4.28 Void ratio versus increased pressure with varying HDPE 62 content mixed with different proportion of Portland cement for S2

4.29 Void ratio versus increased pressure with varying fly ash 64 content for S24

xiv

4.30 Void ratio versus increased pressure with varying crushed glass 64 content for S24

4.31 Void ratio versus increased pressure with carpet fibre content 65 for S24

4.32 Void ratio versus increased pressure with varying HDPE 65 content for S24

4.33 Void ratio versus increased pressure with varying fly ash 66 content mixed with different Portland cement Dosage for S24

4.34 Void ratio versus increased pressure with varying crushed glass 66 mixed with different Portland cement Dosage for S24

4.35 Void ratio versus increased pressure with varying carpet fibre 67 content mixed with different Portland cement Dosage for S24

4.36 Void ratio versus increased pressure with varying HDPE 67 content mixed with different Portland cement Dosage for S24

4.37 Compression index versus varying additives content for S2 70

4.38 Compression index versus varying additives content mixed with 70 different Portland cement dosage for S2.

4.39 Compression index versus varying additives content for S24 72

Compression index versus varying additives content mixed with 73 4.40 different Portland cement dosage for S24

LIST OF SYMBOLS

V Volume

G Specific Gravity

C Compression Index

Coefficient of Consolidation

eo Initial Void Ratio

e Void Ratio

LL Liquid Limit

P1 Plasticity Index

PL Plastic Limit

ST Total Settlement

Sc Primary Consolidation Settlement

Ss Secondary Consolidation Settlement

Se Elastic Settlement

W Dry Weight of the Specimen

M Dry Mass of the Specimen

Unit Weight of Water

Effective Stress

P Density of Water

Hv Height of Void

Hs Height of Soil

xv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CaO Calsium Oxide

Si02 Silicon Dioxide

Al203 Aluminium Oxide

Fe2O3 Iron (iii) Oxide

Si Silicon

Fe Iron

Mg Magnesium

K Potassium

Mn Manganese

SPI Society of Plastic Industry

AASTHO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

USDS United States Department of Agriculture

USCS Unconfined Soil Classification System

CF Carpet Fibre

CG Crushed Glass

FA Fly Ash

HDPE High Density Polyethylene

S2 Kuantan Clay located at Lepar Hilir

S24 Kuantan Clay located at Panching

1 -D One-Dimensional

xvi

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Kuantan Clay is one type of clayey soil situated in Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia.

Clay soil can be classified as a problematic soil. The low strength and high

compressibility characteristic of the soil made the clayey soil is not favors in any kind

of construction. The purpose of this research is to investigate the behavior of

compression index, C c and coefficient of consolidation, Cv when Kuantan Clay are

mixed with additive such as fly ash, HDPE, crushed glass, and carpet fiber. Besides, this

research needs to investigate engineering properties of Kuantan Clay when mixed

additive mention above with Portland cement. The additives are made from reuse and

recycle materials and used to stabilize Kuantan Clay and improve the engineering

properties of Kuantan Clay for construction purpose. Consolidation is a process in

which reduction in volume, V takes place by expulsion of water under long term of

static loads. Compression index, Cc is an index developed by Terzaghi based on a test

resulted from One-Dimensional Oedometer test (Terzaghi, 2006). The compression

index can be used to predict the amount of consolidation of the soil. By obtaining the

void ratio, e0 and effective pressure, s', a graph of void ratio from oedometer test, e0

versus effective pressure, ' can be plotted. The graph can be use to predict the

compression index Cc in the Compressibility and settlement of clayey soil may alter by

adding reuses and recycles materials. Furthermore, the coefficient of consolidation, C

can be achieved by using square root time versus settlement method after the soil

sample undergo consolidation test and used to determined the rate of consolidation of

the soil.

2

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The rapid growth of construction development has lead to the insufficient of

quality land for construction. This is the reason why the research on the clayey soil is

more than necessary. The development in construction industry has minimized the

preferred site , of geotechnical quality for construction in Kuantan, Pahang. There are

more development of infrastructure activity is now carried out in clayey soil and the

construction sites have forced to carry out in compressible soils, especially for industrial

structure and transportation project. Any development in construction industry will be

affected by the occurrence of clayey soil.

High compressibility clayey soil has proved that it is increasing the difficulties

in construction (Brandy & Weil, 1999). The construction taking places in clayed soil

have increasingly lately. These have brought a lot of problematic issue toward the

construction due to the low strength and high compressibility of the clayed soil. The not

stable condition and settlement of clayey soil has become the major challenge toward

the constructor. It is crucial for understanding the engineering properties of a clayey soil

toward a structure built on it. In major clayey soil region, construction designs have to

carry out carefully to avoid any failure of the structure due to clayey soil high

compressibility and low shear strength condition. Foundation settlements are the most

emergences problem happen in building construction. Many failure of construction

structures throughout the world are due to the massive settlements of foundation.

Therefore, it is important for us to understand, comprehend, and interpret problem

related to this type of week soil. Consolidation of soils is an important engineering

consideration.

The high compressibility clayey soil is one of the major problems which can

lead to major settlement of foundation (Brandy & Weil, 1999). Water also could be the

main agent that makes the soil become unstable especially with the high ability of the

clayey soil to absorb water within its particles and difficult to release the water trap

inside the particles due to low permeability of soil (Robert, 2009). The soils particles

have high tendency to bond closely with one another make clayey soil become easily to

be compress. Besides that, the stiffness of soil could easily be affected and this make the

3

soil become week in strength. Soil with weak strength, it cannot sustain high load on it

and make the structure built on it become dangerous and more subjected to fail.

Therefore, it is fundamental for the engineer to study this type of clayey soil and

stabilize the clayey soil by using reuse and recycle materials.

Furthermore, increasing population and tremendous urbanization growth have

increase the municipal wastes generate in Malaysia. The huge quantity of municipal

solid waste, particular in Peninsular Malaysia, has increase from 16,200 tonnes a day in

2001 to 19,100 tonnes a day in 2005 on an average of 0.8kg/capitallday. Therefore the

increasing of municipal solid waste has brought a lot of problems to the citizen and

government of Malaysia. On the other hand, increment of solid waste will lead to

pollution to the country. Therefore, in this research have been recommending to use

recycle and reuse materials as the stabilizers (Zarnali et al., 2009, p.2).

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF STUDY

The objectives of this study are as follows:

i. To evaluate the change of compression index and void ratio of Kuantan Clayey

stabilized by recycle and reuse material mixed with Portland cement by using

one-dimensional consolidation test.

ii. To evaluate the coefficient of consolidation of Kuantan Clayey stabilized by

recycled and reused material mixed with Portland cement undergo one-

dimensional consolidation test.

iii. To study the engineering properties of Kuantan Clay before and after stabilized

by recycle and reused materials mixed with Portland cement.

iv. To determine the best proportion of recycled and reused material mixed with

Portland cement in stabilizing Kuantan clay.

4

1.4 SCOPE OF STUDY

Portland cement is the major material to be used in this research to give effect on

the clayey soil since Portland cement is significantly used in stabilization of soil in

construction buildings or structure. The scope of study will cover the investigation of

compression index of stabilized Kuantan clayey mixed with Portland cement. The

objective of the study is to stabilize Kuantan clayey in order to allow construction of

buildings on the clayey soil. This research will emphasize on compression index The

lab testing will be conducted in compression index evaluation is One-Dimensional

Consolidation Test. Soil preparation is done by drying the sample and breaking off

lumps of hardened clay into finer particles and then sieving the dried sample with a

5mm sieve. Samples are then stabilized with some types of recycle and reuse material

with mix of Portland cement and One-D consolidation test will be carried out to

evaluate the compression index of clay.

The area of study for this study includes:

i. Investigate the needs of reuse and recycle to stabilize clayey soil.

ii. Compare the compressibility by referring to the compression index, C void

ration, e., and coefficient of consolidation, C of soil after stabilization.

iii. Recommended the most economic and effective method to stabilized Kuantan

soft clay.

1.5 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

The rapid growth of construction development has lead to the insufficient of

quality soil for construction. Any development in construction industry will be affected

by the occurrence of clayey soil. This is the reason why the research on the clayey soil

is more than necessary. In this research, two areas within the Kuantan area have been

chosen to be the investigation area for clayey soil. The soil sample will be tested in

laboratory for further studies. The development in construction industry has minimized

the preferred site of geotechnical quality for construction in Kuantan, Pahang. There are

more development of infrastructure activity is now carried out in clayey soil and the

construction sites have forced to carry out in compressible soils, especially for industrial

structure and transportation project. Therefore it is important for us to understand,

comprehend, and interpret problem related to this type of week soil. Consolidation of

soils is an important engineering consideration. Consolidation of soil is a process which

involves decrease in water content of a saturated soil without replacement of water by

air. Consolidation also known as a process in which reduction in volume takes place by

expulsion of water under long term static loads. Consolidation of soil can be determined

by many methods.

Compression index is one of the useful methods in determining the amount of

settlement under additional loading through Oedometer test developed by Terzaghi

from consolidation of soil. The oedometer test used to determine the compressibility of

soil which is described using compression index, C, which is the slope of pressure-void

ratio curve on a semi-log plot. Oedometer tests are performed by applying different

loads to a soil sample and measuring the deformation response. The results from these

tests are used to predict how a soil in the field will deform in response to a change in

effective stress It is very important for a geotechnical research to know the

compressibility of soil through this test. The compression index is used to predict the

settlement of soil under additional load. Recycle and reused materials have been

proposed acting as an additive to Kuantan Clay to improve the engineering properties of

the Kuantan Clay.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Inadequate strength or inadequate compressibility resistance is a problem of soil

in many form of construction such as buildings, airfields, tunnels, dams, roads, and

trafficked area. A number of stabilization methods are being used to improve soil

properties since ancient time. In present study, effect of various available stabilizing

agent like Ordinary Portland cement, crushed glass, fly ash, and carpet fibre have been

studies for strength improvement and stabilization of soil. Therefore it is important for

us to study sources form journals, articles, books, and internet for literature review

regarding our topic research.

2.2 CLAY SOIL

The term "clay" refers to a naturally occurring material composed primarily of

fine-grained minerals, which is generally plastic at appropriate water contents and will

harden with dried or fired. Although clay usually contains phyllo silicates, it may

contain other materials that impart plasticity and harden when dried or fired. Associated

phases in clay may include materials that do not impart plasticity and organic matter

(Guggenheim, 1995). Clay soil has small air voids. Water retention is high creating poor

drainage system. Clayey soil impedes the flow of water, meaning it absorbs water slowly

and then retains it for a long time. Clay, referring to United Soil Classification System,

is fine-grained soils with more than 50% by weight passing No.200 US standard sieve

(0.075mm). Soft clay is defined as clay has shear strength below 25kPa (Brand &

Brenner, 1981).

2.3 PORTLAND CEMENT

Cement is an adhesive substance that acts as a binder to bind particles or solid

matter together into a compact whole (Hewlett, 1998, p.1). Portland cement is produced

by mixing limestone and clay or other material that have similarity in term of bulk

composition, and sufficient reactivity by heating it to the temperature of 145 0'C (Neville

& Brooks, 1987, p.8).

A paste of Portland cement develops strength primarily by hydration of the di-

and tn- calcium silicates it contains (Bye, 1999, p 2). Nevertheless, table 2.1 have

summarised the chemical composition of Portland cement.

Table 2.1: Chemical composition of Portland cement

Mineral Chemical - Formula

Oxide Composition

Abbreviation

Tricalcium silicate Ca3SiO5 3CaO.Si02 C3S (alite) Dicalcium silicate Ca2SiO4 2CaO.Si02 C2S (belite) Tricalcium Ca3Al204 3 CaO.A1O 3 C3A aluminate Tetracalcium Ca4A1Fe207 4CaO.AlFe203 C4AF alumino ferrite

Source: Taylor (1997)

Abbreviation notation: C = CaO, S = Si0 2, A = Al203 , F = Fe203.

2.4 FLY ASH

Fly ash is the solid material carried away from the power plant boiler in the flue

gas during coal combustion. Most fly ash particles are in the silt-sized range of 2-50

microns. The three major mineralogical matrices identified in fly ash are glass, mullite-

quartz, and magnetic spinel. The major elemental constituents of fly ash are Si, Al, Fe,

Ca, C, Mg, K, Na, 5, Ti, P, and Mn. (El-mogazi et al., 1988).

Z5

2.5 CRUSHED GLASS

Glass is a significant solid waste produce by the daily activities in the society.

Mostly glass is use as bottle, container for storing consumables or window. Glass is one

of the unique wastes if compared to the others wastes because it can be fully recycle

(Traeholt & Ling, 2010). Recycled glass particles are generally angular shaped and

contain some flat and elongated particles (Disfani et al., 2011).

2.6 HIGH-DENSITY POLYETHYLENE (HDPE)

High-density polyethylene (HDPE) is a polyethylene thermoplastic made from

petroleum. It is best known for its large strength to density ratio. The production of

HDPE is plastic bottles, corrosion-resistant piping, and plastic lumber. HDPE is

commonly recycled and has a SPI resin ID code of 2 for its recycling symbol. The

mass-density can range from 0.93 to 0.97 g/cm 3 . HDPE can be produce by

chromium/silica catalysts, Ziegler-Natha catalysts, and chromium catalysts (Society of

Plastic Industry, n.d).

2.7 SOIL CLASSIFICATION

Classification of clay soil can be done by first determine geotechnical

characteristic of soil as discussed by Brand & Brenner (1981) are:

i. Moisture Content

ii. Liquid Limit

iii. Plastic Limit

iv. Plasticity Index

V. Shear Strength

vi. Pre- consolidation pressure with depth

vii. Characteristic of void ratio versus vertical stress

There are three common soil classification system are designed to allow an easy

transition from field observations to basic predictions of soil engineering properties and

behaviours which are ASSHTO, USCS, and USDS classification. The AASHTO Soil

Classification System was developed by the American Association of State Highway

and Transportation Officials, and is used as a guide for the classification of soils and

soil-aggregate mixtures for highway construction purposes. The soil classification

system was first developed by Hogentogler and Terzaghi in 1929.

The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) is a soil classification system

used in geotechnical field to illustrate the texture and grain size of soil. The USCS has

three major classification groups listed as follow:

i. coarse-grained soils (sands and gravels)

ii. fine-grained soils (silts and clays)

iii. highly organic soils (referred as peat)

Another approach is UDCS Soil Classification System. USDA Soil

Taxonomy developed by United States Department of Agriculture and the National

Cooperative Soil Survey provides classification system for soil type according to

several parameters and in several levels such as order, suborder, great

group, subgroup, and family (Evett et al., 2007).

Table 2.2: Soil type based on particle sizes

Soil Type Particle Sizes (mm) British Standard ASTM (D2487) USCS (BS 5930:1999)

Boulders >200 >300 >300 Cobbles 60-200 75-300 75-300 Gravel 2-60 4.75-75 4.75-75 Sand 0.063-2 0.075-4.75 0.075-4.75 Silt 0.002-0.063 0.005-0.075 0.005-0.075 Clay <0.002 <0.005 <0.005

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2.7.1 Water Content

The water content measurement in clayey soil in this research will be using

gravimetric water content (GWC) measurement method. Water content, w is measure

from the ratio of mass of water to mass of dry soil for gravimetric water content

(Campbell, n.d.). The technique uses for gravimetric water content are as follows:

i. Sample the clayey soil for measure

ii. Weight on precision balance (wet weight)

iii. Dry at 105°C for 24 hours

iv. Weight on precision balance (dry weight)

Mass of Waterx 100 (2.1) Moisture content (°') = Mass of oven—dried soil

2.7.2 Plastic Limit

The plastic limit of a soil is the moisture content, expressed as a percentage of

the weight of the oven-dry soil, at the boundary between the plastic and semisolid states

of consistency. It is the moisture content at which a soil will just begin to crumble when

rolled into a thread Vs in. (3 mm) in diameter using a ground glass plate or other

acceptable surface (Geotechnical Engineering Bureau, 2007).

2.7.3 Liquid Limit

The liquid limit (LL) is the water content at which a soil changes from plastic to

liquid behaviour. The liquid limit of soil is the water content corresponding to the

arbitrary limit between liquid and plastic state of consistency of a soil. It is define as the

minimum water content at which the soil still in liquid state but have a small shearing

strength to resist the flow of the soil.

Liquid limit could be measure by using Casagrande cup (Casagrande, 1932).

The liquid limit of a soil also can be determined by using cone penetrometer test. The

references standard for cone penetrometer test in determine liquid limit is B. S 1377:

I

73

72

70

169

1; 66

11

PART 2: 1990: clause 4.3 & 4.5. For penetrometer test, liquid limit is generally mixing

soil to consistency just wet and dry of the liquid for determining the liquid limit by

interpolating between four point (Clayton & Juke, 1978). Liquid limit of soil is

determined when 300 of cone penetrate 80g of soil at exactly 20mm in 5 second.

65 L 15

20

25 Conepenotralon(mm)

Figure 2.3: Moisture content (%) versus cone penetration (mm)

2.7.4 Plasticity Index

Plastic Index, Ip is a measure of the plasticity of soil. The plasticity index is the

size of range of water content where soil exhibit plastic properties. The Ip is the

difference between liquid limit (LL) and plastic limit (PL). Soil with a higher Ip tends to

declare as clay. Soil with a lower Ip tends to become silt. It shows that a higher Ip has

greater compressible and volume change in soil. The plasticity is one of the most useful

ways to describe a clayey soil.