JOURNAL OF SPORT & EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY, 1991, 13, 121-132

Personal and Situational Influences on Adherence to Mental Skills Training

Stephen J. Bull Brighton Polytechnic

Adherence to mental-skills training has received little empirical investiga- tion despite the recent growth and development in applied sport psychology services. The present study was designed to identify personal and situational variables influencing adherence to a mental training program. Volunteer athletes (N=34) were given a 4-week educational program before being left to train on their own for an experimental period of 8 weeks. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of three treatment intervention conditions (control, written reminders, and group meetings) designed to influence adherence behavior. Results demonstrated the influence of self-motivation in predict- ing mental-training adherence, but the interventions had no significant effect. Adherence levels were generally low but variable between athletes. Inter- views with the athletes indicated the need for individualization of training programs, and problems of time constraints were identified as being influential in the adherence process. Comparable athletes (N= 18) who chose not to volun- teer for the mental training program were psychometrically tested and demon- strated lower sport motivation than the volunteer athletes but greater skill in concentration.

Recently, the application of mental-skills training to competitive athletics has become widespread and consequently is now the focus of an increasing amount of research literature. The efficacy of mental-skills training in sport has been reported both anecdotally and experimentally. A content analysis by Vealey (1988) of 27 books about mental-skills training indicated the surge in published material relating to the area. On a practical level, an increasing number of teams and athletes have requested the services of sport psychology consultants. This increase illus- trates a growing demand for training in the application and implementation of appropriate psychological skills.

Harris and Harris (1984) emphasized that psychological skills are not con- comitant learnings that occur during competition but that they must be learned and practiced. Williams (1986) likened this learning and practice to that associated with the development of physical skills and strategies in that the positive effects

Stephen J. Bull is with the Chelsea School of Human Movement at Brighton Poly- technic, Gaudick Road, Eastbourne, BN20 7SP, England.

122 / Bull

occur after prolonged practice and application. The time needed to develop and optimize an individualized mental-skills program is consequently extensive, and, as Ravizza (1986) pointed out, although many coaches realize the importance of mental-skills training, the challenge of finding time to do it is too much. The development of mental-skills training on a regular, systematic basis is therefore important so that the program becomes a natural part of the athlete's overall train- ing regimen. This is particularly true in contemporary sport where athletes are subjected to higher standards, tougher competition, and greater stakes. These factors make the psychological components of performance more important than they have been in the past (Orlick, 1986a, 1986b).

Given the need for the implementation of mental-skills training programs in sport, questions immediately arise concerning the specific components to be incorporated and how these components should be sequenced and integrated. Boutcher and Rotella (1987) suggested the key ingredient of their four-phase psychological-skills educational program for closed-skill performance enhancement was to apply the lcnowledge systematically, assess and evaluate the program's effectiveness, and constantly strive to foster compliance and adherence. This final point was the focus of the present study, instigated on the premise that it is unwise to assume adherence to mental-skills training is high. Albinson and Bull (1986) reported poor rates of adherence to a relatively short mental-skills training program and provided a start at investigating a very complex, but important, problem. Crocker (1989) stated that program adherence is critical in evaluation of any psy- chological interventions, and Bull (1989) called for a line of research that examined the area in detail.

Because of the dearth of published material pertaining to the mental-skills training adherence paradigm, it is useful to examine other adherence-related literature. Adherence to exercise and health-care programs is typically poor, and dropout rates of 50% are widely reported (Dishrnan, 1986). The exercise- adherence literature, dealt with extensively by Dishman (1988), provides initial insight into factors that may affect the adherence process in other contexts, such as mental-skills training. According to Dishrnan and Ickes (1981), diagnosis of dropout proneness represents the first step in the process of facilitating adherence. To this end, they developed the Self-Motivation Inventory (SMI) and found it useful in enhancing the prediction of adherence to therapeutic exercise. Self- motivation correlated strongly with exercise adherence and was also a better pre- dictor than any of the other psychometric variables tested. Dishrnan and Ickes sug- gested that the self-motivation construct may well be applicable in other research domains where commitment and perseverance are important considerations. In particular, they mentioned stress management, and clearly the area of mental-skills training would be an example of the type of domain to which they referred.

Although some research has not shown a link between self-motivation and exercise adherence (Robinson & Cmon, 1982; Wankel, Yardley, & Graham, 1985; Ward & Morgan, 1984), a substantial amount has found a significant rela- tionship between the two variables (Olson & Zanna, 1982; Snyder, Franklin, Foss, & Rubenfire, 1982; Thompson, Wyatt, & Craighead, 1984). Of notable relevance to mental-skills training is the work of Knapp, Gutmann, Foster, and Pollock (1984), whose results showed that self-motivation scores predicted adherence to training of Olympic speedskaters. In a later study, Knapp, Gutmann, Foster, and Pollock (1985) showed that Olympic skaters low in self-motivation missed signifi- cantly more training days due to injury than did skaters high in self-motivation.

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Research findings concerning program variables and intervention strategies have been equivocal due, in part, to many serious methodological problems. Dishman (1986) suggested a fundamental lack of standardization in exercise- adherence research. Studies have varied in definition, method, and measurement, and consequently a dropout in one program may in fact be an adherer in another. The potential loss of behavioral information when adherence is merely dichotomized into either adherent or dropout groups was the reason that the present study quantified adherence on a continuum and did not label subjects as adherers or nonadherers.

The purpose of this study was to investigate athlete adherence to mental- skills training in sport. It was intended to identify personal and situational vari- ables associated with adherence and employed a multirnethod experimental design using psychometric data as well as interview data to gain information relating to factors influencing adherence behavior. The study was designed to examine three areas of interest: (a) the differences in psychological characteristics between athletes who volunteered for a mental-training program and athletes who chose not to volunteer, (b) the relationship between psychological characteristics and adherence to mental training, and (c) the influence of experimental interventions on mental-training adherence.

Method

Subjects

Sample 1 consisted of a group of 34 volunteer student athletes who responded to an invitation to participate in a mental-skills training program. Each subject was actively competing in an organized sport at the varsity level or above. The sample was comprised of 18 males and 16 females with a diverse range of team- and individual-sport specialisms. Sample 2 was randomly selected from the same athletic population but consisted of 18 individuals who had not volunteered for the mental-training program. This sample was comprised of 9 males and 9 females who consented to being used for psychometric testing only.

Measures

Self-Motivation Inventory. The SMI is a non-sport-related instrument that measures the tendency to persevere (Dishman & Ickes, 1981). It consists of 40 statements relating to perseverance that are administered using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from extremely uncharacteristic of me to extremely characteristic of me. Dishman and Ickes demonstrated the instrument's high internal reliability as well as evidence for construct and predictive validity.

Sport Competition Anxiety Test. The SCAT is a self-report measure of competitive trait anxiety that has been widely used in sport psychology research. Martens' (1977) work on demonstrating the instrument's psychometric integrity was extensive.

Trait Sport Confidence Inventory. The TSCI was developed in conjunc- tion with the State Sport Confidence Inventory (SSCI) by Vealey (1986) as a measure of an individual's belief in his or her ability to be successful in sport. The instrument consists of 13 items, and response is made on a 9-point Likert scale ranging from low to high. Vealey demonstrated adequate item discrimination, internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and content and concurrent validity.

124 1 Bull

Psychological Skills Inventory for Sports. The PSIS was developed by Ma- honey, Gabriel, and Perkins (1987) to assess six broad themes: anxiety manage- ment, concentration, self-confidence, mental preparation, motivation, and team emphasis. Mahoney (1987) did not, however: cl&m any psychometric integrity or predictive validity for the instrument. Nevertheless, the appeal of the inventory is its breadth of measurement and its straightforward structure (a 45-item ques- tionnaire employing a 5-point Likert scale that ranges from strongly disagree to strongly agree). Four of the dimensions were used in the present research: anxiety management, concentration, self-confidence, and motivation. Team emphasis was not considered relevant to the research problem in question, and mental preparation was not included due to some seriouiproblems of face validity as described by Hardy and Nelson (1989).

Sport Goal Progress Check. The SGPC was developed by the author as a means of quantifiably assessing an athlete's progress toward his or her ultimate sport goal. It asks the athlete to consider where she or he feels she or he is at the present time in terms of a realistic, ultimate sport goal according to a percentage representation whereby 0% refers to when the sport was first taken up and 100% to the achievement of the ultimate goal. Therefore, athletes who are well advanced into their careers will tend to score a high percentage and athletes who still have considerable progress to make and ambitions to fulfill will tend to score lower percentages.

Procedure

Subjects in Sample 1 attended an introductory meeting in which the re- searcher explained what the mental-training program would entail, how the mental skills would be covered, and when group meetings would take place. Subjects then completed each of the psychological measures described above.

The educational component of the program consisted of eight 1-hour sessions that occurred twice a week for a 4-week period. Sessions 1 ,3 ,5 , and 7 involved the entire group together; Sessions 2, 4, 6, and 8 were carried out in smaller groups of 11 or 12 athletes allowing for questions and exchanges of ideas and experiences. During these eight training sessions subjects were introduced to tech- niques for improving relaxation skills, visualization, concentration, and positive thinking. Each session involved a combination of appropriately presented back- ground theory, practical experience of mental-training techniques, and discus- sion about how to apply the techniques in different sport situations. Due to group size, it was not possible to provide subjects with individual consultation and advice. Therefore, it was each subject's responsibility and designated task to develop the exercises learned into an appropriate training program suitable for his or her own individual needs and sport-specific requirements. To assist in this process, each session was supplemented by reading material relevant to the skills being developed and taken from a mental-training workbook (Albinson & Bull, 1988).

Subjects attended a final meeting in which each was given a specially pre- pared mental-training cassette tape and a mental-training diary. Subjects were instructed to use the diaries after each mental-training session completed over the forthcoming 8-week period. The importance of regular mental training (several times per week) was emphasized although no specific requirements were given.

Adherence to Mental Skills Training 1 125

Adherence Measure

The mental-training diary elicited a self-report measure of adherence. The number of sessions engaged in yielded a frequency score; the total amount of time spent training represented a duration score.

Intervention Groups

Before the 8-week measurement period began, subjects were randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups. Group 1 (n = 12) received a reminder memo at the end of Weeks 2,4,5, and 7. Group 2 (n=10) was invited, in advance, to attend four discussion meetings arranged to coincide with the distribution of the reminder memos to Group 1. Group 3 (n = 12) acted as a control group and received no intervention at all. To minimize contamination between the groups, it was explained before the interventions began that individuals were to be treat- ed differently on the basis of their psychometric test results, which illustrated individual differences in learning strategy. Subjects were subsequently debriefed about this manipulation at the conclusion of the study.

Debriejng Interviews

Each subject was interviewed at the end of the 8-week period. Interviews were conducted using a focused technique with the main themes centering around the subject's exhibited adherence level and factors perceived to be of influence in the adherence process.

Nonparticipant Data

Subjects in Sample 2 were asked to complete each of the psychological mea- sures in addition to an open-ended question inquiring why they chose not to volun- teer for the mental-training program.

Results

Psychological Characteristics of Volunteers Versus Nonvolunteers

Results of one-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs) indicated that the mental-training volunteers demonstrated less skill in concentration, F(1,50) =6.50, 6 .025 , and higher sport motivation, F(1,50)=5.28,6.025, than the nonvolun- teer subjects. These results are calculated on the basis of the relevant dimensions of the PSIS, with p values reduced from .05 to -025 to account for experimental error. Other differences did not emerge although the difference in anxiety- management skill was approaching significance, with the volunteers scoring lower than the nonvolunteers. The mean scores for all measures are shown in Table 1.

Psychological Characteristics and Adherence

The diary-recording process yielded a mean duation of 136 minutes, which represents only 17 minutes per week. This indicates relatively poor adherence for the group as a whole. Likewise, a frequency mean of 9.7 over an 8-week period is very low. Standard deviations, however, were very high (91.9 for

126 / Bull

Table 1

Means and Standard Deviations of Subjects' Psychological Measures

Sample 1 (volunteers) Sample 2 (nonvolunteers) (N=34) (N=18)

Measure M SD M SD

SMI SCAT TSCI PSIS-AX PSIS-CC PSIS-CF PSIS-MV SGPC

Note. AX=anxiety management, CC=concentration, CF=self-confidence, and MV=motivation.

duration and 6.4 for firequency), indicating a high degree of variability in adherence levels across the group.

Pearson product-moment correlations were calculated between subject adherence and scores on each of the psychological measures. Results demonstrated significant positive relationships between self-motivation and adherence duration (r = .66; 6.00001), self-motivation and adherence frequency (r = .63; 6 .0001), sport motivation and adherence duration (r= .43; 6 . 0 5 ) , and sport motivation and adherence frequency (r = .37; 6 .05) . A significant negative correlation was found between sport goal progress and adherence frequency (r= - .42; p<.05), indicating that subjects who were more advanced in their athletic careers tended to exhibit lower levels of adherence than subjects who were at earlier stages in their careers.

Stepwise multiple-regression analyses (as shown in Table 2) demonstrated the overriding influence of self-motivation on both aspects of adherence. At the .05 level of significance, no other measure contributed to a better prediction of adherence except for progress toward sport goal, which only proved to be sig- nificant in predicting frequency of adherence.

Stepwise multiple-regression analyses were also administered without in- clusion of the SMI. The results are shown in Table 3 and demonstrate the impor- tance of the motivation construct again. At the .05 level of significance, sport motivation was the only measure predicting adherence duration. Adherence frequency was shown to be predicted by sport goal progress initially and then further by sport motivation.

Intervention Groups and Adherence

Results of one-way ANOVAs showed no significant difference between the three treatment groups in either adherence duration, F(2,3 1) = 2.09; p>.05, or adherence frequency, F(2,3 1) =2.69; p>.05.

Adherence to Mental Skills Training 1 127

Table 2

Stepwise Multiple-Regression Analyses Predicting Adherence From Subjects' Psychological Measures (k34)

Measure Multiple R R2 F P

Adherence duration SMI .66 .43 24.05 .00001

Adherence frequency SMI .63 .40 21.22 .0001 SGPC .77 .59 22.48 .0001

Note. These were the only items generated when the analyses were carried out with a significance level of p.05.

Table 3

Stepwise Multiple-Regression Analyses Predicting Adherence From All Psychological Measures Except the SMI ( k 3 4 )

Measure Multiple R R 2 F P

Adherence duration PSIS-MV .43 .18 7.22 .05

Adherence frequency SGPC -.42 .18 6.88 .05 PSIS-MV .59 .34 8.13 .01

Note. These were the only items generated when the analyses were carried out with a significance level of p.05. MV=rnotivation.

Given the strength of the SMI as an adherence predictor for the group as a whole, a comparison of self-mob'.vation and adherence regression lines between the three groups was calculated. No significant difference in slope gradient was present for either the duration dimension, F(2,28) = 1.59, p>.05, or the frequency dimen- sion, F(2,28)= 1.71; p>.05. Two ANCOVAs were administered with the SMI as the covariate. Results again did not reach significance for either adherence duration, F(2,30) = 1.96; p>.05, or adherence frequency, F(2,30) =2.18; p>.05. These results add further strength to the conclusion that the intervention treat- ments had no significant effect on subsequent mental-training adherence.

Interview Data

Three predominant factors emerged as having perceived influence on ad- herence levels. Ten subjects (29.4%) claimed they would have done more mental

128 1 Bull

training had the program provided a more individualized package. It was clear from the interviews that subjects needed more guidance on how to apply the methods learned in the mental-training program in order to help with their own sporting requirements. Eight subjects (23.5 %) identified the problem of time being an influence on mental-training adherence. They explained that they wanted to do more mental training but were unable to fit it into their busy lives. Five subjects (14.7%) identified a disruptive home environment as having a detrimental effect on their mental-training adherence.

The nonvolunteers' responses to the question concerning why they chose not to participate in the mental-training program reinforced the problem of lack of time. Of the 18 athletes questioned, 11 (61.1 %) identified the problem of time constraints as being the most influential factor in their decision not to participate. Of the remaining 7 athletes, 2 blamed personal laziness, 2 perceived mental training as having no benefit, and 1 had "done mental training before."

The most popular psychological technique introduced in the mental-training program was relaxation training, with 13 subjects (38.2%) identifying it as the most valuable element. Visualization was identified by 10 subjects (29.4%), con- centration by 4 (1 1.8 %), and positive thinking by 4 (1 1.8 %). Three subjects were unable to specify one particular skill. All subjects expressed a positive response to the usefulness of the program as a whole.

Discussion

The relatively low levels of adherence to the mental-training program in this study lend support to the suggestion by Bull (1989) that dropout from mental training may indeed be quite high. DiMatteo and DiNicola (1982) demonstrated that more than 80% of physicians overestimate patients' medication consumption. Further research into mental-training adherence is needed to determine if this error of judgment is also applicable in applied sport psychology.

High standard deviations for adherence duration and frequency suggest a large variance in mental-training habits between individual athletes. A contrast of one athlete doing 15 minutes of mental training in 8 weeks as compared to another doing 350 minutes highlights the need to examine the personal and situa- tional factors that are influencing this wide range of adherence behavior. This point is particularly relevant given that each athlete volunteered for, and was subjected to, the same educational-based mental-training program.

Before discussing the results of this study in more detail, a limit on their interpretation should be made clear. Due to the nature of the results, any emerging differences between relative levels of high and low adherence must be viewed in the context of low adherence overall. The results do not present evidence of what correlates with truly high adherence. This must be examined in future study. Nevertheless, some important interpretations can still be made.

The results demonstrated certain differences in psychological characteristics between the volunteers and the nonvolunteers. The volunteers, as a group, dis- played higher sport motivation than the nonvolunteer group but lower skills in concentration. This result is intuitively appealing and suggests that athletes with poor concentration skills but high levels of sport motivation are more likely to seek the assistance of sport psychology consultants to help them develop their mental-training skills. This point is also worth considering in the context of groups

Adherence to Mental Skills Training / 129 I

of athletes subjected to psychological training without choice and could partially explain the varying reactions (both positive and negative) of athletes in this situa- tion. Meichenbaum and Turk (1987) suggested that entering into a treatment pro- gram is part of the adherence process and that factors influencing this phase cannot be ignored by either practitioners or researchers.

The overriding strength of the self-motivation construct in predicting mental- training adherence concurs with studies in other contexts that have discriminated between adherents and dropouts on the basis of self-motivation. Studies exhibiting this result have included settings such as athletic conditioning (Dishman, Ickes, & Morgan, 1980; Knapp et al., 1984), corporate fitness (Stone, 1983), athletic- injury rehabilitation (Duda, Smart, & Tappe, 1989; Fisher, Domrn, & Wuest, 1988), and preventive medicine (Dishman & Gettman, 1980). The practical value of this result lies in the early identification of athletes who may be prone to drop- out or who have problems with adherence. These athletes may benefit from specific interventions aimed at enhancing adherence whereas athletes high in self- motivation are perhaps more likely to adhere of their own accord. Further research is necessary to investigate the efficacy of certain cognitive-behavioral interventions in overriding the predictive influence of the self-motivation construct. Additionally, the development of a situation-specific self-motivation inventory relating to mental- skills adherence would be a valuable asset. Dishman and Ickes' (1981) instrument assesses a general personality disposition relating to perseverance and may demon- strate even higher predictive validity if adapted for specific situations.

The emergence of progress toward a sport goal as an additional predictor of adherence also has practical implications. Athletes who are nearing the end of their careers or who have reached their perceived performance potentials will perhaps be less inclined to see the benefits of mental training and may need addi- tional assistance in incorporating psychological techniques into their overall train- ing programs. A sport psychology consultant who is aware of an athlete's career status will be more likely to prescribe an appropriate mental-training program that will encourage adherence.

There were no adherence differences between the three treatment groups although tendencies toward significance suggest the need for further research. The athletes' varying responses in terms of whether the interventions influenced their adherence behavior suggest that the interventions worked for some athletes but not for others. Thus, there is a need to individualize treatment interventions, which concurs with the athletes' own identification of the need for individualized pro- grams. Such individualizations would idedy include time-management education as both the volunteers and the nonvolunteers claimed that time constraints were a barrier to adherence.

A disruptive home environment was identified as another barrier to adher- ence by several volunteers. Again, part of the individualization process could include advice from the sport psychology consultant concerning when and where to do the mental-training exercises and how to best avoid the potential distrac- tions of a disturbing home environment.

The fact that relaxation training was identified as the most popular psycho- logical technique introduced in the mental-training program may be of importance in the adherence process. Athletes are presumably more likely to adhere if they enjoy what they are doing and feel that it is valuable. Therefore, the mental trainer should determine which mental skills the athletes enjoy and find useful and then

130 / Bull

construct appropriate, individualized training programs around these skills. In fact, the key to this investigation is the need to individualize any intervention program in mental-skills training. Some athletes will need to develop their psycho- logical skills more than others. Certain athletes will require adherence-enhancing interventions according to their personality characteristics, and all athletes wiU vary in their preference relating to the specific skills included in an educational mental-training program. The results of this study suggest some important considerations in the delivery of mental-skills training to groups of athletes, par- ticularly when individual consultation is limited.

Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Research

The results of this initial study identify certain personal and situational vari- ables influencing adherence to mental-skills training. Most notably, the predictive value of self-motivation appears strong as well as the need to individualize mental- training programs and intervention strategies. Future research should further examine the influence of certain personality characteristics on the adherence process and investigate other situational factors that may act as barriers to adher- ence. The manipulation of treatment interventions designed to enhance adher- ence needs extensive, systematic research in order to identify practical ways in which consultants can positively influence the adherence process. Finally, use of the Consultant Evaluation Form (CEF), developed by Partington and Orlick (1987), would assess the services being provided by sport psychology consul- tants, the quality of which may have significant effects on athletes' mental-training adherence.

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Acknowledgment

The author wishes to thank two anonymous reviewers for their constructive com- ments on an earlier draft of this manuscript.

Manuscript submined: January 30, 1990 Revision received: July 16, 1990

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