personality chapter 2: human adjustment mcgraw-hill © 2006 by the mcgraw-hill companies, inc. all...

PERSONALITYChapter 2:

Human Adjustment

McGraw-Hill © 2006 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Outline - Chapter 2

McGraw-Hill©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

2-2

What Is Personality?Psychodynamic PerspectivesBehavioral and Social Cognitive PerspectivesHumanistic PerspectivesTrait PerspectivesPersonality Assessment

WHAT IS PERSONALITY?


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What Is Personality?



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Theoretical perspectives on personality: psychodynamic behavioral and social cognitive humanistic trait

Personality = pattern of enduring and distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize how an individual adapts to the world

Self-AssessmentHow Much Do I Have a Need to be

Unique?


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When I am in a group of strangers I am reluctant to express my opinion openly.

(A=strongly disagree; B=disagree; C=Neutral; D=agree; E=strongly agree)

I find that criticism affects my self-esteem.(A=strongly disagree; B=disagree; C=Neutral; D=agree; E=strongly agree)

I sometimes hesitate to use my own ideas for fear they might be impractical.(A=strongly disagree; B=disagree; C=Neutral; D=agree; E=strongly agree)

I think society should let reason lead it to new customs and throw aside old habits or mere traditions.


Self-Assessment


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People frequently succeed in changing my mind.(A=strongly disagree; B=disagree; C=Neutral; D=agree; E=strongly agree)

I find it sometimes amusing to upset the dignity of teachers, judges, and “cultured” people.


I like wearing a uniform because it makes me proud to be a member of the organization it represents.


People have sometimes called me “stuck up.”(A=strongly disagree; B=disagree; C=Neutral; D=agree; E=strongly agree)

Self-Assessment


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Others’ disagreements make me uncomfortable.(A=strongly disagree; B=disagree; C=Neutral; D=agree; E=strongly agree)

I do not always need to live by the rules and standards of society.(A=strongly disagree; B=disagree; C=Neutral; D=agree; E=strongly agree)

I am unable to express my feelings if they result in undesirable consequences.


Being a success in one’s career means making a contribution that no one else has made.


Self-Assessment


2-8

It bothers me if people think I am being too unconventional.(A=strongly disagree; B=disagree; C=Neutral; D=agree; E=strongly agree)

I always try to follow rules.(A=strongly disagree; B=disagree; C=Neutral; D=agree; E=strongly agree)

If I disagree with a superior on his or her views, I usually do not keep it to myself.


I speak up in meetings in order to oppose those whom I feel are wrong.(A=strongly disagree; B=disagree; C=Neutral; D=agree; E=strongly agree)

Self-Assessment


2-9

Feeling “different” in a crowd of people makes me feel uncomfortable.(A=strongly disagree; B=disagree; C=Neutral; D=agree; E=strongly agree)

If I must die, let it be an unusual death rather than an ordinary death in bed.


I would rather be just like everyone else than be called “freak”(A=strongly disagree; B=disagree; C=Neutral; D=agree; E=strongly agree)

I must admit I find it hard to work under strict rules and regulations.(A=strongly disagree; B=disagree; C=Neutral; D=agree; E=strongly agree)

Self-Assessment


2-10

I would rather be known for always trying new ideas than for employing well-trusted methods.


It is better always to agree with the opinions than to be considered a disagreeable person.


I do not like to say unusual things to people.(A=strongly disagree; B=disagree; C=Neutral; D=agree; E=strongly agree)

I tend to express my opinions publicly, regardless of what others say.(A=strongly disagree; B=disagree; C=Neutral; D=agree; E=strongly agree)

Self-Assessment


2-11

As a rule, I strongly defend my opinions.(A=strongly disagree; B=disagree; C=Neutral; D=agree; E=strongly agree)

I do not like to go my own way.(A=strongly disagree; B=disagree; C=Neutral; D=agree; E=strongly agree)

When I am with a group of people, I agree with their ideas so that no arguments will arise.


I tend to keep quiet independent and free from family rule.(A=strongly disagree; B=disagree; C=Neutral; D=agree; E=strongly agree)

Self-Assessment


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Whenever I take part in group activities, I am somewhat of a nonconformist.


I tend to keep quiet in the presence of persons of higher rank, experience, etc.


In most things in life, I believe in playing it safe rather than taking a gamble.


It is better to break rules than always to conform with an impersonal society.


Five Factor Personality Test


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Take this assessment and score. To help develop a better picture of you personality.

http://users.wmin.ac.uk/~buchant/wwwffi/



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Four important questions about personality: What role do innate and learned characteristics play

in personality? To what extent is personality conscious or

unconscious? How influential are internal or external factors in

determining personality? What characterizes a well-adjusted personality?

PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVES


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Freud’s Psychoanalytic TheoryPsychodynamic RevisionistsEvaluating Psychodynamic Perspectives

Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory


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Psychodynamic Perspectives - view personality as being primarily unconscious and as developing in stages

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory


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Sigmund Freud born in Austria in 1856 / died in England in 1939 spent most of life in Vienna became medical doctor specializing in neurology developed psychoanalytic theory through work with

psychiatric patients

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory


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Freud believed most of the mind is unconscious

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory stated that personality has three structures: id - pleasure (sexual and aggressive instincts) ego - reality (deals with demands of reality) superego - conscience (morality)

Defense Mechanisms


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When ego blocks pleasurable pursuits of id, person feels anxiety

Defense mechanisms = ego’s protective methods for reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

Defense Mechanisms


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Defense mechanisms include: repression rationalization displacement sublimation projection reaction formation denial regression

Freud’s Theory of Personality Development


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Freud was convinced that problems develop because of early childhood experiences

Freud proposed 5 stages of personality development: oral anal phallic latency genital

Freud’s Theory of Personality Development


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During phallic stage the Oedipus complex is a major source of conflict

Freud claimed that at each stage, demands of reality conflict with source of pleasure

Adult personality depends on how person deals with the conflict

Psychodynamic Revisionists


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Criticisms of Freud: too much emphasis on sexuality first 5 years are not as important ego and conscious thought more important sociocultural factors more important

Horney’s Sociocultural Theory


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Karen Horney (1885–1952) developed first feminist criticism of Freud’s theory

Need for security is most important

Horney’s Sociocultural Theory


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People develop strategies to cope with anxiety: move toward people, seeking love and support move away from people, becoming more

independent move against people, being competitive and

domineering

The secure person uses these ways of coping in moderation

The insecure person uses one or more strategies in exaggerated fashion

Jung’s Analytical Theory


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Carl Jung (1875–1961) thought Freud underplayed unconscious mind

Collective unconscious - impersonal, deepest layer of unconscious mind, shared by all human beings

Archetypes - emotionally-laden ideas and images in collective unconscious that have meaning for all people

Adler’s Individual Psychology


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Alfred Adler (1870–1937) People strive toward creating own goals Emphasis on social motivation Everyone strives for superiority

Compensation - individual attempts to overcome inferiorities or weaknesses by developing own abilities

Overcompensation - individual exaggerates to conceal a weakness

Adjustment Strategies Based on Psychodynamic Approaches


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1. Think about your experiences as a child and now 2. Recognize you have unconscious feelings, drives, and desires3. Examine your thoughts, feelings, and behavior to determine extent you are using defense mechanisms4. Evaluate extent to which security needs are met5. Examine feelings of superiority or inferiority and discover areas of life in which you can excel

Evaluating Psychodynamic Perspectives


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Psychodynamic perspectives: view personality as primarily unconscious stress that personality develops in stages emphasize the role of the individual’s past

experiences emphasize mental representation and transformation

of experience emphasize the influence of conflict on personality

Evaluating Psychodynamic Perspectives


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Weaknesses of the psychodynamic perspectives include: difficulty of testing its concepts too much emphasis on sexuality and unconscious mind negative view of human nature too much attention to early experience male, Western bias

BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVES


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Classical ConditioningSkinner’s Behaviorism Social Cognitive TheoryEvaluating the Behavioral and Social Cognitive Perspectives

Classical Conditioning


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Classical conditioning = learning process in

which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with meaningful stimulus and acquires capacity to elicit a response similar to response to meaningful stimulus

Classical Conditioning


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Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1906) argued classical conditioning consists of: unconditioned stimulus unconditioned response conditioned stimulus conditioned response

Classical conditioning has been applied to understanding fear

Figure 2.6 Classical Conditioning: Boss’s Criticism and High Blood Pressure


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Skinner’s Behaviorism


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B. F. Skinner (1938–1990) argued that our actions on the environment have consequences that shape our behavior

Operant conditioning = learning process that occurs when consequences of the behavior change the probability of the behavior’s occurrence

Reinforcement and Extinction


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Positive reinforcement - frequency of behavior increases because it is followed by rewarding stimulus

Negative reinforcement - frequency of behavior increases because it is followed by removal of an aversive stimulus

Reinforcement = process by which a stimulus or event that follows a behavior increases probability that the behavior will occur again

Reinforcement and Extinction


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Extinction - frequency of a previously reinforced behavior that is no longer reinforced decreases

Punishment


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Punishment decreases likelihood that a behavior will occur

Positive punishment - behavior decreases when followed by unpleasant stimulus

Negative punishment - behavior decreases when positive stimulus is removed

Figure 2.7 Positive and Negative Reinforcement, Positive and Negative

Punishment


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Applying Skinner’s Approach to Personality


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Skinner’s behaviorism emphasizes that cognition is unimportant in personality

Personality is observable behavior, which is influenced by rewards and punishments in the environment

In the behavioral view, personality often varies according to the situation

Social Cognitive Theory


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Social cognitive theory was first proposed by Albert Bandura and Walter Mischel

Social cognitive theory states that behavior, environment, and cognitive factors are important in understanding personality

Observational Learning


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Bandura (1986) identified four main processes: retention production attention reinforcement

Observational learning (imitation or modeling) = learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates someone else’s behavior

Observational Learning


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Bandura’s 1965 classic study - children who had seen a model punished for aggression only showed the model’s aggression when offered a reward

Reciprocal determination - Bandura’s view that behavior, environment, and person/cognitive factors interact to create personality

Personal Control


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Social cognitive theorists emphasize that adjustment can be measured by people’s belief in their capacity to exercise some control over their own functioning and over environmental events

Personal Control


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Three aspects of personal control: delay of gratification - deferring immediate

gratification to obtain desirable future outcome self-efficacy - belief that one can master a situation

and produce positive outcomes locus of control - belief that the outcomes of

people’s actions depend on what they do (internal locus) or on events outside of their personal control (external locus)

Personal Control - Self-Efficacy


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Self-efficacy is related to positive developments in people’s lives Self-efficacy helps people in unsatisfactory situations

by encouraging them to believe that they can succeed

Having an internal locus of control is associated with positive functioning and adjustment

Adjustment Strategies For Increasing Your Self-Efficacy


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1. Select something you expect to be able to do, not something you expect to fail at accomplishing2. Distinguish between past performance and your present project3. Pay close attention to your successes4. Keep written records so that you will be concretely aware of your successes5. List the specific kinds of situations in which you expect to have the most difficulty and the least difficulty

Adjustment Strategies Based on Behavior and Social Cognitive Perspectives


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1. Recognize extent to which reinforcement and punishment influence your behavior2. Examine extent to which you use reinforcement and punishment when interacting with others3. Use your ability to learn through observation4. Consider obtaining a mentor5. Evaluate how good you are at delaying gratification6. Examine whether you have an internal or an external locus of control

Evaluating the Behavioral and Social Cognitive Perspectives


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Strengths of the behavioral and social cognitive perspectives include emphasis on: environmental determinants scientific climate for investigating personality

Evaluating the Behavioral and Social Cognitive Perspectives


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The behavioral view has been criticized for: taking the “person” out of personality ignoring cognition inadequate attention to individual differences inadequate attention to biology inadequate attention to personality as whole

HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVES


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Rogers’ ApproachMaslow’s ApproachEvaluating Humanistic Perspectives

Humanistic Perspectives


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Humanistic perspectives - stress a person’s capacity for personal growth, freedom to choose one’s own destiny, and positive human qualities

Carl Rogers (1902–1987) and Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) were leading architects of humanistic perspectives

Rogers’ Approach


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Carl Rogers stressed the importance of becoming a fully-functioning person

Rogers believed the tendency to actualize one’s essential nature is inborn in every person

Rogers’ Approach


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Self-concept - refers to individuals’ overall perceptions and assessments of their abilities, behavior, and personalities

The Self - consists of our self-perceptions and the values we attach to these perceptions

The greater the discrepancy between the real self (self resulting from experiences) and the ideal self (the self we would like to be), the more maladjusted we will be

Unconditional Positive Regard, Empathy, and Genuineness


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Rogers proposed 3 methods to help others develop a more positive self-concept: Unconditional positive regard - accepting, valuing,

and being positive toward another person regardless of the person’s behavior

Empathetic - being a sensitive listener and understanding of another’s true feelings

Genuineness - being open with our feelings and dropping our pretenses and facades

Adjustment Strategies for Becoming a Fully-Functioning Person


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1. Take a positive approach to life and believe in your capacity for positive growth2. Be open to experience3. Don’t be overly defensive4. Develop a more positive self-concept5. Have harmonious relationships with others

Maslow’s Approach


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Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs states that individuals’ needs are satisfied in this sequence: physiological safety love and belongingness esteem self-actualization

Self-actualization = highest need that involves motivation to develop one’s full potential as a human being

Figure 2.9 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs


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Adjustment Strategies for Becoming Self-Actualized


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1. Be motivated to change2. Be responsible3. Evaluate your motives4. Examine your positive emotional experience5. Have a mission in life6. Monitor your progress

Evaluating Humanistic Perspectives


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The humanistic perspectives stress a person’s capacity for personal growth and freedom

These perspectives emphasize the importance of: our perceptions conscious experience the positive aspects of human nature encourage excessive self-love

Evaluating Humanistic Perspectives


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Weaknesses of humanistic perspectives include tendency to: avoid empirical research be too optimistic

TRAIT PERSPECTIVES


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Trait TheoriesTraits, Situations, and CultureEvaluating Trait Perspectives

Trait Theories


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Traits - broad, enduring dispositions that lead to characteristic responses

Gordon Allport believed that each individual has a unique set of personality traits

Most trait theories hold that personality can be described in terms of a few supertraits or dimensions

Trait Theories


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Hans Eysenck - three dimensions of personality: introversion-extraversion stability-instability (neuroticism) psychoticism

The Big Five Personality Factors


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Big Five Personality Factors: openness to experience conscientiousness extraversion agreeableness neuroticism (emotional stability)

Big five traits show up in personality assessments in cultures around the world

Figure 2.12 The Big Five Factors of Personality


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Traits, Situations, and Culture


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Walter Mischel (1968) argued that personality varies across situations more than trait theorists acknowledged Mischel’s view is called situationism

Personality results from interaction of traits and situations

Cross-cultural research suggests that traits may vary across cultures

Traits, Situations, and Culture


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Cultures around the world may be classified as individualist or collectivist Individualism gives priority to personal goals rather

than group goals; it emphasizes values that serve the self, such as feeling good, personal achievement and distinction, and independence

Collectivism emphasizes values that serve the group by subordinating personal goals to preserve group integrity and relationships

Adjustment Strategies for Interacting with People from Individualist Cultures


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1. Compliment the individual more than you are used to in your collectivist culture2. Expect the person to be more competitive than people in your collectivist culture3. Feel free to talk about your accomplishments4. Expect that someone from an individualist culture will not be as attached to extended family as you are5. Do not expect the person to give a high priority to consensus

Adjustment Strategies for Interacting with People from Collectivist Cultures


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1. Pay attention to the person’s group memberships2. Do not provoke competitive situations3. If you have to criticize the collectivist, do so only in private, not in front of other people4. Cultivate long-term relationships

Evaluating Trait Perspectives


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Understanding a person’s traits also may help us better predict the person’s health, thinking, job success, and interpersonal skills

Personality is determined by a combination of traits (person factors) and the situation (environmental factors)

PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT


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Types of AssessmentProjective Tests Self-Report TestsBehavioral and Cognitive Assessment

Types of Assessment


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Psychologists use assessments not only in research but also in their attempts to diagnose, treat, and counsel people

Scientific measures aim to be both reliable and valid

Types of Assessment


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Types of assessments used by psychologists: projective tests self-report tests behavioral and cognitive

assessments

Projective Tests


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Projective tests - present individuals with ambiguous stimuli

Projective tests assume that this ambiguity allows individuals to project their personalities onto the stimuli

Examples of projective tests include: Rorschach inkblot test Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Rorschach Inkblot Test


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Rorschach Inkblot Test was developed in 1921 by Herman Rorschach It uses individual’s perception of inkblots to determine

personality Concerns about test’s reliability and validity

Figure 2.13 Type of Stimulus Used in the Rorschach Inkblot Test


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Thematic Apperception Test


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Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) - projective test designed to elicit stories that reveal something about individual’s personality TAT used in clinical practice and in research on need

for achievement

Self-Report Tests


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Self-report tests (objective tests or inventories) assess personality traits by asking questions about preferences and behaviors Self-report tests may elicit deceptive responses when

people try to answer in a socially desirable way

Self-Report Tests


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Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is the most widely used self-report personality test

Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI) are two popular self-report tests that assess the big five factors

Behavioral and Cognitive Assessment


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Most personality assessments were designed to measure stable, enduring aspects of personality

Behavioral assessment consists of direct observations of behavior and its environmental ties

Cognitive assessment seeks information about an individual’s cognitive processes through interviews and questionnaires

personality chapter 2: human adjustment mcgraw-hill © 2006 by the mcgraw-hill companies, inc. all...

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