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MusiikkikasvatusThe Finnish Journal of Music Education (FJME)

Vsk. 13 nro 1 / Vol. 13 nr. 12010

Julkaisijat / Publishers

Sibelius-Akatemia, musiikkikasvatuksen osasto / Sibelius Academy, Department of Music Education

Oulun yliopiston kasvatustieteiden tiedekunta, musiikkikasvatuksen koulutus- ja tutkimusyksikkö /University of Oulu, Faculty of Education, Center for Music Education and Research

Jyväskylän yliopisto, musiikkitieteen laitos / University of Jyväskylä, Department of Musicology

Suomen Taidekasvatuksen Tutkimusseura

Päätoimittaja / Managing EditorHeidi Westerlund, Sibelius-Akatemia / Sibelius Academy

Tämän numeron vastaavat toimittajat / Managing editors of this issueSidsel Karlsen & David G. Hebert

Toimitussihteeri / Editorial AssistantMarja Heimonen, Sibelius-Akatemia / Sibelius Academy

Ulkoasu ja taitto / Design and LayoutLauri Toivio

Toimituksen osoite ja tilaukset /Address and Subscriptions

Sibelius-AkatemiaMusiikkikasvatuksen osastoPL 86, 00251 HELSINKI

Sibelius AcademyDepartment of Music Education

P.O. Box 86, FIN-00251 Helsinki

Sähköposti / E-mail: fjme@siba.fi

Tilaushinnat / Subscription RatesUlkomaille / Abroad: 30 Eur vsk. / Vol.

Kotimaahan / in Finland: 25 Eur vsk. / Vol.Opiskelijatilaus / Student subscription: 13 Eur vsk. / Vol.

Irtonumero / Single copy: 13 Eur (+ postituskulut / shipping)(sis. alv / inc. vat)

Painopaikka ja -aika / Printed byHakapaino, Helsinki, 2010

ISSN 1239-3908

Khmer-uusivuosi Helsingissä 2010.Kuvassa Yukho Sok-Sar ja Leakhena Sar(kuva: Kalle Kallio).

MusiikkikasvatusThe Finnish Journal of Music Education

(FJME)

Vsk. 13 nro 1 / Vol. 13 nr. 1

2010

Contents / Sisällys

Editorial introduction: Multiculturalism and music education . . . 6David Hebert & Sidsel Karlsen

Articles / Artikkelit

Rauni RäsänenIntercultural education and educationfor global responsibility in teacher education . . . . . . . . . . 12–24

Ylva Hofvander-TrulssonMusical upbringing in the eyes of immigrant parents . . . . 25-38

Huib SchippersFacing the music: Three personal experiences, five historicalsnapshots, seven conceptual shifts and twelve continua asan accessible pathway to understand different approachesto cultural diversity in music education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-44

Eva SætherMusic education and the Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-60

Michaela SchwarzbauerAustrian pupils encountering examples of Persian culture:Reflections on two music teaching-projects . . . . . . . . . . . 61-71

Esbjörn WettermarkThang long ca trù club—new ways for old music . . . . . 72–87

Reports / Raportit

David G. Hebert, Tuovi Martinsen & Keld HosbondLaunching the NordicMaster of Global Music program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88–91

Laura MiettinenMonimuotoinen musiikki -hanke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92–94

Tom’s column

Thomas A. RegelskiCulturalism, multi-culturalism andmulti-musical prosperity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95–98

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FJME 2010 / vol. 13 nr. 1

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Actual / Ajankohtaista

Minna MuukkonenLectio precursoria. Monipuolisuuden eetos.Musiikin aineenopettajat artikuloimassatyönsä käytäntöjä . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99–106

Reviews / Kirja-arvioita

Petter DyndahlReview of Vesa Kurkela and Lauri Väkevä (eds.):De-Canonizing Music History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107–108

Marja HeimonenKirja-arvio Tuula Kotilaisen teoksesta Portaat Parnassolle.Nuorisokoulutusta Sibelius-Akatemiassa 125 vuotta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Instruction to Contributors / Ohjeita kirjoittajille . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Contributors / Kirjoittajat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Editorial Office / Toimitus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

Review Readers for the Editorial Board /Toimituskunnan lausunnonantajat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

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FJME 2010 / vol. 13 nr. 1

David G. Hebert and Sidsel Karlsen

Editorial Introduction:Multiculturalism andMusic Education

AIntroduction

s guest editors, we are pleasedto offer this special issue ofthe Finnish Journal of Music Ed-ucation on the theme of mul-ticulturalism and music edu-cation. Multicultural educa-tion, as James Banks explainsin Routledge International Com-

panion to Multicultural Education, is “a con-cept, an educational reform movement,and a process” that “incorporates the ideathat all students—regardless of their eth-nic, racial, cultural, or linguistic charac-teristics—should have an equal opportu-nity to learn in school” (Banks, 2009, p.1). From such a perspective, multicultur-alist educators have focused their effortson redeveloping curriculum and instruc-tion to more equitably meet the needs andinterests of diverse students and to moreeffectively represent global human diver-sity. For many young people today, it prob-ably goes without question that educatorsshould strive to offer learning opportuni-ties as equitably as possible, regardless ofthe diversity of students. However, whenviewed historically, it becomes clear thatthis way of thinking about education hasonly become quite widespread in recentgenerations, and in most nations both thecontents and methods of education havetended to alienate students whose identi-ties differ from the dominant culture.

Multicultural Education as aProgressive or MainstreamApproach

Although multiculturalism may appear to

have recently become a widely acceptedand even “mainstream” idea in the educa-tional systems of various nations, it hassometimes faced criticism from both thepolitical “far right” and “far left”. In heroft-cited chapter “An Analysis of the Cri-tiques of Multicultural Education,” Chris-tine Sleeter (1995) offered a systematictreatment of the kinds of assumptions andnaïve apprehensions most commonly en-countered among those lacking practicalfamiliarity with multicultural education.Carl Grant (2008), an editor of the multi-volume History of Multicultural Educationsimilarly observed that “Both radical andconservative critics of multicultural edu-cation often leave their research skills,scholarship, and willingness to conduct athorough review of educational literatureat the academy door” when writing dis-paragingly of educators’ imperfect effortsto more effectively teach students fromculturally diverse backgrounds (p. 318).Grant reserves most of his criticism forwhat he sees as seemingly well-intentionedbut ill-informed critiques advanced by“radical scholars,” whose work, he claims,suffers from “ignoring the more recentessays on multicultural education,” andwho tend to “read what they wish intothe writings on multicultural education”(p. 319). Indeed, some of the critiques ofmulticultural education may be identifiedas aligned with neoconservative and elit-ist perspectives when emerging from theright, yet when coming from the left moreoften seem to qualify as a kind of fash-ionable argument for the sake of argu-mentation itself that is (ironically) mostoften advanced by privileged writers—allegedly on behalf of the disadvantaged

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—as an intellectual exercise far removedfrom the reality of school classrooms. Asphilosopher and musician Edward Said(1993) remarked in his incisive discussionof the challenges of multiculturalism, de-spite the “tiresome playfulness of ‘post-modern’ criticism, with its repeated dis-claimers of anything but local games andpastiches,” we are living “still in the era oflarge narratives, of horrendous culturalclashes, and of appallingly destructive war—as witness the recent conflagration inthe Gulf—and to say that we are againsttheory, or beyond literature, is to be blindand trivial” (p. 313). Indeed, the dizzyingarray of complex inequalities and diverseidentities encountered across the globetoday may even justify adopting the per-spective that any education which is notto some extent multicultural in orienta-tion essentially fails to offer students suf-ficient opportunities to become meaning-fully attuned to the reality of the humancondition outside their immediate expe-rience. These kinds of concerns whichspawned multicultural education are of-ten misunderstood by both novices, whoare frequently guided by misinformation,and intellectuals, who have either cyni-cally distanced themselves from the con-temporary reality of schools or failed tocarefully examine the specialized researchin this area.

Multicultural Music Education:Definitions and Challenges

Turning to the field of multicultural musiceducation (MME), it seems important toacknowledge that the intellectual anteced-ents of work in this area are traceable tothree distinct fields: music education (ofwhich it is merely an extension), multi-cultural education (which contributes ad-ditional conceptual foundations and ap-proaches) and ethnomusicology (whichoffers specialized knowledge of the sub-ject matter). Since its very inception, thefield of ethnomusicology has examined thesocial role of music in human life, includ-ing all forms of music making within its

sphere of interest (Nettl, 2005). It followsthat MME would rely upon the special-ized expertise of ethnomusicologists in thedevelopment of curricular content appro-priate for the teaching of music from di-verse ethnic backgrounds, and there havenow been several decades of this kind offruitful collaboration between ethnomu-sicologists and music teacher educators,particularly through such organizations asthe International Society for Music Edu-cation (ISME) and the Education Sectionof the Society for Ethnomusicology (SEM).Sceptics of multicultural music educationtend to suggest that it is either undesira-ble or too difficult to effectively teach themusic of diverse cultures (Campbell, 2004).Others have claimed that the difficulty ofmeaningfully defining key terms such as“culture” (and the related challenge ofprecisely identifying the people to whoma music tradition putatively “belongs”)make multiculturalism too problematic aconcept to be of use for music education.However, across recent decades, voicesexplicitly calling for MME’s antithesis—amonocultural (typically, Eurocentric) ap-proach to curriculum—are rapidly disap-pearing due to the convincingness of plu-ralistic philosophies bolstered by an evergrowing corpus of research studies thatdemonstrate the effectiveness of multicul-tural approaches in education (Nieto, Bode,Kang & Raible, 2008; Sleeter & Bernal,2004), including studies in the specializedfield of music teaching (Abril, 2006; He-bert, in press). Those clinging to the afore-mentioned anti-MME arguments have alsoreluctantly admitted that it is actually nomore difficult to define “culture” than todefine “music” or “education,” terms thatalso cover a considerable conceptualbreadth (Carrithers, 1992; Langness, 2004;Nettl, 2005). Despite such definitional is-sues, the need for music education hasoften been convincingly argued and iswidely recognized in many parts of theworld. Moreover, music has also been fre-quently acknowledged within the field ofinternational law as a form of culturalheritage that—despite such widespread

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phenomena as cultural hybridity and so-cial identities that are both malleable andmulti-faceted—maintains relevance in thecontemporary world as a distinct expres-sion commonly associated with particularethnicities (Heimonen & Hebert, 2010).Because multicultural music education(MME) is a phrase used to describe boththe teaching of music from diverse cul-tural origins and the teaching of music tostudents from diverse cultural back-grounds, many of the practices now oftenseen in schools throughout the worldwould arguably qualify as MME, yet con-siderable challenges remain as scholars andvisionary teachers seek effective ways ofimproving the quality of curriculum andinstruction in this field. Specifically, mul-ticultural music teacher educators havegrappled with the challenge of guidingmusic teachers toward effective teachingof diverse genres and practices in collabo-ration with “culture bearers,” or expertmusicians who specialize in the traditionsto be learned. Campbell and Schippers(2005, p. vi) have observed that as MMEcurriculum and instructional practices havebeen refined across recent decades, “Ahesitation to perform or even participatein music ‘outside one’s own culture’ hasgiven way to a more sensible and sensi-tive approach to performing world music,taking into account the origin of the tra-dition and its new circumstances in eachmusical event.”

Authenticity in MulticulturalMusic Education

Authenticity has tended to be the issuemost frequently raised by those musicteachers and scholars who continue toresist the very idea of multicultural musiceducation. Their concerns essentially liein the conviction that music teachers canonly teach music they know very deeply,and that they are obligated to accuratelyrepresent musical traditions within schoolsin an “authentic” way, meaning consistentto how the music is used outside a schoolcontext. What adherents to this musical

authenticist view fail to recognize is thattheir view of authenticity—based on aperceived need to perfectly represent un-familiar music cultures via accurate per-formances in school classrooms—is anessentially impossible objective to whichmany whose work might be described asMME do not actually subscribe (Hebert,2010; Klinger, 2002). We would do wellto recognize that music—like science, for-eign languages, and most other schoolsubjects—can never be taught in a per-fectly “authentic” way in schools, forschool classrooms are an artificial envi-ronment to which teachers inevitably mustadjust their lessons. Moreover, perform-ances of music by classical European com-posers in schools also cannot credibly stakeclaim to such musical authenticity, sincecompromises are required for music les-sons to be sufficiently simplified and struc-tured to work well among children whotypically lack the deep understanding ofEuropean cultural history necessary tointerpret “correct” musical “meanings”, aswell as the technique necessary to per-form pieces as originally conceived forprofessional court orchestras of the dis-tant past. If those committed to the musi-cal authenticist position would allow it tobe taken to its logical conclusion, the re-sult would be a conviction that only mu-sic composed specifically for the purposeof performance by children in schoolsshould be performed by children inschools, with the exception of music im-provised or composed at school by thechildren themselves. Musical authenticismtherefore entails a circular and self-con-tradictory argument, since authenticistsactually want students to have more of areal world experience in classrooms, yetfear that the simplification necessary forunfamiliar music to be effectively taughtto children results in such a distorted anddecontextualized representation that theresults of such teaching will lead to moreharm than good, particularly by reinforc-ing negative stereotypes. We must consid-er that if such an authenticist approachwere applied to the teaching of foreign

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languages in schools, only native speakerswould be permitted to teach, and theywould not be allowed to slow the pace oftheir speech nor explain grammaticalstructures to students. Although authenti-cists pose valid concerns that merit thecareful attention of music teacher educa-tors and multicultural music curriculumdesigners, research studies have conclud-ed that the prospective negative effects ofMME are actually negligible relative todesirable outcomes (Abril, 2006). Moreo-ver, questions of authenticity should beconsidered with an understanding of thebroader context: that many forms of mu-sic in schools are inevitably transformedthrough processes of institutionalizationand hybridity (Hebert, 2009).

Multiculturalism and MusicEducation in a Finnish andNordic Context

During the last decades, the Nordic coun-tries have gone from being (and perceiv-ing of themselves as) largely mono-cul-tural and culturally coherent to becomingmulticultural societies. While old ethnicminorities, such as the Sami people in theNorth, the Roma and Jewish populationsand the Swedish-speaking Finns or Rus-sians in Finland, have always existed with-in the boundaries of our nation-states, theestablishing of our countries as multicul-tural has become more evident along withthe steadily increasing number of immi-grants arriving from Asia, Africa, Latin-America and the former Eastern Europe-an countries. Even if there are still quitelarge differences between for example Fin-land, Norway and Sweden when it comesto the actual percentage of first genera-tion immigrant inhabitants, all the Nordiccountries have that in common that theethnic and cultural composition of theirpopulation is rapidly changing and thatthey strive to capture the benefits and meetthe demands and challenges of this trans-formation. The changing cultural landscapenaturally also profoundly affects the fieldof music education and the everyday prac-

tices of music teachers, whose challengesare not only connected to an increasedresponsibility towards including differentkinds of world musics as part of the cur-ricula, but also to making music educa-tion meaningful for students with a verywide range of social and cultural back-grounds. These new demands on the pro-fession have previously been discussed andlifted to the fore within the Nordic musiceducation community by writers such asNerland (2004), Ruud (2007), Sæther(2008) and Westerlund (1998, 2002).Among other things, they have problema-tized, in different ways, the often-held be-lief that the musical identity of immigrantchildren can automatically and withoutconsideration be associated to the ethnic,racial, religious, national-geographical, orlinguistic background of the students ortheir families (see e.g. Ruud, 2007; Sæther,2008; Westerlund, 1998, 2002) as well asdiscussed the continuous reflexivity need-ed of music educators who must navigatewithin a prosperity of musical cultures(Nerland, 2004). An ongoing Nordic re-search study also investigates teachers’ andstudents’ conceptions of immigrant stu-dents’ development of musical agency(Karlsen & Westerlund, in press). As a con-tribution to the Nordic body of works thatdiscuss matters of multiculturalism andmusic education, we are happy to offer thisissue of the Finnish Journal of Music Educa-tion which features articles, reports anddiscussions valuable to music educatorswho find interest in these matters.

Contents of this Issue

We begin with Rauni Räsänen’s insight-ful discussion of “Intercultural Educationand Education for Global Responsibilityin Teacher Education,” which examines theconditions and implications of culturalpluralism to which music educators areobligated to respond. This is followed byYlva Hofvander Trulsson’s article entitled“Musical Upbringing in the Eyes of Im-migrant Parents,” which discusses datafrom her ongoing doctoral research that

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examines perceptions of non-Swedish par-ents regarding their children’s experienc-es with music schools and private musicteaching in Sweden. Next is an article byHuib Schippers, which introduces sevenconceptual shifts and twelve continua, inrelation to both historical events and per-sonal experience, as a theoretical modelfor conceptualizing issues and processesassociated with cultural diversity in musiceducation. This is followed by Eva Sæther’sarticle “Music Education and the Other,”which is based on her fieldwork with theIranian-Swedish Association’s music schoolin Malmö. Next, Michaela Schwarzbauerreports on two teaching projects for chil-dren and adolescents involving Persianmusic culture that were offered as part ofthe “Salzburger Biennale 2009” in Aus-tria. This is followed by “Thang long catrù club—new ways for old music,” anoriginal article based on new research inwhich Esbjörn Wettermark describes re-cent innovations in the teaching of musicin Vietnam.

A report entitled “Launching the Nor-dic Master of Global Music Program” (byDavid Hebert, Tuovi Martinsen, and KeldHosbond) comes next, which describes anew joint-degree program in multicultur-al music. It is followed by Laura Mietti-nen’s report on a project aiming to iden-tify the current minority group situationand needs within Finnish music educa-tion. Later, Tom Regelski raises his con-cerns about the dangers of accepting anuncritical approach to multiculturalism inhis philosophical essay “Culturalism, Multi-Culturalism, and Multi-Musical Prosperi-ty,” and next we have an announcementof a dissertation by the latest student tocomplete all requirements for a doctoraldegree in music education from SibeliusAcademy: Dr. Minna Muukkonen. Finally,in the review section Petter Dyndahl putson his “(deconstructive) hat” to discussthe recent book De-Canonizing Music His-tory and Marja Heimonen reviews the bookPortaat Parnassolle. Nuorisokoulutusta Sibeli-us-Akatemiassa 125 vuotta.

As we reflect more broadly on thecontents of this special issue, it seems clearthat the present era is a time of transitionin music education within not only Fin-land and the Nordic region, but acrossEurope and beyond, as music educatorsforge various responses to the conditionsof globalization. For some music educa-tors, multiculturalism is a somewhat un-settling theme, since it appears to openadditional needs and expectations in acomplex field for which it was alreadyquite difficult to cultivate expertise. At thesame time, multiculturalism offers stimu-lation with its array of possibilities forexpanding and improving the field, includ-ing new developments and fascinatingquestions that promise to occupy research-ers for many years to come.

References

Abril, C. R. (2006). Learning outcomes of two ap-

proaches to multicultural music education. Interna-

tional Journal of Music Education, 24(1), 30-42.

Banks, J. A. (Ed.), (2009). Routledge internation-

al companion to multicultural education. London:

Routledge.

Campbell, P. S. (2004). Teaching music globally:

Experiencing music, expressing culture. Oxford:

Oxford University Press.

Campbell, P. S. & Schippers, H. (2005). Introduc-

tion: Local musics, global issues. In P. S. Camp-

bell, et. al. (Eds.), (2005). Cultural diversity in

music education: Directions and challenges for the

21st century (pp. v–vii). Bowen Hills, Queensland:

Australian Academic Press.

Carrithers, M. (1992). Why humans have cultures:

Explaining anthropology and social diversity. Ox-

ford: Oxford University Press.

Grant, C. (2008). Challenging the myths about

multicultural education. In C. A. Grant & T. K. Chap-

man (Eds.), History of multicultural education,

volume II: Foundations and stratifications (pp.

316–325). London: Routledge.

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Hebert, D. G. (in press). Ethnicity and music edu-

cation: Sociological dimensions. In R. Wright (Ed.),

Sociology and music education. Aldershot: Ashgate

Press.

Hebert, D. G. (2010). Jazz and rock music. In W.

M. Anderson & P. S. Campbell (Eds.), Multicultural

perspectives in music education, Vol. 2 (third edi-

tion). Lanham, MD: Rowman-Littlefield Publishers.

Hebert, D. G. (2009). Rethinking the historiogra-

phy of hybrid genres in music education. In V. Kur-

kela & L. Väkeva (Eds.), De-canonizing music his-

tory (pp.163–184). Newcastle: Cambridge Schol-

ars Publishing.

Heimonen, M. & Hebert, D. G. (2010). Pluralism

and minority rights in music education: Implica-

tions of the legal and social philosophical dimen-

sions. Visions of Research in Music Education, Vol.

15. [http://www-usr.rider.edu/~vrme/].

Karlsen, S., & Westerlund, H. (in press). Immigrant

students’ development of musical agency—explor-

ing democracy in music education. British Journal

of Music Education, 27(3).

Klinger, R. (2002). A materials girl in search of

the genuine article. In B. Reimer (Ed.), World mu-

sics and music education: Facing the issues (pp.

205–217). Reston, VA: MENC.

Langness, L. L. (2004). The study of culture (3rd

edition). Novato, CA: Chandler & Sharp.

Nettl, B. (2005). The study of ethnomusicology:

Thirty-one issues and concepts. Urbana: Universi-

ty of Illinois Press.

Nerland, M. Musikkpedagogikken og det musikkul-

turelle mangfoldet. Noen utfordringer for musikk-

pedagogisk virksomhet i vår tid [Music education

and musical diversity. Some challenges for music

education practices in our time]. In G. Johansen,

S. Kalsnes & Ø. Varkøy (Eds.), Musikkpedagogiske

utfordringer. Artikler om musikkpedagogisk teori og

praksis. Oslo: Cappelen Akademisk Forlag.

Nieto, S., Bode, P., Kang, E., & Raible, J. (2008).

Identity, community, and diversity: Retheorizing

multicultural curriculum for the postmodern era.

In M. Connelly, M. Fang He, & J. Phillion (Eds.),

Handbook of curriculum and instruction (pp. 176–

197). Los Angeles: Sage Publishers.

Ruud, E. (2007). Musikk, identitet og kulturell

anerkjennelse [Music, identity and cultural recog-

nition]. In E. Georgii-Hemming, U. Tholén & K.

Törnblom (Eds.), Kunskapens konst. Vänbok till

Börje Stålhammar. Örebro: Örebro University.

Sæther, E. (2008). When minorities are the major-

ity. Voices from a teacher/researcher project in a

multicultural school in Sweden. Research Studies

in Music Education, 30(1), 25–42.

Said, E. (1993). The politics of knowledge. In C.

McCarthy & W. Crichlow (Eds.), Race, identity, and

representation in education (pp. 306–314). Lon-

don: Routledge.

Sleeter, C. E. (1995). An analysis of the critiques

of multicultural education. In J. A. Banks & C. A.

McGee-Banks (Eds.), Handbook of research on

multicultural education (pp. 81–94). New York:

Macmillan.

Sleeter, C. E. & Bernal, D. D. (2004). Critical ped-

agogy, critical race theory, and antiracist education:

Implications for multicultural education. In J.A.

Banks & C. M. Banks (Eds.), Handbook of research

on multicultural education (2nd ed., pp. 240–258).

San Francisco: Jossy-Bass.

Westerlund, H. (1998). Pluralismin ja eettisen yh-

teisöllisyyden näkökulmia musiikkikasvatukseen

[Pluralist and communal ethics approaching mu-

sic education], Finnish Journal of Music Educati-

on, 3(2), 3–19.

Westerlund, H. (2002). Bridging experience, ac-

tion, and culture in music education. Helsinki: Si-

belius Academy.

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1. Introduction

efinitions of multicultural orintercultural education havevaried depending on the con-text and time. Most often re-definitions have been con-nected to the recent societalchanges such as migrations,international cooperation and

effects of globalization particularly on thecultural aspects of life. However, increas-ing awareness of cultural diversity andminority cultures within nation states aswell as richer conceptions of culture andits various dimensions have expanded thediscussion beyond ethnicity into such as-pects as for example language, religion,social class, age, gender and rural and ur-ban cultures. Cultures and cultural identi-ties are mostly discussed as multileveled,changing and dynamic phenomena. How-ever, such changes in societies and con-ceptions do not necessarily mean that in-tercultural education has become less im-portant; to the contrary, it has become morevital although maybe more complicated.

The initial emphasis on multiculturaleducation emerged as a part of the hu-man rights process as a consequence fromthe tragedies of the world wars. Educa-tion was regarded as an essential means toavoid such future crises, and UNESCOtook the lead in developing what wascalled International Education and whichconsisted of such sub-areas as human rightseducation, education for intercultural re-lations, peace and conflict prevention and

Rauni Räsänen

Intercultural Educationand Education for GlobalResponsibility in TeacherEducation

Deducation for sustainable development(UNESCO, 1974 and 1995). In manycountries, ‘international education’ wasreplaced later by the term ‘global educa-tion’ because it more specifically remindsof global citizenship, globalization and theincreasing role of global agencies as edu-cation policy directors. The latest termlaunched in Finnish strategies and projects(e.g. Kaivola & Melen-Paaso, 2007; Lamp-inen & Melen-Paaso, 2009) is Educationfor Global Responsibility, which drawsattention to the ethical principles and re-sponsibilities underpinning the UnitedNations documents concerning interna-tional education.

In the same way, the term ‘multicul-tural education’ has been changed into ‘in-tercultural education’ in order to point outthat the aim is not merely co-existence,but rather, fruitful and equal cooperationand learning between cultures. The termhas referred to cultural interaction bothwithin nation states and between coun-tries. In Finland it has included discussione. g. about Finland’s cooperation with othernation states, about the relations betweenNorth and South, East and West, the main-stream culture in the country, old ethnicminorities (such as Swedish speaking Finns,the Sami and Roma people) and the newlyimmigrated minorities, religious minori-ties, cultures of social classes and youthcultures.

The relation between education andculture is very special. Teachers work in

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the middle of many kinds of human rela-tions together with children, parents, col-leagues and many other stakeholders fromlocal communities to national and inter-national institutions. Pedagogical relation-ships with children are always demandingand require sensitivity to power issues, andcooperation with people of diverse cul-tural backgrounds makes the relationshipseven more complex. But intercultural chal-lenges do not derive only from humanrelations but especially from the specialnature of the profession: culture is alsowithin the contents of the work, whichraises such questions as what kind of aworldview are we transmitting, whosecultures are we teaching about, and whodecides about the range of cultures andcultural relations included in the curricu-la. The arts are a powerful means of teach-ing about cultures. For instance, songs,novels, poems and visual arts have beenused both for building national identities(even nationalism) and for internationalunderstanding. Teachers have an impor-tant role in intercultural education boththrough interpersonal relations andthrough choosing the contents and meansof education for future citizens in variousparts of the globe.

This article first discusses the obsta-cles to fruitful intercultural cooperationand the need and conditions for culturalinteraction and mutual learning. It thenfocuses on the relation between culture,education and teaching profession andteachers’ competences in multiculturalsettings. Finally it introduces various ap-proaches for multicultural education, par-ticularly focusing on the holistic trans-formative approaches and the need forconsidering the value basis of intercultur-al education and global education.

2. Need and conditions forintercultural cooperation

The need for intercultural understandingand cooperation seems obvious whenlooking at the world situation and oureveryday activities. Countries are depend-

ent on each other’s products, such as food,drink, clothes, vehicles, fuel, and machinesboth at home and at work. Even a glanceat the products at our breakfast table makesus conscious of that everyday interdepend-ency. However, we are not dependent oneach other only through economics, tradeand material products. Artists and research-ers, for example, have always been inspiredby their colleagues overseas, and greatmovements like humanism, civil rights, andthe ideas of democracy have travelled fromone country to another. The mass mediaand electronic communication have madethe flow of information fast and efficientfor those to whom it is accessible. Simi-larly, many global problems and challeng-es bind us together. Environmental threatsand pollution do not recognize state bor-ders, and the prevention of internationalcrime and terrorism is a joint task. We arebound to each other with so many tiesthat international connections are not onlynatural, but also necessary.

International and intercultural rela-tions are not only an ideal to be aimed at,but rather can be a very fruitful realityand learning context as well. This is ac-knowledged mostly in economy and tradeconnections. However, national cultureshave also been enriched by interculturalinfluences, and, as discussed above, soci-etal movements have spread from onecontinent to another. There is also plentyof research that proves that differences andnew situations inspire learning. At its best,intercultural cooperation provides possi-bilities for new perspectives, and, throughthe tension created by difference, forcespeople to become engaged into processesof perspective shifts and many-sided re-flection (Mezirov, 1991; Taylor, 1994).Dialogue with representatives of othercultures can lead to new, creative solu-tions. Contacts and peaceful encountersmay also add to mutual understanding, andcan consequently decrease tensions be-tween groups, cultures and nation states.

However, challenges have been en-countered in intercultural relations as well,and research about these problem areas is

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abundant. Some of the challenges stemfrom lack of knowledge, biased knowl-edge, stereotypes, ethnocentrism or aninability to take another person’s or group’spoint of view. In addition, there are barri-ers that are mostly emotional and are basedon earlier negative experiences, history, andprimary socialization to certain attitudesand ways of thinking, Changes on theemotional level are often more difficultto reach, and mere additional knowledgeis not necessarily enough: prejudices, fear,and negative emotions need to be recog-nized and reflected on, and as a result,positive experiences need to be construct-ed (Jokikokko et al., 2004, pp. 334–336).

There are several attitudes and skillswhich are necessary for intercultural co-operation. Some of them are connectedto communication skills (listening, dia-logue, language skills, the ability to ana-lyze one’s own history and biases, the abil-ity to take another person's perspective)while others are closer to attitudes (re-spect, empathy, principles of non-violenceand equity). Action is also an importantdimension of intercultural cooperation, andincludes a willingness to communicatewith other cultures and their representa-tives, and the courage to defend those ina weaker or marginalized position(Jokikokko, 2005).

Cooperation is still relatively easy asfar as cultural surface structures such asfood, drink and clothing are discussed, butas soon as we go into differences whichtouch cultural deep structures such as val-ues, beliefs and worldviews, communica-tion tends to become more difficult.Changes are painful for everyone if theyconcern aspects which are considered val-uable, that are rooted in the emotional deepstructures or are fundamental parts of peo-ple’s personality, faith system, and world-view. Besides, cultural encounters mostoften do not involve only individuals butpeople represent cultural groups with theirhistories, collective memories and legaciesas well. That is why equity is such a vitalcondition for cooperation; people musthave trust in others and be convinced that,

in spite of differences, their culture andintegrity is not threatened. Such aspects aspower structures, cultural hegemonies, eco-nomic and social inequities, and feelingsof injustice must not be ignored in discus-sions of intercultural and international re-lations (Räsänen, 2007a, p. 19).

When discussing the obstacles andconditions for intercultural co-operation,one has to consider them from an individ-ual, institutional, and structural point ofview. Very often the obstacles and condi-tions are considered as individual featuresor phenomena, and structural aspects areneglected. Still, the political and culturalclimate and society’s structures can eitherfavor or hinder, for example, the inclusionof immigrants. Intercultural cooperation,immigration and development co-opera-tion can be seen as a burden or as a sourceof innovative learning depending on ourvalues, worldviews and societal traditions.We can also restrict our intercultural co-operation to certain favored and valuedgroups and exclude others. In addition,there is a long history of international ‘co-operation’ that is far from the ideal of equalpartnerships and has been based on ego-ism, ethnocentrism, cultural hegemony anda sense of superiority, particularly in North-South and East-West connections. Mutualintercultural learning presupposes criticalreflection on both one’s own backgroundand its biases, and knowledge of othercultures and diverse ways of perceivingthings. Above all, fruitful learning proc-esses require willingness to learn from eachother, and conditions where there is mu-tual respect and exchange of ideas andrecognition of others as valuable and equalpartners in the cooperation (Räsänen &San, 2005, pp. 19–21).

3. Cultural diversity,globalisation and teachers’competencies

Multicultural societies set special challeng-es for educational planners and teachersas schools reflect (or at least should re-flect) the changing demographic context.

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In a way, schools are microcosms of soci-ety, with representatives from differentprofessional, social and cultural groups.Teachers are working at the crossroads ofcultures and hopefully constructing bridgesbetween children and parents but also be-tween the past and future. They are sup-posed to provide students with compe-tences for the present, but also for creat-ing the future. They can prepare the nextgenerations to encounter difference, tocherish it and to learn from it. As educa-tors they should also challenge studentsto evaluate the past and present socio-cul-tural changes. Globalisation and interna-tionalisation are a part of our reality, butpeople give the phenomena meanings,contents and direction. They decide wheth-er the phenomena turn into sources ofcreativity and learning or harsh competi-tion and inequity. They decide whetherthese phenomena offer hope and havehuman faces. The substance of educationconsists of the ideas of civilization, devel-opment, learning and human growth. Ed-ucation is a reflection of what is meant bydevelopment or what is considered valua-ble for future generations (Räsänen, 2007b,pp. 58–59).

The teacher’s job has been understoodslightly differently at different times andin different contexts. It has been describedfor instance as a combination of skills, aform of art, applied science and an ethicalprofession (e.g. Liston & Zeichner, 1991;Tom, 1984; Niemi, 1998). Writers haveasked whether teacher training shouldconcentrate purely on imparting neces-sary didactic skills or on the nurturing ofautonomous, reflective professionals whoevaluate and develop both themselves andtheir work (Beyer, 1986, pp. 37–41; Caseet al., 1986, p. 39). It has been questionedwhether a teacher (or an educator) ismerely a transmitter or maintainer of theprevailing culture or also its interpreter,evaluator and transformer. Is the teacheronly a civil servant realising what books,curricula and authorities state or shouldhe/she have a more active role in select-ing and evaluating the aims and contents?

In both cases, culture and values are in-volved in the process. One has all the rea-son to inquire whose culture and valuesthey are and how they are chosen or eval-uated. In multicultural societies this ques-tion becomes even more relevant thanbefore. Whose vision of the future is dom-inant in the curricula and whose view-points and cultural traditions are recog-nized in the discussion?

When planning and evaluating teachereducation programmes that pay attentionto changing environments, discussionabout the permanent and new aspects ofthe profession is needed. The core tasksand responsibilities of the profession largelyremain the same, but new competence ar-eas emerge or become more significant innew environments. That is why it is im-portant to analyse what is essential in one’swork and what are the requirements thatneed more attention in the changed con-text. Such qualifications as caring for stu-dents (other people), interest in learningand life, creativity, innovativeness, reflec-tion and basic teaching skills are requiredin all teaching posts. In addition, specialcriteria for working in multicultural con-texts must be added to the competencesof future teachers, and their developmentshould be observed in the professionaleducation as well (Räsänen, 2007c, pp.232–234).

Research on the competences requiredin multicultural contexts has emerged in-ternationally as well as in Finland (e.g.Jokikokko, 2005; Talib, 2004 and 2005).Many writers like Bennett and Noel em-phasise that technical competence is notenough in a fast-changing, interconnect-ed world but teacher education should alsoinvolve awareness of broader social andeducational factors in addition to the ped-agogue’s skills (e.g. Bennett, 1995; Noel,1995). They also point out that such is-sues as ethnocentrism, power, equality, ster-eotypes, prejudices, racism and oppressionof minorities are rarely found in teachereducation agendas. It is also seldom eval-uated whether mono-acculturation andmainstream tendencies are justified and

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how the whole study programmes wouldchange if the perspectives were more di-verse, using approaches that are more in-quiry-based.

Both Bennett and Noel talk about theimportance of being confronted by out-side views in teacher education and ofbecoming aware of the relativity of knowl-edge and multiple perspectives (Bennett,1995, p. 262; Noel, 1995, p. 270). This re-quirement is particularly important in acountry like Finland, which is young as anation, and where national unity and sim-ilarities have been emphasised instead ofdiversity and different voices. This histor-ical legacy sometimes makes it difficultfor teachers to put themselves into theposition of minority students and to viewthe school institution from their perspec-tives and through their experiences. Fur-ther, it is vitally important to understandwhat it is like to study in a foreign lan-guage, about historical events that are new,about cultural heroes that have no appar-ent meaning, about animals that one hasnever seen or plants whose names areunknown even in one’s own language.Confronting other views and becomingaware of multiple perspectives is particu-larly important for representatives of main-stream cultures, because they are seldomforced to question their views or have lit-tle experience about what it is like to bedifferent or to belong to a group withlow economic or social status. However,it is important to avoid stereotypes in cul-tural cooperation as well. It is essential toknow people’s histories, know where theycome from and learn about their cultures.But it is equally important to rememberthat people are above all individuals—theybelong to several cultural groups (e.g. eth-nicity, religion, language, gender, socialclass) and differences within cultures arebig both within our own groups and inother cultures. Similarly, it is important topoint out that cultural borders are not thesame as national borders, and there aremany subgroups within the nation statesthat might identify themselves cross-na-tionally.

The second important requirement forculturally sensitive teacher education isawareness of how our communities andbackground have affected us (Bennett,1995, p. 261; Noel, 1995, pp. 269–270).That is difficult unless we have personallyencountered others who think differentlyand have directly experienced other cul-tures as a mirror for our assumptions. Onthe other hand, understanding one’s own,historically constructed biases and ethno-centrism enables one to become moreopen to others’ meaning making effortsand to look at one’s own culture throughthe other’s eyes. In addition to understand-ing one’s personal history and its effects,collective memories and histories of na-tions and cultural groups are vital in con-sciousness-raising as well. In that processwe sometimes must go beyond names andbirthplaces, habits and customs to cultur-al deep structures—to the beliefs, attitudes,values and traditions that have shaped us.Bennett compares cultural consciousness-raising to cultural therapy, which is a proc-ess of bringing one’s own culture to thelevel of awareness, which makes it possi-ble to perceive it as a potential bias insocial interaction. Understanding this helpsone to realize that things are seldom blackor white, but mostly historically and cul-turally developed phenomena. It is gener-ally claimed that one’s own culture formsa solid foundation for one’s developmentand growth. That is partly true, but it canalso become a mental prison if one neverdares to go outside its walls or look be-yond its boundaries.

The third criterion in interculturalteacher education is developing specialintercultural skills and sensitivity. Bennett(1995, p. 263) quotes Kim and Ruben(1984) stating that intercultural compe-tence includes intellectual and emotionalcommitment to the fundamental unity ofall humans, but at the same time, accept-ance and appreciation of the differencesbetween people of different cultures. In-terculturally competent teachers are awareof the diversity of cultures, but they knowthat cultures are not static but dynamic,

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and they are conscious of the dangers ofstereotyping. They know that if they donot make constant efforts to see the cul-tural attributes of others and to considercultures from their perspectives, their ownlimited cultural lenses will guide them.Bennett emphasises that key elements inintercultural competences are informedempathy and various communication skills.Sufficient linguistic competence is impor-tant in intercultural communication, butin the long run, attitudes are even morecrucial. Without mutual respect, genuinelistening and equal dialogue, even the mostperfect linguistic skills prove insufficient.Intercultural dialogue, which is based onequity and respect, increases interculturallearning—both understanding of one’sown background and that of the repre-sentatives of other cultures.

Educators committed to the notion ofcritical pedagogy particularly distinguishalso a fourth demand for a teacher of aglobal village: to develop a commitmentto combat inequality, racism, as well assexism, and all other forms of prejudice,oppression and discrimination throughdevelopment of understanding, attitudesand social action skills. Bennett (1995, p.263) argues that acquiring multiculturalliteracy and appreciation of cultural di-versity is not enough to put an end toprejudice, but the emphasis should alsobe on clearing up myths that foster de-structive beliefs about the evilness andinferiority of certain races, cultures orcultural areas. This should include anawareness of institutional and cultural rac-ism and power structures in the world,and one should stress basic human con-nections and similarities in addition todifferences. Also Stephen May (1999, pp.11–45) reminds us that education is sel-dom neutral and emphasises that weshould always situate cultural differenceswithin the wider discussion about powerrelations and remember that the knowl-edge and values of educational institutionsor their practices are not universal or nec-essarily even available to all.

In addition to the above-mentioned

criteria, there are special pedagogical skillsthat experts in intercultural and interna-tional education need. They should be awareof the various approaches to interculturaleducation, and of how the approaches couldbe implemented in schools and education.They should be conscious of the basic val-ues, aims, contents, methods, curricula andthe requirements set by the environment.They should realise that intercultural edu-cation and education for global awarenessis not a technique or a set of methods buta perspective or a philosophy that influ-ences all aspects of education and schoollife (Nieto, 2000, p. 313). Developing soci-etal consciousness, cultural sensitivity andawareness, special pedagogical expertise andcourage to act against inequity, stereotypesand discrimination requires cultivation ofintellect and attitudes, skills and courage.Teachers should have practice in transform-ing their knowledge and philosophies aboutcultural diversity and similarity into com-prehensive plans of education (Räsänen,2009b, pp. 35–38).

4. Approaches of interculturaleducation

Approaches to consideration of culturaldiversity in education have differed andthe methods have been divided into sev-eral categories accordingly (e.g. Grant &Sleeter, 1997, pp. 65–73; Banks, 1997a, pp.232–249). In some approaches, individualdevelopment and intercultural competenc-es are the focus of education, while inothers societal problems and structuralinequities are the starting point (James,2005, pp. 313–317). Banks (1997a, pp. 232–249) talks about the following main ap-proaches:

1. Approaches where minority cul-tures are regarded as a deviance to be‘cured’ and normalised.

2. Approaches where other culturesare recognised, but are included in thecurriculum as separate courses or con-tent areas, as exceptions from the ‘nor-mal’ and mainstream teaching.

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3. Approaches where the entire cur-riculum is constructed in a new wayacknowledging various perspectivesand viewpoints, and thus making stu-dents aware of the tendencies ofmono-acculturation and ethnocen-trism in schools.

According to the first approach, par-ticularly at the times when assimilationpolicies have been applied, states andschools have taken cultural difference as ahandicap. The majority has been consid-ered the norm to which immigrants shouldcatch up through special education andother remedial arrangements. In the sec-ond alternative, the presence of other cul-tures is recognised as such, but not neces-sarily as an integral part of school activi-ties. The school curriculum can still beethnocentric and monocultural, and oth-er cultures are introduced as separatecourses, books and theme weeks orthrough celebrating certain festivals, he-roes or significant incidents of the respec-tive groups. After these celebrations andspecial courses, teaching continues accord-ing to the mainstream culture. A majorproblem in such mainstream-centric edu-cation is that it provides pupils with onlyone way of seeing the world, a way whichis usually taken for granted.

The third alternative represents morecomprehensive approaches where the aimis to provide various perspectives and showthe constructive nature of knowledge. Theaim is also to break mono-acculturationand make students conscious of the possi-ble hegemony of mainstream culture andpower structures in the society. The goalis to work towards an equal and just soci-ety through care, consciousness-raising,critical thinking and democratic societalaction. In these approaches, it is acknowl-edged that a truly intercultural approachto education, which recognises diversityas a starting point, requires a holistic re-form, which includes policy, contents, cur-ricula, methods, school material and theentire school ethos.

The comprehensive approach means

that intercultural education forms a logi-cal continuum, which starts from earlychildhood and continues through thewhole educational path to higher educa-tion and adult education. In addition toformal education, it includes free-time ac-tivities, informal education and work plac-es. Higher education institutions need spe-cial attention in intercultural and globaleducation, as it is their responsibility todevelop both teaching and research in therespective areas. Intercultural educationposes such serious questions as: whichcultures are involved in the academic dis-cussion, in knowledge formation and inthe construction of worldviews. One canalso ask whether academic cultures areWestern-centric and presuppose that West-ern theories are always universal. Equalintercultural dialogue is needed also aboutacademic knowledge and pedagogical cul-tures.

In Finland, intercultural education isoften realised through theme weeks andseparate projects. Nieto (2000, pp. 305–320) has criticised this approach and hasdiscussed guidelines for a more thoroughand pervasive approach. She emphasisesthat intercultural education is not a ques-tion of methods and projects but a philos-ophy, a way of looking at the world fromseveral perspectives, and that is why itshould be present throughout educationand would require changes in the entirecurriculum (cf. Banks, 1997b, pp. 20–26).She also states that intercultural educa-tion is not only for minority students orethnically mixed groups, but it is perva-sive basic education about all people andfor all.

Nieto (2000, p. 310) remarks thatmonocultural education deprives all stu-dents of the enriching diversity that is char-acteristic of the human species and itsrange of cultures. It constructs ethnocen-trism and makes perspective transforma-tion and mental border crossing increas-ingly difficult, which is harmful for thecitizens of the multicultural and interna-tional world. Intercultural education is nota neutral approach but a strongly value-

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laden activity, with cultural richness, eq-uity, social justice, non-violence and hu-man rights being its core values. In com-prehensive educational processes, activeparticipation and open discussion aboutsocial justice, poverty, discrimination, andgender issues is needed in schools and insociety. When knowledge is informed bycultural and social awareness, it enforcesaction towards these goals on local as wellas national, regional and global arenas(Räsänen, 2009b, pp. 38–40).

5. Transformative, criticalintercultural learning

Representatives of critical pedagogy haveparticularly emphasised the teacher’s roleas both social actor and ‘transformativeintellectual’ (Giroux, 1985; Raivola, 1993).The influence of critical theorists has beenprominent in linking intercultural educa-tion with wider issues of socioeconomicand political inequity and ethical consid-erations. As stated before, Bennett (1995,p. 263) argues that acquiring interculturalliteracy and appreciation of cultural di-versity is not enough to put an end toprejudice and inequity, and that is whyeducation should include awareness-rais-ing of institutional and cultural racism andeconomical and political power structuresin the world. It is also important to pointout that global education and tolerancedo not mean putting up with anythingand everything; war, discrimination, injus-tice and violations of human rights areissues that one should be sensitized to, butthey are also issues one should fightagainst.

Stephen May (1999, pp. 11–45) hasfurther discussed the conditions for criti-cal pedagogy in multicultural contexts andhas developed three key principles for itssuccess:

1. to become aware of and decon-struct the apparent neutrality of edu-cation—and particularly citizenshipeducation—and realize that knowl-edge and values that often are pre-

sented as universal are neither com-mon nor available to all,

2. to situate cultural differenceswithin the wider nexus of power re-lations of which they form a part ofand to interrogate the normalizationand universalisation of the culturalknowledge of majority groups and itsjuxtaposition with other knowledgesand practices,

3. to maintain a reflexive critiqueof specific cultural practices that avoidsthe vacuity of cultural relativism andallows for criticism (both internal andexternal), transformations, andchange.

In addition to the above-mentionedprinciples, McLaren and Torres (1999, p.71) caution that critical intercultural eth-ics must be performed and not be reducedto reading texts. Such ethics requires edu-cators informed by ethics of compassionand social justice, ethos based on solidar-ity and interdependence and practical en-gagement in activities where these prin-ciples are practiced. They remind us ofthe importance of students’ lived experi-ences in their learning and engaging theirminds, bodies and affections in the learn-ing processes. They also point out the im-portance of practice and opportunities towork in various communities and for otherpeople.

McLaren and Torres remind us of theimportance of ethics in education and oth-er multicultural contexts. The ethical prin-ciples that bind cultures and societies to-gether have been discussed at length, ascan be seen from the United Nations’Human Rights process, which emergedfrom the experiences of the world warsand the conviction that similar catastro-phes must be avoided in the future. Oneof the crucial dilemmas in this discussionseems to be the question of how shouldspecific cultural values and general ethi-cal principles be combined in order to safe-guard the human rights process for peace-ful cooperation in the world (Gylling, 2004,pp. 15–26; Sihvola, 2004, p. 222). Anoth-

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er ethical challenge in our multiculturalglobalised world is how to expand thescope of caring and responsibility beyondthe immediate environment and one’s ownsocio-cultural and political context (Nod-dings, 1988).

UNESCO’s report on culture and de-velopment, Our Creative Diversity (1995),singles out global ethics as the main start-ing point for its discussion about chal-lenges across the globe. It emphasizes thatthe Golden Rule, equality, human vul-nerability and attention to the humanimpulse to alleviate suffering are the cen-tral sources of inspiration for the core ofglobal ethics. Our Creative Diversity arguesthat human rights are, at present, widelyregarded as the standard of internationalconduct. It states that protecting individ-ual, physical and emotional integrityagainst intrusion from society; providingthe minimal social and economic condi-tions for a decent life; fair treatment; andequal access to remedying injustices arekey concerns in global ethics. It adds thatbecause of fundamental threats to the eco-system, it is essential that certain newhuman rights be included in the existingcodes, such as the right to a healthy envi-ronment, not only for the present but alsofor future generations. The report empha-sizes that the rights must always be com-bined with duties (Our Creative Diversi-ty, 1995, pp. 40–41).

The above discussion presents clearrequirements for educational reforms. Inthe reforms, teacher education, particu-larly for basic education, is vital, becausethrough institutions of basic education itis possible to gather all the future citizensto learn together for the common future.This does not mean to neglect vocationaland higher education or the non-formaland informal sectors. Professionals for thesesectors deserve equally good training and,in any case, cooperation between the dif-ferent experts in global education is veryimportant. In addition, educators shouldnot be left alone in their tasks—they needprofessional networks and supportive prin-cipals, curricula, material, educational pol-

icies and practices (Räsänen, 2009a, pp.25–40).

6. Intercultural education,diversity and Finland

Finland has often been described as amonocultural country. This is maybe trueif we only look at religion and ethnicity,but considering the whole range of lan-guages, dialects, socio-economic groupsand particularly forms of living in differ-ent areas and parts of the country, thecountry is culturally heterogeneous. Fin-land has its old ethnic minorities, but therights of cultural minorities did not reallybecome an issue (maybe with the excep-tion of Swedish speaking Finns) until thenew minorities started to enter the coun-try in the 1970’s. The immigration policyhas been rather strict, although the new-est national strategies encourage work-based immigration. It is worth remember-ing that Finland has only recently becomea country of immigration. In the past,emigration was characteristic of the coun-try particularly at difficult times—abouthalf a million Finns have emigrated toSweden, and hundreds of thousands to theUnited States and Australia. In additionto ethnicity, there are many other aspectsof culture and diversity which have notbeen easy for Finns to recognize. Someexamples of these are: various religions(partly due to a very special bond betweenthe state and the Lutheran church), polit-ical views and rights of sexual minorities.Divisions between social classes were widebefore the civil war but were rapidly nar-rowed down after the world wars. Veryrecently, they are starting to increase again.Conscious educational policy and com-prehensive school reform have had a de-cisive role in increasing social equity inFinland, and may also play a role in sus-taining it.

The 1990’s has been considered a verydifferent era in Finland’s history comparedto earlier decades. Finland recovered rela-tively quickly from the deep economicrecession in the early 1990’s, which was

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deeper in Finland than in most other coun-tries. Finland joined the Nordic Counciland United Nations in 1955 and becamea member of the European Union in 1995.In several evaluations, it has been statedthat one of the key drivers in Finland’ssuccess has been and will be a uniformlyhigh-quality education system which hashelped speed the country’s social and eco-nomic internationalisation in the 1990’s(Aho et al., 2006, pp. 17–18). Presently, allpolitical documents (e.g. National CoreCurricula of 2003 and 2004, Global edu-cation 2010, Education for global respon-sibility project launched in 2007) empha-size the vital importance of interculturalunderstanding and of participating in thediscussion about development on the Eu-ropean and global levels. Education is ex-pected to respond to the challenges of anincreasing diversity in its population, in-ternational migration, and the changescaused by globalisation in terms of eco-nomic, social, cultural and ecological as-pects. The challenges for the whole edu-cational system are major, considering theshort history of taking cultural diversityinto account in educational planning andimplementation.

In spite of the many positive nationalreforms and efforts in recent years, thestate of intercultural education – in schoolsor teacher education institutions – is notyet satisfactory. Many aspects need to bechanged as a consequence of global tran-sitions, and these changes are particularlyurgent in the sphere of teacher education.Teacher education programmes have longand strong traditions, and they are, at leastin Finland, tight, versatile and fragmentedinto many small content areas. To intro-duce any new contents—or perspectives,for that matter—into the old structuresseems difficult; the usual result has beenthat schedules have become even morehectic as few of the former elements havechanged, but the new substance has beenadded up on top of the old ones. Besides,Finnish teacher education programmeshave traditionally been very ethnocentricand based on monocultural views of Finns

and Finnish culture (Räsänen, 2007a, pp.20–21). As a consequence, with the ex-ception of very few teacher education in-stitutions, intercultural and internationaleducation have remained marginal areasin curricula, mainly consisting of separatecourses which have had only minor influ-ence on the mainstream thinking and failedto produce major perspective change. Evenacceptance to teacher education pro-grammes appears to remain very difficultfor non-native Finns.

7. Concluding words

Intercultural education is teaching whichtakes seriously the demands that schoolsshould be everybody’s schools and edu-cation should be targeted for all the stu-dents and their needs in the interconnect-ed world on the globe that must be pro-tected. It means designing learning spaceswhere we learn from each other, enrichour cultures and worldviews and gaincompetences for sustainable development,fruitful cooperation and for solving jointdilemmas. In this process value clarifica-tion is needed—to stop to think what isessential in human life and what kind of aworld we construct for our children andgrandchildren to live in. Particularly whenchanges are fast, values could provide com-passes for our navigation (Räsänen, 2009b,pp. 43–47).

The Council of Europe (MaastrichtDeclaration 2002) has defined educationfor global responsibility in the followingway: Global Education is education that openspeople’s eyes and minds to the realities of theworld, and awakens them to bring about a worldof greater justice, equity and human rights forall. Global Education is understood to encom-pass Development Education, Human RightsEducation, Education for Sustainability, Edu-cation for Peace Education and Conflict Pre-vention and Intercultural Education, being theglobal dimensions of Education for Citizen-ship. Arts education and music, due to theirnature, should be able to ‘open both eyesand minds and to awaken people’, to com-bine both intellect and emotions—heart

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and mind—in the culturally enrichingexperiences and ethically conscious learn-ing processes.

The report Our Creative Diversity,which has defined the principles of glo-bal ethics for multicultural interaction, haspaid special attention to the rights of cul-tural minorities to maintain their culturesand have their voices heard in culturalcooperation and educational decisions. Thesame principle has been pointed out bymany of the human rights documents. Forexample The Convention on the Rightsof the Child (articles 29 and 30) statesthat the child shall be directed to the de-velopment of respect for his or her owncultural identity, language and values andfor civilizations different from his or herown. It further confirms that states withethnic, religious or linguistic minoritiesshall not deny the child’s right to enjoyhis/her culture, and defines that educa-tion should prepare children for responsi-ble life in a free society, in the spirit ofunderstanding, peace, tolerance, equalityof sexes, and friendship among all peo-ples, ethnic, national and religious groupsand persons of indigenous origin. Thehuman rights documents emphasize thatchildren’s rights are statements aboutadults’ responsibilities. It is adults’—andparticularly educators’—duty to see thatcultural equity is considered and culturalrichness becomes a source of fruitful mu-tual learning.

Various forms of culture—includinglanguage, religion, arts and music—havebeen used both for separating and unitingpeople and nations. They can be used forcooperation and enriching experiences, butalso for drawing borders and constructingnationalism or cultural superiority. This isthe lesson I personally learnt when I stayedin Bosnia-Herzegovina after the war inthe 1990’s in order to discuss the curricu-la changes for the increase of tolerancebetween the ethnic groups. Music playeda significant role in the efforts to buildunderstanding and trust for the future. Likein many similar cases, musicians from closeby and far away arrived in Sarajevo to play

together on the ruins of the destroyedbuildings, organized exchanges of musi-cians and choirs between the areas andgroups. At the same time, it was obviousthat art had been efficiently misused inthe schools, curricula and teaching mate-rial to construct prejudices and fear be-tween the cultural groups: each group hadtheir national interpretation of history,heroes, poets, composers and songs to bestudied. Music with its words, melodiesand rhythm has a very holistic effect onpeople’s attitudes and values. Still, if thesemethods can be used to build prejudicesthey are equally efficient when decon-structing them. Music is a powerful meansin this deconstruction process and in build-ing peace between people and groups. Itis also effective because it is a means ofcommunication, a kind of language, whichcan be understood by representatives fromvarious linguistic groups. It is a languagethat deserves more attention in teachereducation and it requires teachers who aresensitive to the language and have com-petences to share and practice it amongtheir pupils.

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Abstrakti

Rauni Räsänen“Interkulttuurinen kasvatus jakasvatus globaaliin vastuuseenopettajankoulutuksessa”

Artikkeli tarkastelee tarvetta interkulttuu-riseen yhteistyöhön ja interkulttuurisenkasvatuksen määritelmiä verrattuna mui-hin läheisiin käsitteisiin. Se esittelee eri-laisia lähestymistapoja interkulttuuriseenkasvatukseen ja keskittyy kriittiseen lähes-tymistapaan ja interkulttuurisen kasvatuk-sen eettisiin näkökulmiin. Artikkeli pai-nottaa kasvatuksen ja erityisesti opettajan-koulutuksen tärkeää roolia valmennetta-essa tulevia sukupolvia kasvavaan moni-naisuuteen, ja se tarkastee kompetensseja,joita opettajat tarvitsevat tärkeässä tehtä-vässään. Lopuksi artikkeli analysoi inter-kulttuurisen ja globaalin kasvatuksen ny-kytilaa Suomessa ja vetää johtopäätöksiätulevalle kehittämistyölle.

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Ylva Hofvander-Trulsson

Musical Upbringing inthe Eyes of ImmigrantParents

Yes, she doesn’t want to give up the pianoand she wants to continue with ballet. Shedreams of getting into Stockholm or Co-penhagen (academy of arts). I don’t knowwhere she will end up. I hope that shedoesn’t come home and say that she wantsto try for another profession. My fatheralways wanted her to be a doctor and get adecent salary and a good life, but whatdoes that mean? She dreams only of danc-ing. (Markku from Estonia)

Introduction

ince the beginning of the1990s, Swedish society hasbeen transformed as a resultof financial crises and reces-sions. War in Europe and theMiddle East has considerablyincreased the numbers of asy-lum-seekers. Sweden has his-

torically had a very open and generousasylum policy. However, the opportuni-ties for quickly building up a stable life inSweden have become considerably hard-er for recent immigrants in comparisonto the 1960s and the 1970s when Swedenhad high levels of labour immigration andwas booming economically.

At higher levels of formal aestheticeducation in Sweden, students from eth-nic minorities are significantly underrep-resented (HSV, 2005). In a former quan-titative study the author found this truealso for younger children in music schools,despite a wide range of courses on non-western music (Hofvander Trulsson, 2004).For Swedish children the education of-fered by music schools is a recreationalactivity outside of compulsory school. The

S

pupils in these schools have an age spanof between 5 and 19. In Malmö—a multi-ethnic, metropolitan area of Sweden—nineout of ten children who participate instate-financed music schools had Swedishparents, mainly from middle-class back-grounds. Furthermore, it was found thatrecruitment of pupils was as a rule deter-mined by consistent criteria and charac-teristics among both immigrant and non-immigrant pupils. The variable determinedto be the most significant predictor waslocation of residence. The pupils, irrespec-tive of origin, lived in areas with few im-migrants. Gender distribution was unequalin both groups, with girls as a clear ma-jority. In the group with a Swedish back-ground, parental income had a significanteffect. This was not the case in pupils witha non-Swedish background.

The focus of my thesis has been tostudy parents with non-Swedish back-grounds and how they describe their chil-dren’s musical interest, their own back-grounds, and daily life in Sweden. Thestudy gives prominence to the parents’voice, their view of themselves as parents,their own childhood, which has directlyand indirectly impacted on the daily livesof their children, and on decisions largeand small (Berg & Johansson, 1999). Thisarticle illustrates first and foremost differ-ent perspectives on the practise of musicas a decisive tool for the social integra-tion of the children. The article also illus-trates the emotional importance of musicto these parents who live and exist in acountry away from where they grew upand which shaped them. Music as a toolfor social reconstruction is a central themeof this study, as well as how it can impact

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on the upbringing of the child. Analysisof the interviews will, with the help oftheoretical concepts, seek to demonstratewhat can happen within and around indi-viduals and groups which live as minori-ties. It is a question of an emotional strug-gle for survival and rehabilitation both inregard to their own group and relatives,in terms of acceptance, and also seen asan asset by the majority society.

In this study I am investigating thenarratives of music in families which liveand work in a new country of residence,and how the parents describe their invest-ment in their children's musical develop-ment.

Method

The study involved 12 parents—six wom-en and six men—whose life stories formthe results of the thesis. The parents camefrom Iran (3), Germany, Serbia, Bosnia,Uruguay, Hungary (3), Estonia and Viet-nam. Altogether they had 25 children andyoung adults. 19 of them were musicallyactive—11 boys and 8 girls.

It was difficult to attract participantsfor the study, however women were moreeasily recruited than men. My profession-al and personal contacts, among princi-pals, music teachers and colleagues, proveduseful as “door openers” since they legit-imated the research project and facilitat-ed my contacts with the parents. Sarner(2003) describes how people with foreignbackgrounds are sometimes suspicious ofauthorities, both in their home countriesand in Sweden. Many of them have hadbad experiences with authorities duringtheir refugee processes. The interviewstook place in the informants’ homes or atmy office at the Music Academy. Audio-tape recordings from the interviewsamounted to about 26 hours, all of whichwas transcribed.

Inspiration for the analysis for thisdescriptive interview study is drawn fromhermeneutics (Ödman, 2007). The inten-tion is to develop a descriptive, multifac-eted picture based more on listening than

on leading questions (Kvale, 1997). Rele-vant interview questions emerged as aresult of initial pilot studies. The preparedquestions have supported the executionof the interviews which centred on fourcentral themes within the context of themusical discussion: the parents' back-ground, the family's current situation, thechildren's school and extra-curricular ac-tivities, and the child's future. Riessman(2007) writes that while interview sub-jects offer their information and opinions,it is up to the researcher to construct theinterview and develop the final interpre-tations. I have used the interviews to lis-ten to and analyse that which is beingsaid, how it has been articulated, and some-times that which has been left unsaid. Thishas been done on several levels of lin-guistic interpretation and analysis, whichtogether with the theory and prior researchhas deepened and broadened my under-standing of the field.

The children of the participating par-ents play or have played at either musicschools in their home municipalities, invarious forms of private teaching, at anIranian-Swedish music school, or at theMalmö Academy of Music’s “Piano Fo-rum” programme for talented pianists.Some of the children take part in severalof these teaching situations simultaneous-ly. The majority of children play the pia-no. This was not a selection criterion forthe study, but the children’s choice of in-strument first became clear during theinterviews (aside from the three parentswhose children had taken part in the “Pia-no Forum”).

Theoretical perspectives

To relocate to a new country represents achange in a person’s life which has anenormous impact, both immediate, and incoming generations. The issues whichemerged from the parents’ statements fo-cus on cultural identity, living in a minor-ity group, and how the children in thefamily identify themselves in relation todifferent cultural forms and how various

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types of music are used as tools in therespective rapprochement and alienationfrom the parents’ origins.

The theoretical perspectives, whichsupported the analysis during the devel-opment of this thesis, have partly come toaddress traditional gender and class per-spectives, having a foreign background, andliving in a minority group. To understandthe structural perspective between indi-viduals and the society, as well as classidentity, I have used Bourdieu (2000;Broady & Palme, 1986) and his thinkingaround various definitions of capital: cul-tural, social, economic and symbolic capital.Furthermore his concept of habitus hasbeen useful to understand the upbringingapplied by the parents and the impact ofthe music. Field and location have beenapplied to illustrate how different societalgroups resist influences to family norms.

The gender perspective is further de-veloped by Hirdman (2008) to describethe differences between women and men,and girls and boys, in various societies andcultures. Skeggs’ concept of respectability(2006) provides a further tool for the in-terpretation of class and gender. Trondman(1993), who has exposed the dilemma ofclass mobility, is also of help in the analysis.Foucault’s (1976, 1980, 1993) concept ofdisciplinary power shows the link betweenknowledge and power. These perspectiveson how power operates emerged in theinterviews between teachers, parents andchildren. Sartre (1971) problematises invarious ways the determined subject andpossible outcomes for change. Laclau andMouffe (1985) have contributed theoriesfor the development of an identity analy-sis where the position of subjects in rela-tion to the dominant discourses are illus-trated; the concepts of overdetermination andantagonism have become useful for thisstudy. Goffman’s (2001) labelling theorieshave demonstrated how a stigma can beexpressed by a person. The parents’ feel-ings and experiences of being stigmatisedaffects both their way of thinking, andpatterns of behaviour in their daily lives,which has long term consequences for

some of the children. Goffman’s (1974)dramaturgic theories of the front and backstage have illustrated the experience ofcultural phenomena within the subject andwithin the cultural group, which do notalways accord with each other.

Discussion of the results

Music as a tool

The parents’ testimony illustrates the sig-nificant role of music in bridging theemotional gap between life in Sweden andthe cultural habitus which comes fromone’s upbringing (Broady & Palme, 1986).These two different worlds are for manyof the parents difficult to integrate in anemotionally satisfactory way. Several of theparents describe themselves as determinedby their origins (Sartre, 1971), as upbring-ing has occurred in another context andin another culture. Also, they feel stigma-tised through the feeling of not fully be-longing to Sweden and being surroundedby a society where, in all statistics, all in-dividuals born in another country are clas-sified as having “foreign backgrounds”.Even their children who are born in Swe-den to two foreign parents are categorisedas “children with a foreign background”by Statistics Sweden. This is regarded bymany of the parents as labelling, resultingin a stigma, which they can neither affect,nor control (Goffman, 2001).

Parents in exile experience that la-belling occurs on several levels as themajority society repeatedly classifies andquestions the individual according to, forexample, appearance and accent (Althus-ser, 1976). “Here I am a foreigner, even ifI have lived here for 30 years”, a fatherfrom Serbia said. In his experience, beinga “foreigner” in Sweden is a handicap asit provides greater obstacles to establish-ing oneself in society. Several of the par-ents have mentioned that the labour mar-ket is more limited for those with foreignbackgrounds, that the children are givenundeservedly low grades in school, andthat the housing market is segregated (De

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los Reyes, Molina & Mulinari, 2005).According to Folkestad (2002) music

from one's homeland strengthens nationaland cultural identity by evoking feelingsand memories. This was repeatedly men-tioned in the interviews with the parents.”Music awakens the memory”, a motherfrom Uruguay said. Her father was a verywell known musician and composer inLatin America. As a child, she began per-forming on television with him. Duringthe Uruguayan dictatorship from 1973 andonwards the father was imprisoned andtortured. When he was released after sev-eral years the whole family fled to Swe-den. By then she had studied biomedicineat university and trained to become a gui-tar teacher. She now lives with her hus-band and two children, both of whom arevery active musicians. She has been una-ble to use her education in Sweden, work-ing instead as an assistant nurse at a homefor the elderly. Her husband is a journalistfor a Spanish language newspaper.

The interviews also indicate the im-portance of music in making contact withmemories from the country of origin.Music from home countries becomes atool for understanding the inner self, inregard to childhood and upbringing. Theinterviews are divided in two parts, con-sisting of life in the country of origin, andin the adopted country. In the adoptedcountry the music is pluralistic and influ-enced by all types of impressions from TV,radio, the Internet and so on. Stokes(1994) writes: “Music is clearly very mucha part of modern life and our understand-ing of it, articulating our knowledge ofother people, places, times and things, andourselves in relation to them” (p. 3). Theparents’ explanations of their relation tomusic from their country of origin washowever clearly limited to and presentedas if determined by the context of child-hood and of family, school and society.The expressed and practised discourseabout the music of childhood is shown inhow the interviewees speak about themusical upbringing of their own children.Plantin (2001) argues that we raise our

children in relation to our own childhood.There are parents who also distance

themselves from their own experiencesand adopt a counter-position. The parentsfrom Iran stood out in this study, as theyhave chosen to allow their children to playand concentrate on music despite the factthat they themselves did not. The Iranianparents spoke about how music was for-bidden:

In my youth there was the revolutionand we were not allowed, it was for-bidden. There was no music anywhereand we listened in secret. I don’t knowfor how many years, but it just died.So it feels great to be able to do itnow. The early years were very tough.Now they have started to play, andyoung girls can perform in concertsdown there, despite the veil and eve-rything else, they are very talented. Itwasn’t like that when I lived there, itwas forbidden. (Mariam)

Hassan explained that in several Mus-lim countries music has been banned bythe regimes. Hassan, who comes from Iran,spoke repeatedly about the important rolethat culture and the arts plays and how itis engraved in a person’s subconscious evenif they live a secular life in Sweden.

As I said, culture and the arts are im-portant. It is such that in the areasfrom which we have fled—Turkey,Iraq, Iran, Pakistan, Afghanistan—itdoes not matter, it is all Muslim. Ac-cording to Islamic law, one is not al-lowed to hear or play an instrument.It is forbidden. It is only in war, andthen it is marching band music orsomething similar. (Hassan)

Hassan relates how it is difficult tostand for your decision in front of the rel-atives. Hassan is proud that his son playsmusic, but it is not as widely accepted bythe extended family. “If my sister or fa-ther calls from Iran, should I say that myson plays guitar? God no, he is going to

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be a doctor” (Hassan). This habitus, whichthe father illustrates (Broady & Palme,1986) and from which he distances him-self, I interpret as an antagonistic action(Laclau & Mouffe, 1985) in relation tothe family's opinions and norms. The fa-ther chooses to deviate from the family’snorms, but does so quietly as group pres-sure is apparently so strong that he can-not state his position and choices openly(Ouis, 2005). This type of statement canbe interpreted as if the father wants touphold the picture of the good father,which can be compared with Hirdman’s(2008) reasoning about the good mother.The good father in this context is expect-ed to follow the family’s advice and normsso that damage is not done to the family’sgood reputation or “honour”. The father’ssituation can be understood with the helpof the term overdetermined (Laclau &Mouffe, 1985) which means that severaldifferent discourses compete for influencein the same person. These discourses cancontradict each other. From the father’sreasoning I interpret that the Swedish dis-course—that children are encouraged tolearn to play an instrument—clashes withthe discourse that he wants to distancehimself from, that which says that musichas no higher value and distracts the childfrom concentrating on that which can givea solid income and future.

Music as the bridge binding two worlds

Music unites and does not respectborders; that I have noticed. There,people can meet with condition andlimits (…) it does not matter whichlanguage one speaks. I have travelleda lot. I do not feel at home in all coun-tries. I don’t know why I didn’t feelat home, if it was the music, the peo-ple or the place. (Anna)

This mother relates that the family’s“roots” are in Hungary, but that the mu-sic connects and creates a feeling of homein more than one place. She describes howshe feels at home in Sweden, but that it

has been a difficult and long journey toreach that feeling. The feeling of “home”is presented as something intuitive, a strongconnection to the origins of youth whichare engraved on the individual’s conscious-ness (Broady & Palme, 1986). But the feel-ing of “home” which Anna speaks aboutis proof that it can be experienced in placesother than one’s origin. It is about con-tact with people, and the experience ofnature and music. The music is includedas an underlying artefact for this womanto be able to create the feeling of “home”around oneself and within.

Several of the parents who participat-ed in the study have a broad experienceof practising music in their childhoods. Fiveof them studied as musicians or musicteachers in their countries of origin. Inthe interviews, knowledge about music wasdescribed as an asset when moving to anew country. As music is direct and limit-less for the individual, it paves the way fornew relationships. However, music is alsodescribed as governing and limiting forthe individual. According to Frith (1996),it is not a question of how music reflectspeople but how music constructs people.Instead of supposing that the group hasvalues which are expressed in music, it ismusic as an aesthetic practise, which initself articulates an understanding of bothgroup relations and individuality. Themusic constructs our feeling of identitythrough direct experiences. Music givesform to body, time and togetherness, andfacilitates experiences which place us inimaginary cultural narratives (Sæther,2007).

The results from my study indicatethat music has both an intrinsic ability todefine the individual and opens doors toa new range of feelings and situations. Theparents' relationship to the practise ofmusic and to listening is presented in thisstudy as both complex and multifaceted.Some of the parents describe that musicworks as a trigger for difficult experienc-es and memories from the cultures of or-igin, and as an emotional space to recon-nect and find peace among those living in

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exile. The imaginary home country thatRushdie (2005) refers to concerns the rec-reation and formulation from the memo-ry a body of a country as if it were forreal. This fictional country provides theframe of reference, or the stage where thememories are played out.

Contemporary researchers regularlyhighlight how people without a coherentidentity wander in and out of various dis-courses, or identities, in order to relate tothe multifaceted daily life in which theirlife is conducted (cf. Giddens, 1991, 2003;Goldstein-Kyaga & Borgström, 2009;Howarth, 2007; Laclau & Mouffe, 1985;Wetherell & Potter, 1992). The develop-ment of identity in contemporary socialscience discourse has been deconstructedto a state where it concerns identities in aperson, that is to say discourses whichcolonise the individual and become con-stituted in differing arenas. What is high-lighted in this study does not contradictthis conceptualization, although there iscause to problematize this understanding.There is a strong longing among the par-ents to belong, to have a history, to live intheir history in a context which is dis-tinct, with clear game rules and to devel-op from there. The multi-contextual resi-dent seems to strive to create security inthe historic. A mother from Bosnia who,together with her husband and their new-ly-born daughter, fled the war in theformer Yugoslavia said the following:

If we had moved to Sweden becausewe wanted to, we wouldn’t have for-gotten then, either. But we no longerhave our own country, so I can’t saythat it doesn’t mean anything. I can’tforget that I am born and lived therefor so many years. I can't forget whathas happened and my children won’teither. They are my children. (Nejra)

One of the reasons why the parentsin many cases want their children to con-nect to their origins is because I thinkthat the parents actually experience them-selves to have an identity which is con-

structed of self-related stories, a habitusaccording to Bourdieu (Broady & Palme,1986). The story of ”who I am” is centralfor the parents' recreation of their past;this story is at least as important in theirroles as parents of their children. In par-enthood, a formulated identity is devel-oped, in the roles of mother and father.Plantin (2001) speaks about the impor-tance of one's own experiences in theparental role. In relation to our own ex-periences we create a parental role, con-sciously and sub-consciously. When it iscommunicated to the next generation, itcan be called ”the story of us”, ”the storyof me”. This story becomes even moreimportant when one is forced to leaveone's context to create a new existencesomewhere else. The mother of Bosnianorigin speaks in the following quotationabout her son, who is a young, very prom-ising pianist:

He should never forget, despite hav-ing been born in Sweden and livinghere, that he is not Swedish. He hashis relatives there. He has his rootsthere, which should be remembered.He cannot forget his roots. He doesnot have a Swedish name. One shouldknow where one comes from, andwho one’s parents, grand-parents andrelatives are. (Nejra)

The interviews have made it clear tome that even if identity is created as nar-ratives about ourselves—an imaginary pic-ture—it is the basis in our understandingof ourselves, our identity.

Music runs like a common threadthrough the narratives addressing self-un-derstanding. It is about a return to one’sroots, a journey in the present, to travelthrough one’s memories in the transcen-dental landscape, close to that which isdescribed as “the story about us” and closeto the dream of the permanent and theunchangeable.

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To lose one’s position

To be forced to leave one’s country oforigin can mean the loss of cultural, so-cial and economic capital (Broady & Palme,1986). The social field looks different inthe new country and it requires the moti-vation to learn and adopt new norms anda new language. During the interviewsthere has existed an underlying inferencein some of the parents’ statements thatindicates that they have not succeeded inSweden to the extent that they would haveliked. Their dreams about a new existencein the new country have in some casesnot been realised. Their lost capital hasnot been recovered. Families that came toSweden through their work have estab-lished themselves successfully and a fa-ther relates that they have been able toafford to both live here and keep a holi-day home in their country of origin, clos-er to friends and relatives. The two worlds,of origin, and of daily existence in a newcountry, fuse together more easily andrender the status as minority an asset, acultural capital which creates advantagesfor them and their children (Berry & Sam,1997).

The parents, who were forced to fleeand live in exile, have in this study dis-played the experience of more difficultythan those coming here through work. Amother told of how she was ashamed ofnot having been more successful in herworking life, that her attempts to educateherself have not been of use. This motherexplained that “I am always looking forwork, always looking, there is never anystability” (Maria). When the mother andthe daughter went on a ceramics coursetogether, and the daughter displayed moretalent, it was a further example of a raftof disappointments which have weakenedher status. That the daughter was better,was taken as a personal affront by themother, who was shown once again thatshe did not fit in Sweden. Maybe it is be-cause the mother, who came from a clearposition of higher status in Uruguay dueto her father, is now reduced to some-

thing with which she cannot identify.Downward social mobility can levy a

high price for women and men in frontof their children, relatives and friends. Theexperience of losing face puts one's self-confidence to the test. It can thus limitthe scope for an individual's development.One becomes locked in one's own self-picture (Goffman, 2001) where society'sstructures continually judge, both directlyand indirectly, punish and reward groupsof individuals with certain lifestyles andbehaviour (Foucault, 1993). As a result ofthe often strong starting position of theparents in their countries of origin, thedamage to this self-picture is often multi-plied, the shame greater, and the fall harderto take. Trondman (1993) has with thedevelopment of the term social mobilityclarified how the journey up through thesocial classes can appear. He underlinesthe advantages of upward social mobility,with new possibilities for ownership, theacquisition of status symbols, the adop-tion of new opinions on society, musictastes, individuality and so on. With theconcept of social mobility, I would like toillustrate how the self-picture, in contrastto Trondman’s study, declines. Possibilitiesdecline with regard to employment anddevelopment, social networks contract,standard of living is affected, consump-tion habits change and so on. The cominggenerations can also be affected by thefamily's downward social mobility. This isa struggle which is played out on severallevels within and around individuals in theprivate and public spheres, which can haveprofound consequences.

This study illustrates the hopes of theparents and the expectations they have ontheir children and their performance. Themusical activities clearly demonstrate thedemands they place on their children whichin several cases have been tasked with re-storing their family's reputation, positionand future opportunities. Bearing in mindthat in this case, music is a leisure activityfor the children, and that school demandsat least as much as their music teachersand their parents, the children's role as an

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investment and resource is shown clearly.It is about recovering lost capital on sev-eral different levels. The parents reason thatWestern music, in which the majority ofthe children is being educated, is the rightpath to recover the cultural capital that isof the most use in Sweden and in the restof the Western World.

Recovering lost capital

The concept of social mobility becamean important theme in the analysis of thisstudy, which determined that the partici-pants invest fully in their children’s lives.Their investments occur in several differ-ent areas depending on the family’s situa-tion. Based on the majority of these par-ents, one can see that the children are thefocus in their everyday lives, for they si-multaneously generate faith in the futureas well as concern for their future lives inSweden.

A father from Serbia said the follow-ing regarding his daughter's future: “I thinkthat the children feel a lot of pressure fromus, that to wander around and do nothingwith one's life leaves them in the gutter,it is that simple” (Moltas). Maria fromUruguay said something similar: “Withregards to my children, they are immi-grants, so I have told them from the be-ginning that they have to continue to study.If you don't have your grades then yourchoices are limited”. Li, who comes fromVietnam, told about how her son was nolonger allowed to live at home if he didnot go to adult education classes to im-prove his grades.

In some of the interviews there wasan underlying theme of a “we”-orientat-ed discourse. The primary goal is to cre-ate safety and security for the family, whichdiffers from the typical Swedish norm ofmore of an “I”-orientated focus, with theindividual at its core (Almqvist, 2006). Itis important to underline that not all fam-ilies are typified by this “we-discourse”. Itis my understanding that the level of inte-gration into Swedish society determinesthe importance of the family. Some of the

parents are from a generation of immi-grants which will most probably not re-gain the capital lost as a result of theirmigration. The interviews display a beliefamong the parents that the children how-ever do have that possibility.

Exiled parents express the feeling ofa great personal responsibility for theirsituation in relation to their children andrelatives. Even if downward social mobil-ity can also be a product of Swedish soci-ety and the common Swedish view of res-idents with immigrant backgrounds (Goff-man, 2001), it remains a fact that manyminorities blame themselves as much asany underlying structural factors. Thiscould be interpreted as a product of theindividualised society, which emerged asa result of the erosion of the welfare soci-ety, shifting responsibility to the individu-al to look after herself (Bauman, 2002).

Several of the mothers and fathershave completed new university degrees atSwedish universities, since the qualifica-tions they had on arrival in Sweden werenot approved here. When this educationhas not resulted in employment, they havelanded in a situation of doubt towardsthemselves and the society. Faith in theirown ability is damaged and this concernfor the future is passed on to their chil-dren. According to their parents, the chil-dren who are supposed to recover the lostsocial status need certain tools to helpthem. First and foremost, these parentsemphasised the importance of education.Despite the fact that they themselves haveat times felt discriminated by the labourmarket due to their backgrounds, the par-ents argue that education is the best wayto succeed in Sweden. Schoolwork there-fore becomes of core importance. Thatwhich is not learned in school must belearned in children’s free-time (Sæther &Hofvander Trulsson, 2010).

Musical upbringing—a trialecticcontract

“When you have lost everything you alsodesire to give everything back because you

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feel a debt”, Nejra from Bosnia said. Thedebt can be a strong driving force behindthe comprehensive commitment that manyof the parents display for their children'smusical activities. Naturally it is extreme-ly likely that the parents first and fore-most find it pleasing that their childrentake an interest in music, just as they them-selves have done. The strength of this driv-ing force can be illustrated by how two ofthe parents of students in the Piano Fo-rum put in hours of their time every dayto take the children to various lessons,following their practice to the extent thatit became difficult for their sons to findthe time to meet friends. The mothers alsofelt that if their sons were to succeed withplaying the piano, extra commitmentwould be required of them as parents,meaning that it was difficult to leaveenough time for work. A mother thatcomes from Hungary, who is a trainedmusic teacher, put it like this:

The weekdays were always a little sen-sitive for him. Most of his friendswanted to play football or play on thecomputer, but we said that he coulddo so on the weekend. During theweek there is not much free time ashe goes to music classes in anotherpart of town and we travel back andforth, almost an hour, and then wewent to Lund from Malmö and playedfor the piano teacher, it took up a lotof our time. In the beginning it was alittle difficult, but then it got easier.He has to plan, always, we have toplan and prioritise. For example to-day we don't want him to practicethis evening as he would bother theneighbours, but instead directly afterschool for three hours. (Magdi)

Another mother whose son was alsogiven lessons in the Piano Forum explainedas follows:

Yes, they have to practice. They areconcerned that they will not get anytime for anything else. He is still small.

He says that if he is to practice thisand this much then I can't meet myfriends. Then we say, yes you can, weexplain. As soon as he has done hispractice, and sufficiently well, then heis free to do whatever he likes. I hopethat when he gets a little older hewill understand. He is actually prettygood; he knows what he has to do.He is often very tired in the evening,but in the evening he also practices atleast two hours. His teacher thinks thathe could play at a high level, so morework than normal is needed, not justtwenty minutes per week. (Nejra)

It is difficult to gauge from this studywhether the music project is mutual, sinceonly the parents are given a chance to saytheir piece. It is probable that the childrenalso love music and the practise of music,but to what extent is not known. In theinterviews, the parents described how theyencourage and push their children to playand focus on their music. Based on state-ments from five of the parents, it is clearthat they, together with the music teacher,can persuade the children to prioritise, andalso place restrictions on friends and oth-er activities. ”Friends just turn up, but wesay no, you can play only at the end of theweek” (Magdi). These restrictions are ad-vantageous for their musical practise sinceit is given more time and attention. Theparents proudly relate that the music teach-er has pointed out that the child has atalent for music and should spend moretime on it. According to Foucault (1980),disciplinary power has a significant rolein the internalisation of behaviour whichlater becomes integrated in the self. ForFoucault, there is close correlation betweenknowledge and power, where the truth isdictated by those with standing (comparewith “symbolic capital”, Broady & Palme,1986). The teacher can use the parents asa proxy in relation to the student, to con-trol and influence her at home (Rose,1995). The parent can also use the teach-er's professional status (Lindgren, 2006)as an alibi to control the child and limit

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other influences from friends for exam-ple, and other distractions. The child whomoves between these two poles is depend-ent on the encouragement and care of bothparties, to ensure the receipt of praise andlove. Interaction occurs when the child isgiven positive interpellations (Althusser,1976).

Markku who comes from Estonia alsohas a daughter who is a talented pianist.The daughter also dances classical balletand is committed to this as well as thepiano. He says: “Yes my wife has dancedand wants to dance herself. She knows allthe steps. So she supports her, but alsohassles her—have you played, you shouldplay for at least an hour, she says. It is mywife who is on at her”. Practicing, whichoften occurs in the home, is done openlysince the instrument makes considerablenoise. It opens up scope for control fromone’s surroundings and therefore offerslittle space for the child’s private life, andunmonitored practice. The parents caneasily follow up on what the child doeswhen he or she plays at home.

Yes, it is really difficult to say, as hetakes the bus twenty-five kilometresto and from school. Sometimes hetravels again in the evening for les-sons, but then I drive him so that wesave time. Yes, it takes a lot of time.(Nejra)

The interviews show that it is prima-rily the mothers who correct and instructthe child during practice (compare with“disciplining”, Foucault, 1976). By beingcontinually under watch, little space is leftto hide, which could lead to the childdeveloping choreographies (Goffman,1974) in relation to the parents to divertattention, create freedom, and enable re-sistance. Foucault (1976) shows that wher-ever power exists, there is always resist-ance to it.

Another strategy for the observedchild, to react to the internalised eyes andears of the parents and teachers, is to comecloser and become attached, to court praise

and appreciation. This exposes them todemands and sanctions from those ofstanding in return. Foucault (1976) de-scribes the liberating function of confes-sion for the dominated. This exampleemphasizes a complex interaction betweenteacher and parent, parent and child, stu-dent and teacher, where three parties arethe creators of a particular behaviour, likea contract which trialectically nourishes ateaching situation.

It has emerged from interviews withseveral of the parents, that the childrenhave taken part in music competitions. Incompetitions, the progression and seriousnature of musical learning is clearly dem-onstrated. The results of competitions arefor the children a clear statement as towhether they have succeeded with theirpractice and if they have talent. At thecompetitions they stand alone and arethemselves responsible for their perform-ance. There is a fluctuation between suc-cess and failure. Winners and losers arecreated. This regime of knowledge thatseveral of the children are dragged into, islike a high stakes game:

He knows that he is good; this is bothpositive and negative. He says: whydo I have to practice so much when Ican do this? He was a little on edgefor a while. There is a lot to do, andhe is tired, he doesn't manage andcan't be bothered. But since he start-ed on the syncope and played his firstconcert, and the girls started to comeup to him, “oh, you are so talented”(…) then friends were impressed andthat meant a lot to him. So it is goingwell now. When he is feeling down Itry to cheer him up and then it usual-ly works out. (Nejra)

The self-regulating punishment orpraise associated with participation inmusic competitions can be both ruthlessfor the self-confidence and an incentiveto work on and improve. The study showsthat there exists competition between sib-lings in a family to be the most successful

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musician. The competitions become theultimate proof of who is the most suc-cessful in the family.

Views on school and the purpose ofmusic teaching

The interviews have revealed a scepticalview regarding the Swedish schooling sys-tem. The parents have primarily comment-ed on music teaching, but also on othersubjects concerning children that haveattended state-run schools, rather thanthose who have pursued classes with amusic focus. The music classes have most-ly generated positive opinions.

The parents regard music teaching inschools to be important, but they consid-er there to be an excess of popular musicin the teaching. They regret the absenceof music history and music theory in thecurriculum. Some parents argue that mu-sic teaching is primarily focused on thosethat know nothing about music and thatthe existing approach does not challengestudents with greater knowledge. Schoolin general is considered by many to berowdy and some perceive that the teach-ers do not keep the lessons under control.The parents want to see clearer guide-lines and say that the teachers lack au-thority among the students. One motherargues that Swedish children do not learnto show respect for adults, which she thinksis wrong. Many parents relate that theyhad completely different experiences dur-ing their school years which were moreauthoritarian and directed. One motherexplains that her school years, and musiceducation, were boring as she learnedknowledge by rote without placing it in acontext. These experiences compare withher children's learning in school and inmusic classes, which she describes as muchbetter. Despite negative school experiencesheld by many of the parents, they haveadopted the authoritarian approach them-selves as a habitus which affects their viewof upbringing and education (Broady,1990). A culture clash emerges with theSwedish school system, as minority par-

ents generally do not entirely trust theSwedish model, with its more egalitarianview of children and a looser setting ofboundaries. At the same time many ofthem express pleasure that their childrenhave a stable living situation in Sweden.There is an ambivalence which emerges(Bourdieu, 1999) in the view of their ownbackgrounds and the Swedish view ofchildren. Concern over the children's fu-ture in the country dominates many con-versations and manifests itself on occa-sion as contempt for what they considerto be a hegemony (Gramsci, 2007) andracism on the labour market (Wetherell& Potter, 1992). The school's teaching ide-als do not fit in with the level of learningexpected and valued by the parents. Swed-ish education becomes therefore uncer-tain which several try to compensate intheir free-time by controlling their chil-dren (Rose, 1995).

A mother and father from the samefamily explained that their son could nothave time to go to high school if he wasto have sufficient time to practice the pia-no. School was limiting for their son, andfurthermore, the parents argued it wastaught inefficiently. They concluded thatthe school days were too long and thepace of learning too slow. Practice suf-fered as a result, since their son was tiredwhen he came home. This family consid-ered finding another alternative for theirson's schooling.

Provision of a range of leisure activi-ties can be interpreted as a means by whichparents may control their children to so-cialise in the “correct” way (Foucault,1980). By limiting and organising their freetime after school it becomes easier to judgethe results of these investments. What isthe right choice for a child is subjectiveand difficult to gauge. The answer is giv-en to the parents much later when thechild is an adult, for then the results of allthe efforts put in along the way begin toshow. Are then the investments, from theparents in their leisure time, a prerequisitefor the children to thrive in the society?Rose (1995) illustrates various control

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mechanisms as a tool to create upstand-ing citizens. This discourse, which Rosetalks about, is internalised by parents andincludes elements of the exercise of pow-er. If the children are successful in schooland in their leisure activities then the par-ents have succeeded in their upbringing.

In these interviews it emerged thatsome parents would like to see a returnon their investment (Plantin, 2001). Thiswould occur through the child playing forthe parents in private, or before an audi-ence. There is, in other words, a contractwhich the parents have developed detail-ing the requirements which the childrenare expected to live up to in order for theparents to continue to pay and supportthem. A situation of indebtedness can alsoemerge, where the child is in debt for theinvestment made by their parents. Throughthe adoption of a learning ideology thatmusic can be measured and valued, theparents become proxy teachers who ap-ply the same methods to value the chil-dren’s performances.

Conclusion

The present study has determined thatsome minority parents in Sweden delib-erately make a strategic investment in theirchildren's future, including music lessons.It is a question of both encouraging thechildren's activities, but also about fillinggaps of various kinds. That which theschool does not give the child in the formof knowledge for the future that parentsconsider needed, is compensated for in theform of free-time learning. For these fam-ilies, learning music was an important goalsince it grants both cultural capital (Broady& Palme, 1986) and gives the children alanguage which is not stigmatising (Goff-man, 2001). All the children in this studywere schooled primarily in the Westernmusic tradition. Some of them have alsolearned the music of their own culture,on their own or with the help of theirparents. It is important to add that in eachcase these families were not elitist in theirplans for, and investments in, their chil-

dren, but the majority had a clear plan forwhat their children's free-time learningwould achieve. The parents describedmusic playing as free zone, where peoplehave equal value and where one's differ-ence, their habitus, becomes a culturalcapital which can be valued highly (Bour-dieu, 2000). Potentially, with musicalknowledge comes respectability. Fromthese interviews one may deduce that theparents feel that music can grant this re-spectability, and a cultural capital whichcan open doors for upwards social mobil-ity and the social reconstruction of thefamily. The music is a tool that can bothgive the individual a passport to anotherlife and also internally strengthen theirown cultural group. The children's musi-cal successes play an important role forthe family's potential and reputation. Thechildren become a testimony for parent-hood. The question of whether the chil-dren share their parents’ views on thesematters or take a more antagonistic stance(Laclau & Mouffe, 1985) has not been thefocus of this study. From the perspectiveof music education, probing of this issueis warranted in future studies.

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Stokes, M. 1994. Ethnicity, identity and music:

The musical construction of place. Oxford: Berg.

Trondman, M. 1993. Bilden av en klassresa. Sex-

ton arbetarklassbarn på väg till och i högskolan.

Stockholm: Carlssons bokförlag.

Wetherell, M., & Potter, J. 1992. Mapping the lan-

guage of racism: Discourse and the legitimation of

exploitation. New York: Columbia University Press.

Ödman, P.-J. 2007. Tolkning, förståelse, vetande.

Hermeneutik i teori och praktik. Finland: WS

Bookwell.

Abstrakti

Ylva Hofvander Trulsson“Musiikillinen kasvatusmaahanmuuttajavanhempiensilmin”

Väitöskirjassani tarkastelen ei-ruotsalais-ten vanhempien narratiiveja keskittyenmusiikkikoulujen ja musiikin yksityisope-tuksen rooliin lastensa kasvatuksessa. Haas-tattelujen tulokset osoittavat että musii-kin opiskelun kanssa tekemisissä olevatulkomaalaistaustaiset perheet ovat alunperin ylemmistä sosioekonomisista ryhmis-tä. Monet näistä perheistä eivät kuitenkinole säilyttäneet aiempaa sosiaalista ase-maansa uudessa maassa asettaen toivonsasen vuoksi lastensa tulevaisuuteen. Haas-tatteluista paljastui useita ydindiskursseja:konfliktoivat kulttuuriset identiteetit per-heiden sisällä, lapsen akkulturaatio, suku-puolittuneet odotukset eri etnisissä ryh-missä sekä pyrkimys statuksen ja henkisenpääoman saavuttamiseen.

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Three vignettes

n 1975, when the worst cloudsof hashish smoke and incensehad lifted after the psychedelic1960s, I embarked on what isnow a 35-year profound rela-tionship with the sitar and itsrepertoire of ragas and talas.While being privileged to

study North Indian classical music for overtwenty years with two of its highly ac-complished masters, Jamaluddin Bhartiyaand Ali Akbar Khan, I received surpris-ingly little explanation on how this verycomplex aural tradition actually ‘works.’Most of the lessons consisted of gettingmaterial (not even repertoire), withoutmuch explanation about its role in thishighly evolved tradition marrying age-oldmelodic and rhythmic patterns with spon-taneous musicianship. As years went by,however, I found that my analytical skillsgot more and more attuned to this holis-tic way of learning, and discovered how itsharpened my learning abilities.

Two decades later, while observingand working with musicians from Africa,I found they prioritised very different as-pects of musicianship than the ones I hadbeen taught to look for in Western or In-dian music. When I asked them about whatmattered most to them in their music, itbecame clear that they judged excellencein their own performances by criteria likefinding new variations in age-old rhythms,achieving a sense of togetherness (ubun-tu), and their ability to make the womendance.

Such direct audience response was

Huib Schippers

Facing the music:Three personal experiences, five historicalsnapshots, seven conceptual shifts andtwelve continua as an accessible pathway tounderstand different approaches to culturaldiversity in music education

Imore difficult to gauge a few months af-ter these interactions with African musi-cians, when I was witnessing a ceremonyfor the dead in a village in North Bali. Iwas the only breathing audience member(in the presence of over 100 urns) at avirtuoso gamelan performance, while therest of the village was watching a shadowpuppet play on the village square. Thespiritual value of this performance wasobviously of paramount importance.Speaking with several gamelan masters andscholars later, they claimed they never‘learned’ music, they felt they just ‘knewit’ as a result of the total immersion in themusic from an early age.

These—and many other—experienc-es made it clear to me that many of thepreconceptions we have about ‘how mu-sic education works’ and ultimately ‘howmusicking works’ may be much more cul-ture-specific than we often assumed themto be. This is also reflected in our dealingswith cultural diversity from an historicalpoint of view.

Five historical snapshots

In 1822, the well-known music educatorLowell Mason advised, “We should seethat the songs of your families are pure insentiment and truthful in musical taste.Avoid negro melodies and comic songsfor most of their tendencies is to corruptboth musically and morally” (quoted inVolk, 1998, p. 27). It would appear that inthe first decades of the nineteenth centu-ry, music from other cultures was not ex-

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es actly en vogue yet.

Almost a hundred years later, just af-ter the First World War, there was a strong—and somewhat naïve—idealistic long-ing for global harmony, which was veryinclusive:

When that great convention can sittogether—Chinese, Hindu, Japanese,Celt, German, Czech, Italian, Hawai-ian, Scandinavian, and Pole—all sing-ing the national songs of each land,the home songs of each people, andlisten as one mind and heart to greatworld music common to all and lovedby all, then shall real world goodwillbe felt and realized (Frances ElliotClark, quoted in Volk, 1998, p. 49).

In the early 1930s, a couple from Kan-sas travelled to Africa to shoot the firstever film with sound to be produced onthat continent. Martin and Osa Johnsondocumented the wildlife and extensivelystudied the local pygmies. A highlight inthe interaction with what they call ‘thelittle savages’ is a scene where Osa placesa gramophone on top of a traditional drumand teaches the pygmies to dance to ajazz record, unaware of the ironies of thatsituation. Martin observes: “It was remark-able the way they quickly caught therhythm of our modern music; sometimesthey got out of time, but they quickly cameback to it again” (Johnson, 1932).

In the 1950s, on his return from TheNetherlands, Ki Mantle Hood began ac-tively developing bi-musicality in his USstudents, although his teacher Jaap Kunsthad probably never actually played a game-lan (Hood, 1960; personal communication,1995). In doing so, he laid the foundationfor a substantial tradition of ‘performingethnomusicology’ in American music de-partments (cf Solis, 2004). This opened theroad to considering important factors inlearning music across cultures, such as theinstitutional environment, the multiple roleof the teacher, pedagogical approaches,cultural context, teacher identity, arche-types of instruction, and various percep-

tions of authenticity, including staged au-thenticity and idealized representation(Trimillos, 2004, pp. 26–37).

In 1967, the Tanglewood Declarationheralded the beginning of the currentstrands of thinking in culturally diversemusic education:

Music of all periods, styles, forms, andcultures belongs in the curriculum.The musical repertory should be ex-panded to involve music of our timein its rich variety, including currentlypopular teen-age music and avant-garde music, American folk music, andthe music of other cultures (Choate,1968).

This was followed by initiatives andpolicies of national and international or-ganisations (including the Music Educa-tors National Conference and CollegeMusic Society in the US, and the Interna-tional Society for Music Education withits explicit 1996 Policy on musics of the world’scultures). From the mid-1970s to the mid-1980s, faced with growing influx frompeople from other cultures, governmentsalso committed themselves increasingly tosupporting what was usually referred toas multiculturalism. The challenges wereon the table, but there were issues in thedegree to which the various players wereprepared for the conceptual and practicalchallenges associated with cultural diver-sity, and their impact on music educationat large.

Seven conceptual shifts

Over the forty-odd years since Tangle-wood, music education has witnessed anumber of important conceptual devel-opments, many of which are increasinglyand importantly becoming part of globalthinking on cultural diversity. These canbe represented as shifts of focus in discus-sions and practices:

From individual traditions ‘in context’ to‘recontextualised’ world music programs. In-creasingly, ethnomusicology programs

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and world music in the classroom havemoved from single culture electives andone-off courses. Now, there is a wealth ofdedicated practical degree courses, teach-er training courses, preparations for com-munity settings (within and outside cul-tures of origin), and studies of popularworld musics in contemporary urban en-vironments.

From ‘world music as material’ to appro-priate ‘world music pedagogies.’ As insightsand experiences expand, there is a reap-praisal of transmission through aurality,emphasis on intangible elements, and onholistic learning. In the discourse, there iseven some room for considering confu-sion as a pedagogical tool, deliberatelyapplying cognitive dissonance to the learn-ing process.

From mono-directional instructional didac-tics to acknowledging complex relationships. Itis clear that within Western cultures—andeven more when we consider all culturesof the world—there are vast differencesin the relationships between learner andteacher (or facilitator), encompassing is-sues such as power distance, individuali-ty/collectiveness, short/long term orien-tation, issues of gender, and varying de-grees of tolerating uncertainty (cf Hofst-ede, 1998).

From a single sense of (reconstructed) au-thenticity to multiple authenticities and ‘strate-gic inauthenticity’. While authentic musicmaking was strongly associated with re-producing an ideal in the past or othercultures, there is a growing acceptance ofthe spectrum from striving to recreatecontexts to acknowledging recontextual-isation as a reality of most music practicestoday (cf Westerlund, 2002).

From static views of traditions to acknowl-edging living traditions. Early ethnomusicol-ogy has probably played a significant rolein attributing ‘ideal states’ to musics fromother cultures, thereby condemning allchange to a representation of decline. Morerecent insights inform us that constantchange is in fact the essence and lifelineof many living traditions. This creates sig-nificant space for recontextualising tradi-

tions in the classroom, acknowledging thatthey will have a new identity.

From socially constructed cultural identi-ties to individually constructed ones. While thecultural background of children used tobe the principal motivation for engagingwith particular musics, music educatorsincreasingly acknowledge that the relation-ship between ethnicity and musical tastes,skills and activities is increasingly fluid(with interesting differences between first,second and third generation immigrants).

From personal passions to global concerns.The early pioneers of world music educa-tion tended to be isolated and risked ac-cusations of being the “mad professorwho sits students on the floor and hasthem beating pots and pans in the nameof music” (Hood, 1995, p. 56). Since then,greater concentrations of world musicprofessionals in institutions, policies byorganisations such as UNESCO, IMC, andISME, as well as dedicated networks suchas CDIME (Cultural Diversity in MusicEducation), have created greater accept-ance of the relevance of cultural diversityin music education.

Twelve continua

There are many ways of dealing with thecomplex and interrelated range of issuesraised above. At first encounter, many ofthese seem to be based on dichotomies:aural versus notated, static versus dynam-ic, individual versus collective, et cetera.On closer analysis, however, many turnout to be the extremities on continua, andthe subtle intermediate positions help usunderstand and even plan the diversity ofmoments and trajectories of learning musicacross cultures. This can be representedsuccinctly in the framework on the nextpage.

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Figure 1: Framework for understanding music trans-

mission in culturally diverse environments (Schip-

pers, 2010).

As I have argued elsewhere, this frame-work can be a powerful and effective in-strument to better understand music trans-mission processes when a number of ob-servations are taken into account:

The framework can be viewed fromfour perspectives: the tradition, the in-stitution, the teacher, and the learner.These may be (and in fact often are)

Twelve Continuum Transmission Framework (TCTF)

Issues of context

static tradition <—————————> constant flux

‘reconstructed’ authenticity <—————————> ‘new identity’ authenticity

‘original’ context <—————————> recontextualisation

Modes of transmission

atomistic/analytical <—————————> holistic

notation-based <—————————> oral

tangible <—————————> intangible

Dimensions of interaction

large power distance <—————————> small power distance

individual central <—————————> collective central

strongly gendered <—————————> gender-neutral

avoiding uncertainty <—————————> tolerating uncertainty

long-term orientation <—————————> short-term orientation

Approaches to cultural diversity

Monocultural multicultural intercultural transcultural

<——––––—––––––––——————————––––––––——>

at odds with each other. The way thesetensions are negotiated is crucial increating learning environments thatwill be perceived as successful by allconcerned.

There are neither ‘right’ nor ‘wrong’positions on each continuum: theframework is essentially non-prescrip-tive and non-judgmental. Positions arelikely to vary from tradition to tradi-tion, teacher to teacher, student to stu-dent, between phases of development,from one individual lesson to another,and even within single lessons. The aim

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Hofstede, Geert. 1998. A case for comparing app-

les with oranges: International differences in va-

lues. International Journal of Comparative Socio-

logy 39. Retrieved 18 November 2003 from

www.questia.com.

Hood, Ki Mantle. 1960. The challenge of “bi-mu-

sicality”. Ethnomusicology 4, 55–59.

Hood, Ki Mantle. 1995. The birthpangs of bimusi-

cality. In M. Lieth-Philipp & A. Gutzwiller (Eds.),

Teaching musics of the world (pp. 56–60). Affal-

terbach: Philipp Verlag.

ISME. 1996. Policy on musics of the world’s cul-

tures. Reading, UK: ISME.

Johnson, Martin & Johnson, Osa. 1932. Congorilla

(documentary film). Kansas: Martin and Osa John-

son Safari Museum.

Schippers, Huib. 2007. A synergy of contradictions:

The genesis of a world music and dance centre. In

N. Kors (Ed.), Networks and islands: World music

and dance education (pp. 11–24). Amsterdam:

Musike.

Schippers, Huib. 2010. Facing the music: Sha-

ping music education from a global perspective.

New York: Oxford University Press.

Solis, Ted. Ed. 2004. Performing ethnomusicolo-

gy: Teaching and representation in world music

ensembles. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Trimillos, Ricardo D. 2004. Subject, object and

the ethnomusicology ensemble: The ethnomusico-

logical ‘we’ and ‘them’. In Solis (Ed.), Performing

ethnomusicology: Teaching and representation in

world music ensembles (pp. 23–52). Berkeley:

University of California Press.

Volk, Teresa M. 1998. Music, education and mul-

ticulturalism: Foundations and principles. New

York: Oxford University Press.

Westerlund, Heidi 2002. Bridging experience, ac-

tion, and culture in music education. Studia Musi-

ca 16. Helsinki: Sibelius Academy.

of the framework is not to establishthe ‘correct’ way of teaching for anymusic, but to increase awareness ofconscious and subconscious choices.

There is some coherence betweenthe continua: a general tendency tothe left (atomistic, notation, tangible,static concepts, hierarchical, monoc-ultural) points towards formal, insti-tutional settings; a tendency to theright towards more informal, oftencommunity-based processes. When a‘right-oriented’ tradition finds itself ina ‘left-oriented’ environment, there isan increased risk of friction and un-successful transmission processes(Schippers, 2010, pp. 124–125).

The latter may explain many of theproblems reported from projects trying tointroduce community, popular, folk andworld music in European and Americanformalized environments. While the easyconclusion tended to be: “World musicdoes not work in our institutions”, it wouldhave been fairer to state “We have under-estimated the complexities of dealing withcultural diversity”. Overall, the underly-ing assumption of the model is that teach-ing is more likely to be successful whenthe institutions/teachers/learners are awareof the choices they have and make, andare able to adapt to the requirements ofdifferent learning situations by choosingpositions or moving fluidly along the con-tinua. For this to work, it is important thatsuch thoughts enter the minds of thoseworking in teacher training, curriculumdevelopment, and the classrooms.

References

Choate, Robert A. 1968. Documentary report of

the Tanglewood Symposium. Washington DC: Mu-

sic Educators National Conference. Retrieved 24

May 2007 from www.bsu.edu/classes/bauer/hpmus-

ed/tanglewood

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Huib SchippersMusiikin kohtaaminen: Kolme hen-kilökohtaista kokemusta, viisi his-toriallista välähdystä, seitsemänkäsitteellistä siirtymää ja kaksi-toista jatkumoa helppona ja lähes-tyttävänä polkuna kulttuuristamoninaisuutta koskevien erilaistenlähestymistapojen ymmärtämiseenmusiikkikasvatuksessa.

Kulttuurinen moninaisuus musiikkikasva-tuksessa on herättänyt vilkasta keskuste-lua yli viiden vuosikymmenen ajan: kysy-mykset ovat koskeneet sopivaa ohjelmis-toa, pedagogiikkoja, opettajainkoulutustaja kasvatusfilosofioita. Tämän artikkelinpyrkimyksenä on yhdistää alan tärkeimpiäkysymyksiä. Tavoitteena on kirkastaa useitakäsitteellisiä kysymyksiä perustuen autoet-nografiseen ja historialliseen tutkimukseen.Samalla tavoitteena on tehdä yhteenvetokirjoittajan tästä aiheesta Sibelius-Akate-miassa vuonna 2009 pitämässä kahdessaluennossa esittämistä ajatuksista. Artikke-lissa viitataan vuoden 2007 artikkeliin, jokaliittyy ”World Music & Dance Centre”-nimisen keskuksen avajaisiin Rotterdamis-sa. Tavoitteena on esittää malli, joka pe-rustuu kirjoittajan vuonna 2010 julkais-tuun monografiaan Facing the music: Sha-ping music education from a global perspective(Oxford University Press).

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Eva Sæther

Music Educationand the Other

This article is based on a field-work research at the Iranian-Swedish Association musicschool in Malmö. The purposewas to contribute to the de-velopment of knowledge ofmusic education in multicul-tural environments. This was

done by mapping the strategies and atti-tudes that direct the activities in a smallmusic school that has grown and takenshape outside the Swedish structure ofmunicipal music schools.

Physically, there is very little distancebetween the Malmö Academy of Music, ahigher education institution where theauthor teaches, and the Iranian-Swedishassociation’s own music school. But on aconceptual level the distance contains alarger gap. The two institutional settings,located opposite each other on the samestreet, serve as an illustration of the co-existing models of teaching that exist inmost multicultural societies: the formalsetting, publically financed, and the non-formal setting, typically operated by vol-unteers, who are “enthusiasts”. These con-trasting arenas each have their own setsof underlying values, epistemologies anddifferent traditions for the transmission ofexpertise. The relationship between thetwo settings could be one of inspirationfor both parts, depending on the qualityand nature of the contact. This article fo-cuses on the non-formal setting, with thepurpose of highlighting the attitudes ofthe students towards learning about mu-sic and music making.

The objective of widening participa-

”To keep what you did not have, and move forward…”(Davood, 25, computer science student—and student at thePersian music school in Malmö )

tion in higher education has been givenhigh priority in Sweden, since a demo-cratic society needs to give all citizensequal access to education if it is to remaintruly democratic. Despite heavy invest-ments in various programs to change thepresent situation the results are quite poor.An evaluation made by the Swedish Na-tional Agency for Higher Education (Hög-skoleverket, 2007) determined that fewuniversities can show visible results. Stu-dents from minority backgrounds were stillunevenly distributed to different types ofeducations—or no further education at all.Art education is no exception (Furumark,2004). The present study does not try toreveal all the reasons for this phenome-non, but aims at giving insights from theimmigrants’ own perspectives.

In order to listen to the insiders, togive the ”emic” desciption (Herndon, 1993)I played my way musically into the field,by joining the Iranian music school as oneof the students during the 2008–2009school year. My position as a co-studentand co-musician served as the door open-er to semi structured interviews, deignedto give information for the general ques-tions underpinning the investigation: Whatdo we know about the needs of peoplewho participate in non-formal school set-tings in multicultural areas, as expressedby the teachers and the students themselves?What do we know about the music schoolsoutside the academies and the municipalmusic schools? From these broader ques-tions the following research question hasbeen chiselled out: What driving forcesmotivate the students and how are these

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es expressed in their musical learning?

The opening of this article gives ageneral background to different approach-es and projects concerning music educa-tion in multicultural societies and researchparadigms. It is followed by theoreticalperspectives on intercultural music edu-cation, with special attention to the no-tion of “the Other”. In the section onmethod and procedures the relationshipbetween the researcher and the researchedis discussed, again pointing out implica-tions of how we listen to the Other. Theresults section is organised according tothe categories that developed from theempirical data and the theoretical back-ground: identity, longing for music, hy-bridity, learning, nostalgia, surprises, con-frontations and imaginary homelands andfuture. The discussion leads the content inthese different categories back to the orig-inal research question. It also sums up bypointing out the idea of learning from asopposed to learning about—different ap-proaches to the Other.

Background

This section provides an introduction tosome of the dilemmas with which musiceducators and researchers are confrontedwhen working in unfamiliar educationalarenas and practices. The first subsectiondescribes the demands placed on musiceducators concerning their abilities to solvethe challenges, exemplified by projects andpolicies. The second subsection focuses onthe relationship between formal and non-formal learning settings while the finalsubsection examines the relationship be-tween various research paradigms.

Demands placed on music educators

The accessibility, kinds and functions ofmusic education in multicultural schoolsand societies are discussed all over theworld. In Australia a number of reportsand projects have examined the accessi-bility of music education, and the relation-ships between the arts and society (Dil-

lon, 2006). In the USA, projects like theChicago Arts Partnership in Education(CAPE) has documented school projectswhere the arts subjects have been used topromote innovative relationships betweenschools and communities, and to encour-age cultural health (Bamford, 2006). InSweden, the Canadian programme Learn-ing Through the Arts (LTTA) was intro-duced in cooperation between the Kistadistrict council, the Royal College of Musicin Stockholm and the Royal Conservato-ry of Music (RCM) in Toronto.

In addition to projects like these, aimedat promoting culturally healthy societies, alarge number of music projects have beeninitiated with the clear purpose of inte-grating minority groups into multicultur-al societies. However, research shows thata process of integration though music ed-ucation is neither simple nor self-evident(Berkaak, 2006; Fock, 1997; Knudsen, 2007;Thorsén, 2003, 2006). In a global perspec-tive it seems clear that societal changestriggered by globalisation offer challengesto music educators in increasingly hetero-geneous classrooms. These challenges re-quire new policies and attitudes to peda-gogy, values and teaching strategies. Thepresent study seeks to contribute to in-creased awareness of the ways music edu-cation can be used in minority groups, andhow these learning environments can berelated to formal music education.

In this context it is also interesting tonote that the UNESCO Convention onthe Protection and Promotion of the Di-versity of Cultural Expressions, ratified bySweden in 2006, entails serious obliga-tions on the part of music educators:

Article 7—Measures to promote cul-tural expressions1. Parties shall endeavour to create in theirterritory an environment which encour-ages individuals and social groups:(a) to create, produce, disseminate, distrib-ute and have access to their own culturalexpressions, paying due attention to thespecial circumstances and needs of wom-en as well as various social groups, in-

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cluding persons belonging to minoritiesand indigenous peoples;(b) to have access to diverse cultural ex-pressions from within their territory as wellas from other countries of the world.(Unesco, 2005)

The need for research in this area isobvious: a great deal is done on a practi-cal project level, and there are interna-tional policy documents calling for atten-tion. For an overview of this see, for ex-ample, the Australian digital platform forcollaborative research eMERGe (emerge-community, n.d.).

Communication between formal andnon-formal settings

As formal settings are publically funded,they should also serve the entire commu-nity. In a multicultural town such as Malmöwith its 286 000 inhabitants and 171 na-tionalities, this diversity would be expect-ed to be reflected in the students, both atthe municipal music school and at theAcademy of Music. However, both insti-tutions still have a great deal to do toachieve broader recruitment. HofvanderTrulsson (2004) shows in her study thatonly 16% of the students at the municipalmusic school have foreign background,while 40% of the 11-year old children inMalmö are of non-Swedish extraction(both parents born abroad).

This is not a local phenomenon, asSchippers (2010) states, conservatoriesneed to be prepared to reflect on theircontent, methods and values. “These areat once the flagships of global music edu-cation, and the setting that need to bescrutinised most in the light of culturaldiversity” (p. 110). Schippers defines for-mal settings for music transmission andlearning as “programs and structures reg-ulated by governments, in which the in-stitutional environment consequently hasa strong influence” (Schippers, 2010, p.100) and non-formal as settings as oneswhere “the relationship between teachersand learners are organised by senior mu-sicians themselves” (Schippers, 2010, p.

100). In this study the focus is on a typi-cal non-formal setting, but with the for-mal setting of the Malmö Academy ofMusic as the horizon, or mirroring arena.There are other ways of describing thisdichotomy. As Szego (2002) states, no la-bel is value-free, and the formal educa-tion is inherently ethnocentric and tied toinstitutional contexts. She therefore sug-gests “intentional” and “incidental” learn-ing, distinguished by the intent to remem-ber and how well defined the proceduresare in “intentional learning”. However,even these systems may not stand out asseparate in the everyday lives of learners.

The curricula used within formalhigher music education can be viewed as“a crystallisation of educational philoso-phies” (Schippers, 2010, p. 111) which inmost cases leads us back to influentialWestern philosophers emphasising analy-ses and structure and referring to West-ern art music. As most institutions are slowin adapting to new ideas, this has resultedin a situation that Schippers (2010) de-scribes as truly problematic, calling formore communication between the formaland non-formal settings:

If community music builds on struc-tures and enculturation processes thatare naturally supported in the commu-nity (as opposed to superimposed), for-mal music education may increase itseffectiveness by observing, emulatingand collaborating community music´smost successful incarnations. (p. 106)

The present study represents an effortto achieve such a communication. It alsocontributes to the discussions on the rela-tionships between the formal and informalsphere (see for example Folkestad, 2006;Sæther, 2003; Green, 2001; Szego, 2002).

Communication between researchparadigms

The problematic situation described abovealso calls for communication between dif-ferent research paradigms. Music educa-

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a strong link to the discipline of psychol-ogy and thus an emphasis on experimen-tal procedures, but more so in Anglo-American than in Scandinavian research.However, some of the most suitable andpowerful research tools for collecting dataon cultural practice and experience fallunder ethnography and ethnomusicology.But, as Szego (2002) argues, while musiceducation often has disregarded the issueof ethnocentrism in both choice of re-search questions and methods, ethnomu-sicology has often omitted questions ofmusical transmission.

Szego also points out another differ-ence between the two paradigms: Whilethe ethnomusicologist seeks the “thickdescription” and to globalize local con-cepts with the aim of understanding prac-tices, the music educator more often hasthe aim of rethinking or changing practic-es. Different ontological and epistemolog-ical starting points for research projectslead in different directions, but there mightbe good grounds for connections:

Transmission and learning are social-ly constituted and culturally specific,but they are not determined by cul-ture in any absolute way. Individualsworking within the structure of trans-mission systems are certainly guidedby those structures, but learners alsoexercise agency by manipulating themto their own ends and needs. (Szego,2002, p. 724)

Theory

Postcolonial theory claims that immigra-tion to Europe and the USA has led tocompletely new identities that challengethe relatively homogeneous cultures andgive rise to new questions about citizen-ship, power and the increasing politicalinfluence of culture. In this process, Said(1999) suggests that intellectuals have spe-cial duties: bibliographical, epistemologi-cal and dramatic. The bibliographical du-ties consist of offering alternative sources,

texts and evidences. The epistemologicalduties consist of offering new ideas thatcontradict prevailing discourses, for exam-ple on the meaning of “us” and “them”.The dramatic duty is about creating are-nas, dramatising the questions and mak-ing them visible. In this project the Irani-an-Swedish music school in Malmö is suchan arena.

Learning about or learning from

One trend in the discussion on culturaldiversity in music education in recent dec-ades is towards exoticism. The Westerneye and ear tend to see and listen to theexotic Other:

Epistemologically our approach toforeign cultures initially lumps theminto a single category; we begin bydividing the world into categories of“ours” and “not ours”, into “familiar”and “strange”. (Nettl, 2005, p. 10)

This creates a moral dilemma; theOther is admired, but we want it to re-main exotic. It seems as if Western civili-sation has a need for undistorted, authen-tic, sustainable and traditional societies—implying that the Other should not strivetowards development such as taking overmodern music forms. Cultural diversity inmusic education is basically a question ofrelationships between people. In this edu-cational context, Todd (2008) questionsthe idea of a common ground and com-mon actions and calls for the recognitionof differences. She points out the dimen-sion of violence that is present in all teach-ing, and reminds us that the teacher whothinks that he or she has understood theOther might simply just have forced theOther into the teacher’s world view. Ac-cording to Todd (2008) the issue of rela-tionship is expressed in two different ap-proaches: learning about and learningfrom. Learning about implies that:

• we think that we can understandthe Other,

• we think that by acting right we can

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free ourselves from moral and politicaldemand, by playing down the internal dif-ferences in the Other, we meet the Otherwith low respect.

Learning from, on the other hand, im-plies an awareness that:

• we cannot understand,• we cannot assimilate,• the process of learning needs to be

part of a relation before it can start,• there is a risk of loosing one’s own

epistemological security when meeting theOther,

• there must be an open mind, expressedin passivity, or a more humble attitude.

The in-between of cultures andstrangers

It is difficult to find any democratic societywithout conflicts regarding the relationshipsbetween public institutions and cultural mi-norities. As all liberal democracies by defi-nition have promised equality, such conflictsare more or less inherent. There are a fewalternative scenarios; either the minoritygroups claim their difference and distinctivecharacters, and demand for rights of self-determination, or similarities are claimed,leading to demands for equality and civilrights. The dilemma for the multiculturalsociety is whether it should recognise its cit-izens as individuals or by their collectiveidentities (Taylor, 1994). Taylor’s proposal ofmutual recognition (1994) has been criti-cised for excluding subcultures and culturesof migration. Bhabha (1996) claims thatminorities are within all of us—there are nofixed, whole, local cultures. On the contraryall cultures are global and coloured by mi-gration, with subcultures that are “infected”by and linked to each other, both like andunlike. Thus he introduces the concept ofhybridity and the in-between of cultures.

Appiah (2006) argues for a balancebetween respect for particulars and theancient tradition of believing in a com-mon humanity, as for example expressedin the UN’s Universal Declaration of Hu-man Rights. His concept “cosmopolitan-ism” combines the universal concern for

all humanity with a respect for legitimatedifference. Realising that this concept triesto combine clashing values, it is presentednot as a solution, but as a challenge.

One of the challenges, apart from forexample falling into moral relativism, ishow to achieve true conversation, a con-versation that allows exchange of ideas,while at the same time not trying to agreeon a hierarchy of universal values. Cos-mopolitanism in Appiah’s version involveshabits of co-existence, of living together.To develop a “cosmopolitic” conversationis a condition for respectful co-existence,and allows for both integrity of one’s ownbeliefs and different rationales for the in-volved partners—strangers—in the ongo-ing communication.

Spinning the continuous tale

In postmodernist terminology, we live ina world of “borrowing”, where music cre-ated at one place for a certain purpose,can immediately be used at a differentplace and for a different purpose. Althoughmusic is created by the people who firstuse it, music as experience lives it ownlife. Music constructs our identity by theexperiences it offers, including body, timeand community. These experiences makeit possible for us to place ourselves withinimaginary, cultural narratives (Frith, 1996).Instead of thinking of “immigrant music”as a genre that immigrants use to expresstheir values, Frith (1996) suggests thatmusic, as an aesthetical practice, createsan understanding of both group relationsand individuality. Music is a tool for iden-tity, feeling and memory and thereby helpsus to construct. In other words: “Musiccan be used as a device for the reflexiveprocess of remembering/constructing whoone is, a technology for spinning the ap-parently continuous tale of who one is”(DeNora, 2000, p. 63).

With these perspectives in mind, thenatural next step is to introduce the meth-odology chosen for this study. Throughouthistory, ethnography has been part of thediscourse on colonialism. It has defined

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es cultures, given names to people, told them

who they are and what they can become(Clair, 2003). It is therefore a risky enter-prise to follow that path, but interpretativeethnography offers new alternative routes.

Method

One underlying assumption in the quali-tative research paradigm has to do withthe relationship between the researcherand what is being researched. The research-er is not seen as separate from the object,but as a part of the reality that is beingstudied. The qualitative paradigm also leanstowards methods that are sensible andadjustable to the many value systems thatcan be expected in a process where peo-ple are involved. The most common meth-ods, which are also the methods used inthis study, are participant observation andopen or semi-structured interviews.

The theoretical insights regardinglearning about versus learning from, listen-ing as a relationship, and knowledge as arelationship (Kvale, 2009; Todd, 2008) havebeen reinforced by my own contribution;playing music as a relationship. My obser-vations and interviews were accompaniedby my own violin lessons at the Iranian-Swedish music school. These lessons alsoserved as a prerequisite for conversationsand interviews, two overlapping activities.

Yet as a researcher, I am not free fromwhat Clair (2003) calls in-built ironicalproblems. An ethnographer is someonewho creates an expression of what a cul-ture is. The form describes the ethnogra-pher while the ethnographer describes theOther. The only way of overcoming thatirony is to recognise the complexity andtry to be aware of it during the researchprocess, from planning to collecting dataand writing the report. In this study someof this in-built complexity is presentedunder the subheading “surprises” in theresults section.

Procedures

The ten students interviewed span a wide

range of ages, from 7 to 56. The propor-tion of male to female was 50/50, whichreflects the situation at the music schoolthat has about 15 students this semester.There is only one teacher: the same per-son who initiated the school. The exactnumber of students is not known to theteacher, and is not regarded as somethingthat really matters. Students come and go,some are there every weekend, and somecome every now and then. The approxi-mately five students that I was unable tointerview are the students who are notregular members of the “community”.

The music school has an organisationalstructure that is completely different fromthe municipal music school with its nor-mally 20 minutes of individual lessons. TheIranian-Swedish school is open every Sat-urday and Sunday from 10 a.m. to 2 p.m.During this time span the teacher walksaround and gives his time and advice tothe students who are all more or less dis-persed in the different rooms, in a localitythat is not very well suited to the purpose.I spent my first four visits/lessons just ob-serving and playing, sometimes talking alittle with some of the other students.

The language used at the school andbetween the students is Farsi, but all ofthem also speak Swedish. I do not speakany Farsi. Thus in one way I was a com-plete outsider, which was even marked bymy choice of instrument, violin. I made adeliberate choice not to try to learn toplay the Persian violin, the kamancheh, sinceI wanted to reduce the time devoted totechnical questions and focus on the actu-al melodies and on playing together. Sincethe violin itself does not prevent me fromplaying the “blue notes” necessary in thePersian scales, or modi, I asked the teacherif he could accept me as a student, even ifmy Western kamancheh produces a differ-ent sound. He had no objections.

The study period consisted of 13 con-secutive weekends I spent at the school.On the fifth week I began to record mysemi-structured interviews, according tothe themes that developed as a result ofmy observations, lessons, and initial con-

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versations. I had a loosely formulated setof questions. Sometimes I asked them, butat other times they were simply answeredby the stories the students told when talk-ing about their music making. The basicquestions were for example:

What does music mean to you?What is your earliest music memory?What is the Persian music school to you?Do you play in other contexts?Your musical history?How long have you been staying in Sweden?What is your relation to music?

Six of the students were interviewedindividually, during the opening hours ofthe school. Four students joined the schoolin the middle of the semester, they weretaught as a group and I also interviewedthem as a group. All data from the stu-dents was collected in the autumn semes-ter of 2008. The recorded interviews weretranscribed and analysed using the Transa-na software.

The interviewed teacher and studentsgave their written agreement to partici-pation in the study and are representedunder pseudonyms:

Participant Age DescriptionSiroos 48 Teacher

Aria 56 Medical doctor

Davood 25 Computer science student

Leyla 26 Preparing for biology studies

at university

Pari 52 Sick-listed former dressmaker

Neli 7 Primary school student

Sina 14 Secondary school student

Amir 51 Engineer

Naser 56 Engineer

Roya 44 Nurse

Farid 44 Bio-medical analyst

Table 1: Description of participants

As the information in the table shows,most of the students have higher educa-tion and employments that reflect goodeconomic status, which is characteristic ofthe Persian immigrant group in Sweden(SCB, 2009).

Analysis

The transcribed interviews were codedaccording to categories deduced from theempirical data, with inspiration from thetheoretical perspectives. The categoriesformed “collections” in the Transana soft-ware, and in the inductive process each“clip” in the different collections was as-signed keywords, that are searchable in thematerial. I have here chosen to build thetext in the results section using the cate-gories as subheadings. The order of thesubheadings is derived from the follow-ing figure, which indicates the number of“clips” in respective “collection”:

Figure 1: Number of clips in each category.

The keywords that emanated fromeach collection give a concentrated hintof the content in the text that follows inthe result section:

Category KeywordsIdentity exile, harmony, at the heart, communication,

proverb, priorities and we-feeling

Love of love, the first strong experience, internet,

music feelings, priorities, life and retrospection

Hybridity change, generations, genres and the middle

Learning adaptation, parent pressure, internet,

classical, reading, practicing and atmosphere

Nostalgia longing, roots and denial

Surprises good to know, success, instrument,

coincidence and language

Confrontations ugly, pressure, marriage and tiresome

Imaginary redefinition, the shah

homelands

Future not music

Table 2: Categories (“collections” in Transana)and associated keywords.

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es The category “Surprises” comprises

sections of the interviews where my ownpreconceptions were contradicted or re-vealed.

Results

This section begins with some short quo-tations from the field notes, with the aimof introducing the atmosphere at the Ira-nian-Swedish music school. The follow-ing subheadings emanates from the anal-ysis of the interviews, each subheadingrepresents one of the categories. Guidedby the research question, the story pre-sented here aims at giving a voice to thepeople involved at the Iranian-Swedishmusic school.

The scene: Peaceful. One of the femalestudents is sitting in the large room with afootball table game, table tennis, a stage, a pia-no and some computers. She is playing the san-tur. I am given a place in the left corner, farfrom her. There is music coming from behind aclosed door. Siroos, the teacher, says welcomeand continues to one of the other students. Inthe little room past the room we are in I can seethe chairman of the Persian Swedish associa-tion. He is doing administrative work. The tar-student is practicing a beautiful tune. He tellsme that he plays in a Swedish hard rock band(…) After a while the teacher comes and theyplay a long composition together, including avocal part that he sings. Very beautiful. Theteacher has played the composition, bit by bit,until the student has memorised it all. (fieldnotes, 080907) (…) I sit down on the sofa,bring out my fiddle and start playing the tunethat I almost know by now. Siroos criticizesmy intonation. He offers tea and a new tunethat sounds as Swedish as a Persian tune can.Nice “slängpolska,”, I think, not being able toleave my own frames of reference. (field notes,080921)

Identity

“We are like waves—if we stop moving,we will die”. (Pari)

Reading through all the transcribedinterviews, I find many examples of how

the students at the music school relate toit, in a way that resembles the notion of“spinning the continuous tale” (De Nora,2000). I also use the notion of identityaccording to Frith (1996), suggesting thatmusic helps us construct our identity, andthat music as an aesthetical practice cre-ates understandings of both group rela-tions and individuality. The sections of theinterviews that illustrate this concept werecoded with the keywords exile, harmony,at the heart, communication, proverb, pri-orities and we-feeling.

Pari describes herself as the eternalstudent, and seems to be the most devot-ed in the group. She comes early and leaveslate. To her the school is everything, it hasgiven her a new life: “I used to be isolat-ed, now I know everyone.” She likes theatmosphere at the school. This is alsostressed by others. Listening to music fromIran gives Aria a feeling of home: “Yes,it’s comforting, it’s my harmony, yes a feel-ing of home.”

Even Aria spends most of the week-ends at the school, besides which he playsfor at least 30 minutes at home, every day.He listens to music all the time, most of itfrom Iran. Pari turns on the Internet ra-dio first thing in the morning, and listensonly to Persian music until late at night.Their relationship to both the school andthe music is strong: “During these 15months I have only been absent once. Thatwas because I had to travel. Otherwise Ihave been here!” (Aria).

Aria’s children are not very interestedin Persian music, but Aria thinks this isnatural. He says it takes a profound knowl-edge of Persian literature, poetry and cul-ture to understand classical Persian music,and since his children have grown up inSweden they lack that competence. Hedoes not try to impose his interest in clas-sical music from Iran on his children, whileother parents obviously think that suchparental pressure may be worthwhile.

Neli, the youngest student, is at theschool because of her mother: “My motherknew the teacher and wanted me to start.”Neli has strong family support. Sometimes

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the sofa at the school is full of familymembers, reading the newspaper, drink-ing tea or listening, while Neli plays andpractices. Neli likes playing music, but pre-fers listening to English or Swedish mu-sic, and is also planning to learn the pianoand the guitar.

Sina, 14, says playing setar makes itpossible for him to communicate with hisgrandparents: “Well, you know, it is hardto explain, but when I play guitar for mygrandparents, they don’t understand.”

Most of the students seem to havedeveloped their interest in Persian musicwhile in exile. “Earlier I only listened toWestern music, but when I moved to Swe-den I started to listen to music from Iran”(Roya). Davood played the recorder atthe music school in Teheran as a little boy,(just like many children in Sweden), andmoved to Sweden as a rock-listening teen-ager. He has recently married a Swedishwoman and bought a house, and he hasstarted to play Persian music. Even Leyladid not pay much attention to Persian musicuntil she moved to Sweden 6 years ago.

“To me it does not matter where Ilive, but it is important to know the musicand language of your home country. If youknow that, it does not matter where youare” (Leyla). She also stresses that it is notonly the music that matters to her whenshe is at the school, it is also meeting theother students, “others like me” (Leyla).Davood uses the music when he feels anurge to be by himself: “You play whenyou feel that you have to be by yourself,you walk into a corner, sit down and play.”

This feeling of wanting to be withothers or by yourself should not be con-fused with nostalgia. Pari says that theschool gives her a feeling of “being athome” while being in Sweden, and she ishappy with that. “It is peaceful here, youcan listen to music [laughs]. I don´t wantto go back, not even as a tourist” (Pari).

Love of music

“And I had it [the setar] 24 hours a day. Iplayed when I woke up in the morning,

and I went to sleep with it in the bed.”(Davood)

When talking about their reasons forstarting at the Persian music school, mostof the students tend to touch their purelove for or longing for music. The key-words used to code the clips in the inter-views were thus love, the first strong ex-perience, Internet, feelings, priorities, lifeand retrospection.

The quotation from Davood aboveillustrates how he learned to play the se-tar during one of his visits to Teheran. Hisgrandfather was very sick, and Davoodused the music as a way of dealing withhis grief. Davood remembers when he, asa 15-year old boy, heard someone playingthe santur. “I thought that one day, oneday I will play that myself.” Many yearslater, after moving to Sweden, he heardabout the Persian music school and foundhis way back to the music from Teheran.

Davood´s need for music is so strongthat he often has two sound-sources on.“I listen to music on my computer evenwhen the TV is on (…) It drives my wifecrazy.” When he studies mathematics themusic is on, “but if I study physics or chem-istry I need to concentrate more, then Iturn the music off.” Just like Davood, Ariasays that classical Persian music has a mag-ical impact on him. It is so important tohim that he leaves the computer on allday to be able to listen to music on theInternet.

The group of beginners who startedin the middle of the semester say that theyhave been wanting to come to the schoolfor more than 5 years, and now that theirchildren are a little bit older, they can al-low themselves to realise this dream. It isnot a longing for their home country thatis the strongest desire: it is the wish toplay music. Leyla chooses to spend all herweekends at the school, even when shehas other homework that could or shouldbe done. “It is very important to me, onthe weekends it is only this, nothing else!”Pari has wanted to play since she was alittle girl, but has only had the opportuni-ty in exile: “It was not regarded as some-

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es thing a girl should do.” To Pari music is

life and she cannot imagine life withoutit: “It would not be worth living.”

Hybridity

“To keep what you did not have, and moveforward…”(Davood)

The keywords used for the sectionswhere the interviewees talk about howthey move between different identities arechange, generations, genres and the mid-dle. These sections also illustrate how thePersian music, and the activities at theschool are part of this constant process ofchange. Aria is well aware of the fact thatpeople in his generation, those who haveexperienced the previous regime, have adifferent relationship to classical Persianmusic than for example his own children.This does not bother him. He thinks it isnatural to change and to adapt to whereyou are. “It would have been good if theycould share my experience—but they ex-perience other things [laughs]” (Aria).

Davood also talks about change assomething natural: “You change all thetime, and with music you also change.” Tohim, music is a way of keeping the changealive, a way to “keep what you missed.”Neli, the youngest student has a naturalattitude to hybridity. She just thinks it isfun to play santur, and she is planning tocontinue until she knows it well, but alsowants to play other instruments, and oth-er genres. Sina, 14 years old, has a lot ofSwedish friends and goes to a Swedishmusic class, but likes playing somethingfrom his home country (Iran), too. Hewas born in Sweden and only speaks Per-sian with his father. “Well, you know, Iguess I am in the middle, not Swedish,not Persian.”

Learning

This section deals with the learning thattakes place both within the framework ofthe Persian music school and outside it, athome. The keywords used here are adap-tation, parent pressure, Internet, classical,

reading, practising and atmosphere.Most of the learning at the school

takes place in the traditional master/ap-prentice tradition. Siroos moves betweenthe students who are in the different cor-ners in the rooms at the association’s lo-cale. The teapot is always on in the kitch-en section, and the students meet overimprovised breaks. Although the school isopen between ten a.m. and two p.m., thereare no formal “lessons”. Most of the stu-dents tend to use the time to practice andplay, in a concentrated but relaxed way.

(…) Siroos has a music theory lesson withthe new group of students and Leyla. Sina,who plays the setar, and I are in the innerroom. It seems as if we have our places here,me on the sofa and him just outside the littlestoreroom for instruments. He sometimes playsand sometimes reads the newspaper. I reviewall the tunes that I should know by now (…).(field notes, 081116)

Aria, the doctor, is on sick leave, andenjoys not having to work every week-end. It gives him time to listen and prac-tice a lot, apart from all the time he spendsat the school. Siroos mixes his teachingmethods. Sometimes he just plays and thestudents learn by heart, and sometimes hegives them the printed music, but not allthe students know how to read music.Most of the time the tuition is one-to-one, but in the context of the school,where everything happens in more or lessthe same room, it is not very private.

Davood likes the way the school isorganised: “I think it is very good that wehave the opportunity to come here andlearn to play an instrument, to be able tospend 10 hours every weekend doing that.The atmosphere is good, you take a breakwhen you want to, and there is time toplay, and Siroos also has time to comearound, there is enough time for him tomeet everyone a couple of times, and makesure that there are no mistakes (laughs).”

Listening is crucial to Aria, and it is atheme that occurs in many of my conver-sations with the other students. Pari, forexample, never turns the Internet radiooff, and has changed her listening habits:

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“Well, you see, you listen in another way:I cry with joy when I listen to music, ithas affected me deeply. My taste for mu-sic has changed: Before I used to listen toall kinds of music, but now I don´t thinkall music has the same value.”

The devotion to music, expressed un-der other categories as well, is also clearwhen the students talk about their ownlearning process. Davood for examplebought his setar during a visit in Teheran.He had no teacher, but a book with tunesand a friend who showed him where tofind the different notes on the neck of theinstrument. For the first month he spentall his time with his new instrument, alone,but happy. “It was very good, the time Ihad there, all alone, with the setar in myhand.”

The Internet is a good source of in-spiration and learning. Sina downloadsfilms and music from the rich cyberspaceenvironment that the Iranian communityin the US has created. YouTube and Googleare his natural tools for expanding his rep-ertoire. Sina, who describes himself as inthe middle—not Swedish, not Persian, alsoplays the guitar at the municipal musicschool, and can compare the two schoolforms. He is happy with both, but thinksthat the guitar lessons are too short (mostlessons at the municipal school are 20minutes). Most of the weekends I find himat the school. He seems to spend manyhours there: “Yes, in fact, many hours. Youknow, you play and you learn new tunesand sometimes maybe another personcomes and plays tombak, the drum youknow, that makes it even more fun, it isvery nice, I like this a lot.” Sina can alsocompare how it is to be at school in Tehe-ran and in Malmö since he spent a fewyears in Iran. “There is no leisure time inIran, only homework, it is worse than inSweden. I don´t think I ever went to aconcert in Iran.”

Nostalgia

“You feel traditional music, there is some-thing in it, you relate it to your home

country, something you miss, there is quitea lot in that music that you connect tothis longing for your home country, thereis a lot in it.” (From the group interview)

Some of the older members said thatthey miss their home country, and thatbeing at the music school is a way of cop-ing with that longing. This feeling wasnot, however, shared by all the interview-ees. The keywords in this section are long-ing, roots and denial. To the group mem-bers, playing Persian music is definitely anact of nostalgia. “Yes, we are sitting here,longing” (Roya). Going back to visit familyand friends for short periods does not help,she said.

This aspect is important to the teach-er as well. He loves his culture and hishome country and when he listens to thegroup talking about their longing, it re-minds him of a poem talking about a manwho asks the wind to take him to a placewhere nothing else can take him. “To me,I am flying when I play music,” he says. Iask him if he is flying from something orto something:

“Well, when you fly from something,you fly to something,” was his answer.

Davood and Pari did not want to talkabout nostalgia. As earlier stated, Pari doesnot want to go back, Sweden is her home,and music makes her feel at home too.Davood, 25, thinks it is a matter of age,rather than pure nostalgia. “When I wasyounger I could not stand some of thetunes we are playing now. When you getolder you are more mature, and you wantto know more about this music.”

Surprises

There are quite a few places in the datawhere the conversations took unexpect-ed turns. Expectations may be the placewhere you find your own preconceptionsand prejudices in the most concentratedform. Therefore I have chosen to includeone example here as a way of reflectingupon the dynamic and sometimes prob-lematic relationship between the researcher

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and the research material.The relationship between Western

music and classical Persian music was atheme in many of the interviews. Most ofthe interviewees told me that they usedto listen to Western music while they livedin Iran, and that they developed their in-terest in Persian music later, while in ex-ile. Still, somewhere deep in my uncon-sciousness, I must have nourished a pic-ture of exotic, oriental Teheran. At onepoint in the interview Davood told methat he played the flute in the music schoolas a little boy. This revealing passage fromthe transcript shows my picture of Tehe-ran as exotic:

Researcher: Was it a ney-flute?Davood: No, it was one of these plasticflutes, in three pieces.Researcher: Oh, a regular recorder?Davood: Yes, I think so.Researcher: Does everyone play that?Davood: Yes, everyone starts with that inIran.Researcher: But that is not a Persian in-strument.Davood: No, no, you have that here too.Researcher: Yes, of course, I was just sosurprised!

Apart from my assumption that theywould play ney-flutes in the municipalmusic school in Teheran, my remark thatit is not “a Persian instrument” also showsthat I had “forgotten” that in Malmö youdo not start with “nyckelharpa” (keyedfiddle), “sälgflöjt” (willow flute) or tradi-tional Swedish fiddle-playing.

Confrontations and imaginaryhomelands

As expected, being an outsider in con-temporary Swedish society and at the sametime delving deep into the music of one’shomeland, creates some tensions. The key-words here also indicate that: ugly, pres-sure, marriage, tiresome and redefinition.In the interview with Davood he describedhimself as successful, but there are also

some sequences that point towards a grow-ing dissatisfaction on the part of his Swed-ish wife. For example: “And I am veryproud of myself, that I come here and playthis. But I ought to spend more time withmy wife. Because she also works full time.And there is not so much time for us tomeet since I come here every Saturdayand Sunday (…) So there is not much timeto see my wife.”

In fact, only a few weeks later, Dav-ood stopped coming to the school, prob-ably because his pregnant wife finally wontheir debate. Another point of tension isthe difference between different agegroups in their relationship to Persianmusic. It was Neli’s mother’s idea that Nelishould start at the music school. Neli likesplaying santur, but she thinks Persian mu-sic is ugly:

Researcher: You don’t like Persian music?But you like playing the santur?Neli: Yes, yes, yes, yes.Researcher: But that is different?Neli: Yes, it is—when they sing it soundsugly in Farsi.Researcher: You think so?Neli: Mm.

This touches on the concept of imag-inary homelands. Aria talks about the mu-sic that used to be popular on radio andtelevision. He listened to it a lot and heknows that his relationship to that musictoday is coloured by his strong memoriesfrom that time. Now when he has timeto listen to this music, he goes back in hismind to a time that he cannot share withhis children, but which is important tohim, although he knows that times havechanged. Pari, as mentioned before, talksabout music as something that makes itpossible for her to be at home wherevershe is. It creates an imaginary home. Ro-zita, who used to listen to rock and popwhen she lived in Iran, has now started tolisten to and play classical Persian musicin the creation of her imaginary home-land. Davood, the computer scientist, wasthe one who verbalised this process in the

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most poetic way: (…)”to keep what youdid not have” (…)

Future

In this final, small category, the keywordis not music. None of the interviewees atthe music school had any ambition to con-tinue with a professional career as a musi-cian. The older students already have wellestablished careers in other fields, and theyounger ones think that a life as a musi-cian will not be a good life. To Sina, doinghomework is the most important thing:

Sina: You know, homework is most im-portant, of course. After year nine in schoolI will not continue with music.Researcher: Is that what you have decided?Sina: Yes, because then I will continue withmore homework and get a good job.

Still, he says he will not abandon hismusic. Sina claims that later, when he hasachieved his position as an engineer or ascientist, he will have time to play again.Being a music teacher is not an attractiveidea to him: “Our music teachers have toldus that they studied at the Academy, butas you can see after that they became noth-ing, they are just teachers, nothing great.”Still he spends all his weekends at theschool and wishes that he could stop grow-ing older, so that he did not have to stopplaying his music.

Discussion

For music teachers the whole idea of“learning from” (Todd, 2008) poses newquestions. You can learn to play new in-struments and new repertoire by using dif-ferent methods. Learning how to meet theOther is not as simple since it demandsthat everyone involved is prepared to re-shape their own context. It also implicatesthat it is not only form and content thatneeds rebuilding, it is we, all of us.

This study should be seen as an at-tempt in that direction. The purpose is tocontribute to the development of knowl-

edge on music education in multiculturalenvironments, by listening to the Other.The research question emanated from thebroad purpose of mapping strategies andattitudes that direct the activities at thePersian music school – a school outsidethe formal Swedish educational institu-tions: What driving forces motivates thestudents and how are these expressed inthe musical learning?

The 59 clips from the interviews thatwere made between my lessons fall intonine different categories, as describedabove. The two largest of these are “iden-tity” and “love of music”. The content inthese categories is in some cases typical ofwhat DeNora (2000) describes as spinningthe tale of who you are. Pari turns on theInternet radio first thing in the morningand listens only to Persian music, muchlike Aria who devotes much of his time todownloading music onto his computer.Most of the students only started to listento Persian music after moving to Sweden,as a way of reminding themselves of whothey are, or of creating a new identity bytrying to keep what they did not alwayshave, as expressed by Davood.

What appears to be a very strongmotivating factor is the urge, need or long-ing for music. Davood told the story abouthow he fell in love with his setar and howhe drives his wife crazy by always listen-ing to music, sometimes with two differ-ent sound sources on at the same time.The group of beginners have waited forthe children to grow up, so that they couldstart playing, and Leyla spends all herweekends at the school because it is im-portant to play. To Pari music is every-thing, music is life!

The younger students play other(Western) instruments as well and seemto have a natural understanding of beingbetween cultures. Sometimes there areSwedish students at the Persian musicschool, but they were not present duringmy visits. These students come just for theirinterest in Persian music they developedwhen Siroos taught at the interculturalproject week at the Malmö Academy of

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Music and introduced them to Persianmusic.

The relaxed atmosphere, the manyhours of tea-drinking, practising, learning,playing and talking are what attracts thestudents. Would this kind of learning en-vironment be possible to create within aformal institution? The Malmö Academyof Music has tried to create somethinglike it, by including project weeks and fieldwork periods in the curriculum, periodswhen the students are invited to and con-fronted with other kinds of music, otherattitudes towards learning and other con-texts. Another way of approaching thecomplex situation would be to do whathas been done in Oslo, where the munic-ipal music school has incorporated someimmigrant music schools, but withoutchanging their way of teaching.

When it comes to the problem ofwidening participation mentioned in theintroduction to this article the question iswhat the municipal music school or theMalmö Academy could learn from the Ira-nian-Swedish school, that would help re-cruit students in a wider, more inclusiveway. To most of the students at the Per-sian school it would probably not be analternative to come to 20-minute lessonson the tar at the municipal music school.For the younger students at the Iranianmusic school, a professional career as amusician is not at all part of their plansfor the future. Certainly for the older par-ticipants in this study, the school serves asa tool for the creation of a home, a homemade by music that they sometimes hadnot even listened to before going intoexile.

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world of strangers. New York & London: W. W. Nor-

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Bamford, A. 2006. The Wow Factor: Global research

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Berkaak, O. A. 2006. ”Dette er ikke Afrika” – en

evaluering av NOMUS-prosjekt MUSAIK om fler-

kulturell musikkundervisning i Norden [”This is not

Africa – evaluation of NOMUS project MUSAIK on

multicultural music education in the Nordic

coutries]. Unpublished manuscript. Copenhagen:

NOMUS.

Bhabha, H. K. 1996. Culture’s in-between. In S.

Hall & P. du Gay (Eds.), Questions of cultural iden-

tity (pp. 53–60). London: Sage.

Clair, R. P. Ed. 2003. Expressions of ethnography.

Novel approaches to qualitative methods. New York:

State University of New York Press.

DeNora, T. 2000. Music in everyday life. Cam-

bridge: Cambridge University Press.

Dillon, S. 2006. Assessing the positive influence

of music activities in community development pro-

grammes. Music Education Research 8 (2), 267–

280.

Emergecommunity. n.d. Brisbane: Griffith Univer-

sity. Retrieved from HYPERLINK http://

emergecommunity.org/index.html

Fock, E. 1997. Music—intercultural communica-

tion? Nordicom 19, 55–65.

Folkestad, G. 2006. Formal and informal learning

situations or practices vs formal and informal ways

of learning. British Journal of Music Education 23

(2), 135–145.

Frith, S. 1996. Music and identity. In S. Hall & P.

du Gay (Eds.), Questions of cultural identity (pp.

108–127). London: Sage.

Furumark, A. 2004. Varför blir det så snett II? En

rapport om konst och makt [How come it is so une-

ven? A report on art and power]. Stockholm: Cen-

trum för mångkultur.

Green, L. 2001. How popular musicians learn. A

way ahead for music education. Aldershot: Ashgate

Herndon, M. 1993. Insiders, outsiders: knowing our

limits, limiting our knowing. Journal of the Interna-

tional Institute for Traditional Music 35, 63–80.

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Hofvander Trulsson, Y. 2004. Kulturskolan i inte-

grationens kraftfält [The culture school and inte-

gration]. (Master thesis). Malmö: Malmö Academy

of Music.

Högskoleverket. 2007. Utvärdering av arbetet med

breddad rekrytering till universitet och högskolor –

en samlad bild [Evaluation of widening participa-

tion to universities]. 2007: 43 R Högskoleverket.

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of globalisation. In F. Sadio (Ed.), Educaçao para a

cidadania Europeia com as artes (pp. 105–116).

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tercultural Music Arts.

Kvale, S., & Brinkmann, S. 2009. InterViews.

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ing. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Nettl, B. 2005. The study of ethnomusicology.

Thirty-one issues and concepts. Champaign: The

University of Illinois Press.

Sæther, E. 2003. The oral university. Attitudes to

music teaching and learning in the Gambia. Malmö:

Malmö Academy of Music.

Said, E. 1999. Efter orientalism [After oriental-

ism]. In C. Eriksson, M. E. Baaz & H. Thörn (Eds.),

Globalieringens kulturer. Den postkoloniala rasis-

men och det mångkulturella samhället (pp. 257–

267). Falun: Nya Doxa.

Schippers, H. 2010. Facing the music. Shaping

music education from a global perspective. New

York: Oxford University Press.

SCB. 2009. Educational attainment of the popu-

lation 2008. Report no. SM 0901. Örebro: Stati-

tiska Centralbyrån. Retrieved from http://www.scb.

se/Pages/PublishingCalendarViewInfo____259923.

aspx?publobjid=10918

Szego, Z. K. 2002. Music transmission and learn-

ing. A conspectus of ethnographic research in eth-

nomusicology and music education. In R. Colwell

& C. Richardson (Eds.), New handbook of research

on music teaching and learning (pp. 707–729).

New York: Oxford University Press.

Taylor, C. 1994. Det mångkulturella samhället och

erkännandets politik [Multiculturalism and the

politics of recognition]. Daidalos: Göteborg.

Todd, S. 2008. Att lära av den Andre [Learning

from the Other]. Lund: Studentlitteratur.

Thorsén, S-M. 2003. Musik i skolan för både röt-

ter och fötter [Music in schools for roots and feet],

I&M 5, 21–24.

Thorsén, S-M. 2006. Hoppet står till vår förmåga

att lyssna till andra [The hope lies in our ability to

listen to the others]. Presentation at the KIKK-con-

ference, Malmö Academy of Music, 18-19 Octo-

ber, 2006.

Unesco. 2005. Convention on the protection and

promotion of the diversity of cultural expressions.

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org/culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID=33232&URL_DO=

DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html

• • •

Santur is the Persian hammered dulcimer.

The tar lute is one of the most important instru-

ments in the Persian tradition.

A slängpolska is a traditional Swedish dancing tune

in 3⁄4 beat.

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Abstrakti

Eva SætherMusiikkikasvatus ja Toinen

Mitä tiedämme niiden ihmisten tarpeista,jotka osallistuvat non-formaaliin opetuk-seen monikulttuurisilla alueilla opettajienja opiskelijoiden itsensä kokemina? Mitätiedämme Akatemian ja kunnallisten mu-siikkikoulujen ulkopuolisista musiikkikou-luista? Tämän artikkelin kirjoittaja soittiitsensä musiikkikasvatuksen monikulttuu-riseen kontekstiin alkamalla itse opiskellairanilaisessa musiikkikoulussa Malmössä.Teoreettiset ja metodologiset näkökulmatkietoutuvat Toiseuden käsitteeseen. Tulos-osa on järjestetty kategorioihin, jotka ke-hittyivät empiirisestä datasta yhdistettynäteoreettiseen sensitiivisyyteen: identiteet-ti, musiikin kaipuu, hybriditeetti, oppimi-nen, nostalgia, yllätykset, vastustukset,kuvitteelliset kotimaat ja tulevaisuus. Kes-kustelu johdattaa näiden erilaisten kate-gorioiden sisällön takaisin alkuperäiseentutkimuskysymykseen: Mitkä voimat mo-tivoivat opiskelijoita, ja miten näitä ilmais-taan musiikin oppimisessa? Yhteenvedos-sa todetaan, että ajatus siitä, että opitaanjoltakin vastakohtana oppimiselle jostakin,implikoi erilaisia näkökulmia Toiseen.

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n the basis of two teaching-projects for pupils aged six-teen to eighteen, developed inthe context of “Salzburger Bi-ennale 2009” (a festival ofcontemporary music focuss-ing on the ideal of intercul-turality), my paper will reflect

on possibilities of integrating cultural ex-periences. My contribution does not un-derstand itself as a research project, in thisarticle I will however include theoreticalmeta-reflections exceeding the mere de-scription of practical teaching material thatshould above all inspire teachers. The firstpart will discuss the ideal of intercultural-ity against the background of PolyaestheticEducation, an approach in music educa-tion developed in Germany in the 1970s.The report on the projects, essentially in-spired by two compositions of the con-temporary Swiss composer Klaus Huber(Die Erde dreht sich auf den Hörnern einesStiers, and Die Seele muss vom Reittier stei-gen) will form the core of my article, whilea third part will consider the examples ofpractical teaching in terms of both ethicaland aesthetic relevance.

The examples are based on an under-standing of culture as a system that onthe one hand can provide orientation andsecurity for a certain group with the helpof basic symbols, and on the other handpromises vitality and change by challeng-ing creativity in the course of dynamichuman interaction. Attempts at establish-

Michaela Schwarzbauer

Austrian pupilsencountering examples ofPersian culture:Reflections on two musicteaching-projects

Oing intercultural understanding in thiscontext must cope with the tension ofdifference and familiarity, by establishing‘meeting-points’ and accepting that theother culture will necessarily retain someelements of strangeness.1

I. Reflections on the theoreticalbackground

Basic ideas of Polyaesthetic Education

Aesthetic education can be an importantmedium for bridging cultures, helping tooptimise the preconditions of a peacefullife on an individual basis. PolyaestheticEducation as a concept developed byWolfgang Roscher (2002), who taughtmusic education in Hildesheim (Germa-ny) and Salzburg (Austria), from the verybeginning put a strong emphasis on de-veloping cross-cultural understanding.Based on the ideal of polyaisthesis as a formof multiple perception, being “elementa-ry and yet at the same time distinctive[…]” referring “not only to a quantitative‘much’ but rather to a qualitative ‘more’of links between appearance and effect”2

Roscher regards the cultivation of humanperception as essential in the developmentof the ability to reflect and select critical-ly. Five integrative aspects of this concerncan structure one’s way of perceivingthings. The multi-medial aspect aims at acomplex training of the senses with thehelp of various artistic forms of expres-

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sion; the interdisciplinary aspect tries toinclude ideas of various disciplines and art-related theories; the aspect of integratingtradition opposes an ahistoric form of aes-thetic perception; the intercultural aspectrejects rigid ethnic standards and espe-cially European prejudices; the social-com-municative aspect emphasizes the neces-sity of overcoming class-barriers and classdistinctions.3 Based on Aristotelean think-ing, Roscher regards it as important thataisthesis and poiesis, reflection and pro-duction should in interplay depend uponeach other. Inspired by this idea, he ap-preciates both music-reception and mu-sic-production as essential ingredients ofsuccessful music-teaching.

The intercultural aspect ofPolyaesthetic Education

Roscher warns of a “ubiquity and omni-presence of Western cultural patterns.”4

Such an attitude can also be regarded as abasic impulse for Klaus Huber’s music andwriting which will be discussed in detailin part II. Although, according to Roscher,it is difficult to abstain from Western waysof hearing and seeing or from the attitudeof a ‘curious tourist, sight-seeing’ a foreignculture, we should at least try to avoid cat-egorizations on the basis of familiar pat-terns and interpretations. Unlike othermusic-pedagogues that were convinced thatin dealing with non-European music wehave to restrict ourselves to the attitude ofcritical observers, Roscher believed that anintercultural exchange may happen in theactive artistic process, e.g. by taking up textsor musical patterns that may be full of sym-bolic relevance in a foreign culture. Again,the approaches of the teacher Roscher andthe composer Huber strangely coincide:Collage-technique and the inclusion ofquotations and interpolations from a tapeas well as alienation-effects with the helpof electro-acoustic devices must be regardedas essential both for Huber’s late composi-tions and Roscher’s approaches in music-theater-imrovisations and will also be tak-en up in the following examples.

Interculturality in its educationalsignificance

Interculturality demands the readiness tocritically reflect upon one’s point of view:“To accept also ideas that do not comeup to personal expectations or preferen-ces, to question one’s way of perceivingand judging things seem of great signifi-cance as what in German words we call a‘Bildungsziel’ in a multi-cultural environ-ment. […] Interculturality in this contextdoes not ask for assimilation, the superfi-cial adoption of ‘the strange’, but servesas a basis for reflection.”5 Considering thestrange and foreign in terms of its rele-vance for one’s own life may be seen as astimulus for trying to understand person-al preferences, wishes and attitudes morethoroughly. Thus the German philosopherHans Georg Gadamer emphasizes theimportance of “leaving behind the famil-iar and well known so as to gain the dis-tance necessary for the discovery of newaspects of one’s own identity in a processof filtering the very personal with the helpof the different.”6

The experience of the tension be-tween familiarity and the strange formssome kind of backbone for the examplesfrom practical teaching. It seems essentialin this context to make pupils but alsoteachers aware of the fact that not everydetail of a foreign culture can be under-stood. The encounter with the unfamiliar,initiating a process of asking and answer-ing will most probably leave behind ‘blindspots’ of the puzzling, mysterious, maybeeven frightening, and cannot be regardedas a process towards an end that can befully operationalized. In this context weregarded it as important in the develop-ment of our projects to leave plenty ofspare room for the pupils’ personal reflec-tions and interpretations. We did not wantto restrict their creativity in dealing withmaterial partly derived from Persian liter-ature and music by strict regulations ofwhat could be considered appropriate oreven ‘correct’ (although detailed informa-tion about the achievements of a foreign

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culture was included). The imaginative wayof blending contrasting material was ratherseen as part of a process of making one-self ‘acquainted’ with the unfamiliar byreflecting on its relevance for one’s per-sonal life.

II. Description of the twoprojects as contributions topractical music-teaching

I went into the desert, it had rained love.Mahmud Doulatabadi7

General reflections on SalzburgBiennale

In March 2009 the first Salzburg Bien-nale under the title “Wahlverwandtschaf-ten”8—the title referring to an affinity be-tween different cultures—took place inSalzburg. In the course of four weeks aninterested audience should ‘experience’possibilities of initiating a dialogue be-tween “East and West” (as the initiators ofthis festival put it)9 with the help of thearts. The attempt at building bridges be-tween different cultures shapes the musicof contemporary composers Beat Furrer,Steve Reich, Toshio Hosokawa and KlausHuber and unfolds an exciting kaleido-scope of possible approaches in an under-standing of interculturality. Hans Landes-mann, an outstanding personality concern-ing activities in the area of cultural man-agement in and around Salzburg (e.g. Salz-burger Festspiele) and responsible for theprogramme that combined compositionsof the four artists mentioned above withtraditional music from Japan, Indonesia andcountries of the Arab world, wrote aboutthe basic idea of Salzburg Biennale: “Mu-sic and art in general are especially capa-ble of initiating a dialogue of the culturesin the world in a way that makes senseand can bear the fruits of common un-derstanding. Horizons may be broadenedand gulfs bridged. Music is more openthan ever for influences from the Orient.Contemporary musicians establishing links,‘Wahlverwandtschaften’, with cultures and

their specific sounds are able to leave be-hind traditional borders between East andWest, between so called classical and tra-ditional music.”10

It was very important for the initia-tors of the festival not only to make var-ious cultural institutions in Salzburg par-ticipate in this extensive event, but also toplace a special emphasis on attractingyoung people with the help of projectscarried out in schools. Thus 15 year oldgirls built their own Japanese instrumentsand became engaged in the presentationof music for drums, planned, rehearsed andfinally performed with the help of twoprofessional musicians from Japan andChina; a dance-performance of 17 to 18year old pupils experimented with theimpact of the strange and unfamiliar in anexpressive and highly stylized way. Youngerpupils were invited to contribute paint-ings inspired by Japanese calligraphy aswell as manga (a typical Japanese form ofcomics) to be integrated into an exhibi-tion on Japanese art “The Colour White”in Salzburger Residenzgalerie.

An interdisciplinary project focussingon Klaus Huber’s way of integratingPersian music and literature

1. General reflections on the project

Together with a small group of studentsand alumni of the department of musiceducation (Salzburg) at University Mo-zarteum Salzburg I planned the produc-tion of a booklet11 Music and Interculturali-ty. It should on the one hand provide somebasic information for teachers about theSwiss composer Klaus Huber (*1924 inBern) and his compositions12 (making itnecessary to give an insight into basicstructures of Persian music and reflect oncontemporary Persian poetry influencingHuber’s music13) and on the other handoffer suggestions and produce material forinterdisciplinary school-projects with 16to 18 year old pupils. We were fully awarethat it would not be easy to find ways ofgiving adolescents an understanding of

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Huber’s musical language. However, weconsidered it a great challenge to empha-size the composer’s involvement with theculture of the Near East both in his re-flections on poltical events, such as themilitary interventions of the USA in thisarea, and his music for several reasons:Firstly Huber’s concern about regions withan outstanding cultural tradition endan-gered by religious fundamentalism andpolitical suppression should make it pos-sible to focus on aspects that in Austria, acountry in which especially the represent-atives of one political party stirred up re-sentiments against foreigners (many ofthem members of Islam) tended to beoverlooked. Secondly Huber’s decision notto restrict himself to purely aesthetic con-siderations but to raise political, philosoph-ical and religious questions with the helpof music and texts14 supported our basicaim of presenting music not as an isolatedphenomenon but as a way of human ex-pression embedded in a specific socio-cul-tural context. Thirdly Huber’s artistic tech-nique of blending elements that at firstglance seem incompatible into collages andassemblages might be taken up in the pu-pils’ productions that entail experiment-ing with various sounds of a foreign cul-ture, Huber’s music and a tone-languagefamiliar to them.

Some questions formed the backbonefor our approach:

• In which areas of daily life do weget exposed to foreign influences?

• How do we deal with foreign andstrange elements that do not meet ourexpectations? Do we regard them as as-pects endangering our own identity; dowe meet them with some kind of curios-ity or as something that might broadenour horizons and make us reflect on ourpersonal way of perceiving things?

2. Differences and processes ofassimilation

A first approach by Barbara Pölzleithner“Schlaglichter auf arabische Einflüsse inEuropa”15 focused on the impact of an

Arabian and Persian culture upon life inwestern and central Europe. The processof assimilation in which familiar and for-eign elements become blended and itsimpact upon various disciplines (mathe-matics, astronomy, biology, geography,medicine, philosophy and theology, litera-ture, music and architecture) must certainlybe regarded as an important impulse ofinterculturality, forming a basis for devel-opment and progress.

Despite attempts at building bridges,aspects of the unfamiliar and strange willpersist and shape our way of perceivingthings. Microtonality, determining thestructure of Arabian and Persian maqamat(also taken up in Huber’s compositions),may seem disturbing to ears acquaintedto well tempered scales, for example. EvaHeitzinger,16 on the one hand, wanted toevoke the pupils’ curiosity by displayingfascinating links between music and math-ematics, and on the other hand tried togive an impression of the interplay of strictcommitment (restricting the use of cer-tain Arabian and Persian scales to the e-vocation of specific emotions) and free-dom in the inspiration of refined improv-isations based on certain maqamat.

3. Basic symbols and experiences—theirrelevance in an attempt at bridgingcultural differences

Despite the ‘charm of the strange andexotic’ we regarded it as important to re-fer to experiences familar to adolescentsso as to ‘drop an anchor’ and establish apoint of departure from which the unex-pected could be explored. An analysis ofthe texts of well-known songs, poems byBertolt Brecht, Rose Ausländer and ErichFried throwing ‘spotlights’ on ways ofexperiencing and expressing love servedas a link for an investigation into the mys-tery with which the Persian poet Mah-mud Doulatabadi (*1940) surrounds theideal of love. Doulatabadis texts thatformed the literary basis for KlausHuber’s composition Die Erde dreht sich aufden Hörnern eines Stiers (1992/93) are in-

¯ ¯

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fluenced by Islamic mysticism: “Agree inlove, so as to experience miracles” (dar‘ischq bar-áy tá adschab yábi), “I went intothe desert, it had rained love” (bi-sahráschudam ‘ischq báride búd).17

Doulatabadi’s almost religious ideal oflove is clearly opposed to his experienceof contemporary Persian life that madehim join a group of artists expressing re-sistance in their texts (a decision leadingto the poet’s temporary imprisonment).His impression of a lost balance in socialand political life crystallizes in an imagederived from an old Persian myth describ-ing the creation of the earth: The earthturns on the horns of a mighty ox. Dou-latabadi continues with his own pessimis-tic vision bearing in it a glimpse of hope:“What can be heard in this motion is asound crushing the balance (the poet inthis context metaphorically thinks of themerciless impacts of capitalism and total-itarism) as well as the longing for its re-covery.”18

A painting from the Hinto-Album(1616) illustrating the myth should formthe starting point for discussions in theclasroom about the significance of main-taining balance not only in one’s privatelife and for the sake of personal well-be-ing but also in a wider context when think-ing of men living together and their rela-tionship towards nature.

So as to make young people experi-ence the necessity of balance with theirbody, they were invited to express har-monious unity and lost balance as well asthe idea of sharing weights and space inexercises that involved the process of freez-ing in a certain position. Thus, by address-ing young people rationally as well askinaesthetically a viable bridge could beestablished as the basis for further investi-gations into the way in which a Europeancomposer, inspired by Persian poetry andmusic, tried to establish a dialogue betweenOrient and Occident: Doulatabadi’s im-age of balance endangered and crushedformed the focus of Huber’s assemblagefor four Arabian instruments (ney, qa¯nu¯n,riqq and mazhar), ‘western’ instruments

(viola and guitar) and tape Die Erde drehtsich auf den Hörner eines Stiers (1992/93).Huber in his composition makes use ofseveral extracts from Doulatabadi’s poems.Collage-technique helps him to combineelements that viewed superficially seemincompatible and inspires him to play withthe notions of similarity and contrast.

Huber’s approach should invite thepupils’ experiments with sounds, music andtexts ending up in short sound-scenes.With the help of the freeware-programaudacity19 the young people presented theirown artistic productions, blending textsby Doulatabadi with their own ideas, com-bining extracts from Huber’s music andtraditional Persian music. These resultswere then analysed, discussed and com-pared with Huber’s approach in selectextracts from his composition. The ado-lescents were finally invited to discuss theirown products as well as Huber’s musicfrom different angles, thus establishingsome distance when expressing their im-pression: The point of view of a youngwoman, living in exile in Germany afterher parents had been executed in Iran wascontrasted with the impression of a youngAustrian girl, who through a pen-pal inIsfahan had learnt a lot about life there,and an Orientalist born in Iran, who onmany journeys visited his home country.Music was thus reflected in a specific so-cio-cultural context and young peoplecould hopefully become aware that theiraesthetic judgements are subjective, part-ly influenced and shaped by personal ex-periences, expectations and prejudices, andthat tolerance—the readiness to ‘listen withthe ears of the other’—might broadenone’s personal horizons.20

4. The experience of home—establishingmeeting points between cultures

Photographs taken in Ramallah, a placeof constant conflict between Israelis andPalestinians formed the point of depar-ture for an approach to Huber’s composi-tion Die Seele muss vom Reittier steigen(2002).21 Pupils were asked which of the

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photographs they were drawn to, whichof them they regarded as repulsive andwere invited to reflect upon the question:“With which of these people would youlike to start a conversation?”

The young people were then expect-ed to describe their ideal of home whichwas compared with the description of awoman from Israel and a thirteen-year-old Palestinian girl, both living in Jerusa-lem. Their personal accounts had been putdown on postcards collected for an exhi-bition “Promised Land” in Jüdisches Mu-seum Berlin: For Ella, a 45 year old Israe-li, Jerusalem was the place where she hadbeen born, where her mother-tongue wasused, and she felt accepted by society. Sheregarded it as essential to seek a dialoguewith Palestinians. Jasmin, quite differently,referred to her impression of a check-pointthat members of her people had to pass—frequently with difficulties—so as to beable to get to work or visit their relatives.For her, Al Quds [referring to Jerusalem]was a holy place that should keep its nameand emphasize that there Mohammed onhis horse had ascended to heaven.

The experience of a state of siegeformed the inspiration for Mahmoud Dar-wisch’s poem Belagerungszustand [state ofsiege], referring to the situation in Ram-allah with poetic, disturbing images. Dar-wisch’s text formed the basis for Huber’scomposition Die Seele muss vom Reittier stei-gen—a chamber-concert for violoncello,baryton, counter-tenor and 37 instrumen-talists, which was performed by instrumen-talists of University Mozarteum as a finalclimax of the first Salzburg Biennale.

Magdalena Pohn wanted pupils tobecome acquainted with Darwisch’s poem,write down their emotional reactions andtake the text as the basis for a sound-scene-improvisation. Having been confrontedwith photographs and eyewitness accounts,the young people had to reflect on waysin which Darwisch’s poetic images—awoman asking a cloud to cover her be-loved one, as her clothes were wet withhis blood; a mother burying her dead son;the soul dismounting from her mount

walking on her feet of silk; a wolf slum-bering on the skin of a goat...—could beexpressed musically. In this context, ‘mu-sically’ referred especially to possibilitiesof modifying the spoken word with thehelp of parameters such as tempo, articu-lation, volume, height, and change betweensoloistic and tutti passages. The results werethen compared with two selected extractsfrom Huber’s composition.

A Polyaesthetic sound-scene-improvisa-tion inspired by Klaus Huber’s way ofapproaching Arabic and Persian culture

1. The basic idea of the project

The sound-scene-improvisation “Irgend-wie fremd” [somehow strange] wasplanned and rehearsed with 16 to 17 yearold pupils, attending the sixth form of anAustrian grammar-school, in the courseof a Polyaesthetic22 workshop. The ado-lescents were advised and supported byteachers of different subjects (German, arts,gymnastics and music). Inspired byHuber’s technique of combining differentelements in collages and assemblages aswell as his conviction that some bridgesbetween different cultures could be erectedwith the help of the arts, a short drama infour scenes was developed and finally per-formed at University Mozarteum Salzburgas part of the programme of SalzburgBiennale.

2. A short insight into the working-process

In a first planning stage, teachers had col-lected texts, such as poems by MahmudDoulatabadi and Mahmoud Darwisch,newspaper reports, accounts about every-day-life in countries of the ‘Arab world’,photographs, on the one hand taking upclichés of the colourful Orient, filled withthe scents of various spices, on the otherhand disturbing documents of politicalaggression and religious suppression. Basedon this material the main topic to be tak-en up in the sound-scene-improvisation

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was outlined. It was agreed upon that re-flections on enstrangement or alienationas an experience familar to young peoplegrowing up, trying to find their own way(on a larger scale a phenomenon thatmight cause human dismay with peopleliving ‘side by side’ unable to understandeach other) should stir up the pupils’ im-agination both on a rational and emotionallevel.

Before the beginning of the three-dayworkshop, pupils had already been madeacquainted with some of the material se-lected by the teachers and had added theirown texts. After a general introduction inwhich a framework for the sound-scene-improvisation was suggested, the partici-pants were split up into different groups:a drama-group, a music-group, a group ofdancers and a group responsible for thestage-set. A lot should be left to the crea-tive imagination of the adolescents, thusthe members of the music-group wereconfronted with certain melodious andrhythmical patterns, partly taken over fromPersian music, as the basis for improvisa-tion on different instruments (all pupils inthis form were able to play an instrument).Collage-technique that made it possibleto combine different texts, pictures andphotographs as well as various musicalelements, presented live or from a tape,proved a great help in this process involv-ing more than twenty young people. Ex-periments, discussions, also arguments con-cerning the realisation of the projectmarked the first two days. Comparing,reflecting on and bringing together thecontributions of the different groupsproved a great challenge.

3. Performing the sound-scene improvi-sation at University Mozarteum Salzburg

The thirty-minute-sound-scene-improvisa-tion that was finally presented in the pres-ence of the Rektor of University Mozar-teum Salzburg, Reinhart von Gutzeit, thehead of the school and—a particularlymoving gesture—the presence of KlausHuber comprised four scenes. In Scene 1

“Foreign / Familiar” the safety of feelingat home opposed to the experience ofenstrangement was presented from thepoint of view of young people living inAustria. Allusions to daily routine, the im-pression that despite their seeming famili-arity many objects and persons of every-day life remained ‘strangers’ found a strongcounterpoint in drumming, based on aPersian rhythmical pattern and belly-dancers conveying a vague impression ofthe Orient. Scene 2 “War and Flight” inan abrupt change focused on persecutionfor political and religious reasons. It start-ed with a short account by Mahmoud Dar-wisch describing the flight of his familyand the rest of the inhabitants of his homevillage when he was a seven year old boy.The belly-dancers turned into warriors,as if masks keeping up the cliché of a fan-tastic world were suddenly dropped. Aquick succession of war scenes was pro-jected, along with acoustic interpolationsfrom the tape blending sounds of war withshort extracts from Huber’s compositionDie Erde dreht sich auf den Hörnern einesOchsen intensified the atmosphere of fearand oppression. Scene 3 “Suffering andHope” meditatively took up the feelingof alienation in everyday life expressed inscene 1 and combined it with poetry byDarwisch—evoking e.g. the image of awoman burying her dead son. A narrowbridge between two remote areas seemedto emerge: The tormenting activity of thewarriors was replaced by one player onthe oud. Scrapes of thoughts that left alot of spare room for the audience formedthe core of a scene offering some shortglimpses at chances of peace and recon-ciliation. This mood became intensified inscene 4 “Poetry and Speechlessness”. Thehope crystallized that maybe poetry couldexpress the ideal of peace, convey theimpression of a desert turned into fruitfulland by a rain of love.

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Photograph 1:Glimpse of an Oriental world.

Photograph 2:Meditation on the oud.

Photograph 3: Interculturality?

Photograph 4:The young actors

surrounding

Klaus Huber

(Photos by

© Anton Temmel).

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III. Reflections on theeducational significance

Looking back on these projects from thedistance of several months, what pupilslearned from the festival experience canbe reflected upon at various levels.

Ethical and aesthetic implications

On one level, young people gained plen-ty of information not only about the com-poser Klaus Huber, but also about life andculture in Persia and countries of the Ara-bian world. Whereas in this context theincrease in knowledge might be ‘meas-ured’ in the form of tests or exams, theexperiences young people acquired on anethical and aesthetic level at least partlyresist any serious empirical investigation.

At first, the ethical aspect: developingan understanding and tolerance for anunfamiliar way of life by disclosing reli-gious and political prejudices, had beenpredominant for several members of ourteam. Gradually we were able to discoverthat dealing with the strange and unfa-miliar could also be seen as an importantcontribution to an aesthetic education.Aesthetic experiences make it necessaryto break the routine of our normal wayof perceiving things as well as usual waysof acting. The Austrian psychologist Chris-tian Allesch assumes that the bewilder-ment set off by the new and unfamiliarwill result in a change of reality and one’spersonal relationship towards it.23 Such aconcept also sets the tone of a group ofGerman music-educationalists aroundHermann Josef Kaiser. Influenced by re-flections of the philosophers Martin Seel24

and Alfred Schütz,25 they emphasize thataesthetic experiences may result in therestructuring of knowledge and may befelt as some kind of shock.26

In listening to music unfamiliar to theirears, and in being confronted with strangepoetic images, pupils were forced to dis-cover new and different ways of lookingat things and listening to acoustic mes-sages. They had to learn that encounter-

ing a foreign culture with the intention ofresisting clichés must be considered a fa-tiguing activity. Integrating bits and piec-es of the unfamiliar into their own pro-ductions made them scrutinize both ‘theirown music and images’ and music andimages derived from the Near East as care-fully as possible in the attempt at convey-ing their own personal artistic message.Photographs 2 and 3, to my mind, giveimpressive evidence of this effort.

A contribution for adolescents in theprocess of developing their ownidentity?

The German philosopher WolfgangWelsch in an article dealing with the worksof Cindy Sherman, Paco Knöller and Ar-nulf Rainer assumes that at present theideal of identity seems to undergo trans-formations as the differences between nor-mality and the unusual begin to disinte-grate.27 In contrast to these arguments, ourprojects were based on the assumption thatthe tension between familiar ity andstrangeness must be considered as essen-tial in the course of personal development.Learning to deal with experiences that donot come up to our expectations – theGerman music-educationalist Peter Beckerrefers to man’s readiness to bear the af-front of the unfamiliar – can be regardedas part of the process of coming to termswith one’s own identity. Mahmoud Dar-wisch’s experience of being expelled fromhis own village, of turning homeless inthe course of one dreadful night will re-main remote from the ‘repertoire’ of Aus-trian pupils, still it may stir up reflectionssuch as: Where do I belong? Which idealsshould home represent for my personallife? Western adolescents will not walk intothe desert to experience a rain of love.They may, however, reflect on how andwhere they could possibly share somethingof the mysticism expressed in the wordsof the Persian poet. In such a way en-countering the strange may be understoodas a signpost on the way of becoming fa-miliar with one’s own identity.

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Notes

[1] Cmp. Matthias Otten, Kulturbegriff und kul-

tureller Wandel, http://www.uni-landau.de/instbild/

IKV/Lehre, p. 6 (reference to Bernd Wagner, Kul-

turelle Globalisierung, 2002); download

02.07.2008.

[2] Wolfgang Roscher, Polyaisthesis – Polyaesthetics

– Polyaesthetic Education, in: Wolfgang Roscher et

al. (ed.), polyaisthesis – multiperceptual conscious-

ness and the idea of integrating arts and sciences in

education, Wien: vwgoe 1991, pp. 9–21: 9.

[3] See ibid., p. 18.

[4] Christian Allesch, Michaela Schwarzbauer, Poly-

aesthetic Education: A model for integrating cul-

tural experiences, in: Jale N. Erzen (ed.), XVIIth

Congress of Aesthetics. Congress Book II, Ankara:

Sanart 2009, pp. 19–27: 20.

[5] Ibid., p. 20.

[6] Ibid., p. 21; cmp. Wolfgang Roscher, Was be-

deutet musikalische Bildung heute?, in: Wolfgang

Roscher (ed.), Erfahren und Darstellen. Wege mu-

sikalischer und gesamtkünstlerischer Bildung heu-

te, Innsbruck: Helbling 1984, pp. 7–18: 12.

[7] Mahmud Doulatabadi, Der Sturz des Prophe-

ten, in: Michael Kunkel (ed.), Unterbrochene Zei-

chen. Klaus Huber an der Hochschule für Musik

und Musik-Akademie der Stadt Basel. Schriften,

Gespräche, Dokumente, Saarbrücken: Pfau 2005,

pp. 19–24: 23; translation M.S.

[8] The title “Wahlverwandtschaft” refers to a nov-

el by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, first published

in 1809. The term “Wahlverwandtschaft” was de-

rived from chemistry referring to the relation be-

tween natural elements. Goethe used the expres-

sion to describe human inclination towards other

persons. Human relationships form the core in

Goethe’s work of literature.

[9] Cmp. brochure of Salzburg Biennale 2009.

[10] Ibid.; translation M.S.

[11] Cmp. http://sam.ac/downloads/SAMpuls where

also teaching material in German language can be

downloaded.

[12] Julia Hinterberger, Klaus Huber – Ästhetik des

inneren Widerstands, sampuls (2009), number 3,

pp. 5–14.

[13] Cmp. Kjell Keller, Impulse aus dem Orient

auf Klaus Hubers musikalisches Schaffen, in: Ul-

rich Tadday (ed.), Klaus Huber (Musikkonzepte

137/138), München: Edition text + kritik 2007,

August, pp. 119–134; Kjell Keller, Klaus Hubers

Wege zur arabischen Musik und islamischen My-

stik, in: Jörn Peter Hiekel (ed.), Sinnbildungen.

Spirituelle Dimensionen in der Musik heute, Mainz:

Schott 2008, pp. 224–232; Max Nyffeler, Die Ur-

angst überwinden. Zur Dialektik von Befreiung und

Erlösung im Werk Klaus Hubers, in: Hartmut Lück,

Dieter Senghaas (ed.), Vom hörbaren Frieden,

Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp 2005, pp. 270f.

[14] Cmp. Klaus Huber, Ein Krieg gegen die Welt

– eine Welt gegen den Krieg, in: Klaus Huber, Ge-

gen die Verdinglichung. Klaus Huber in Texten und

Gesprächen, in: Michael Kunkel (ed.), Unterbro-

chene Zeichen. Klaus Huber an der Hochschule

für Musik und Musik-Akademie der Stadt Basel.

Schriften, Gespräche, Dokumente, Saarbrücken:

Pfau 2005, pp. 27–73.

[15] Barbara Pölzleithner, Schlaglichter auf ara-

bische Einflüsse in Europa, sampuls (2009),

number 3, pp. 15–23.

[16] Eva Heitzinger, Sich-Ein-Stimmen – ein kul-

turelles Phänomen? Stimmsysteme der europäi-

schen und arabischen Tradition im Vergleich, sam-

puls (2009), number 3, pp. 24–30.

[17] Mahmud Doulatabadi, Der Sturz des Prophe-

ten, in: Michael Kunkel (ed.), Unterbrochene Zei-

chen. Klaus Huber an der Hochschule für Musik

und Musik-Akademie der Stadt Basel. Schriften,

Gespräche, Dokumente, Saarbrücken: Pfau 2005,

pp. 19–24: 23; translation M.S.

[18] Ibid., p. 21, translation M.S..

[19] Cmp. http://www.audacity.de

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[20] Cmp. Michaela Schwarzbauer, Fritz Höfer,

Astrid Weger, Die Erde dreht sich auf den Hörnern

eines Stiers – ein handlungsorientierter Zugang zu

Klaus Hubers Assemblage aus dem Jahr 1993,

sampuls (2009), number 3, pp. 31–48.

[21] Magdalena Pohn, Die Seele muss vom Reit-

tier steigen – Hubers Kammerkonzert als Ort der

Konfrontation, aber auch der Begegnung zweier

Kulturen, sampuls (2009), number 3, pp. 49–55.

[22] Ideas developed in the context of Polyaes-

thetic Education were frequently taken up in both

primary and secondary teaching. At BORG-Nonntal,

the school where the improvisation described was

carried out, based on an initiative of the music-

teacher Reinhold Kletzander a three-day-polyaes-

thetic-workshop, emphasizing possibilities of inter-

disciplinarity with several teachers involved in the

projects, was installed as a compulsory part of the

curriculum for the the fifth, sixth and seventh form.

[23] Christian G. Allesch, Einführung in die psy-

chologische Ästhetik, Wien: WUV 2006, p. 8.

[24] Martin Seel, Ästhetik des Erscheinens, Mün-

chen and Wien: Hanser 2000.

[25] Alfred Schütz / Thomas Luckmann, Struktu-

ren der Lebenswelten vol. 1, Frankfurt a. M.: Suhr-

kamp 1979.

[26] Cmp. e.g. Christian Rolle, Musikalisch-ästhe-

tische Bildung. Über die Bedeutung ästhetischer

Erfahrungen für musikalische Bildungsprozesse

(Perspektiven zur Musikpädagogik und Musikwis-

senschaft, vol. 24), Kassel: Bosse 1999; Christo-

pher Wallbaum, Produktionsdidaktik im Musikun-

terricht. Perspektiven zur Gestaltung ästhetischer

Erfahrungssituationen, Kassel: Bosse 2000.

[27] Wolfgang Welsch, Ästhetisches Denken, Stutt-

gart: Reclam 51998, pp. 168–200.

Abstrakti

Michaela Schwarzbauer“Itävaltalaisoppilaat japersialainen kulttuuri kohtaavat:Kahden musiikinopetusprojektinreflektointia”

Artikkeli reflektoi mahdollisuuksia kult-tuuristen kokemusten integrointiin kah-den “Salzburger Biennale 2009” –konteks-tissa (nykymusiikin festivaali, joka keskit-tyy interkulttuurisuuden ajatukseen) ke-hitettyjen, 16–18-vuotiaille oppilaille suun-nattujen opetetusprojektien pohjalta. Kont-ribuutio ei ole raportti tutkimusprojektis-ta, mutta artikkeli sisältää teoreettista me-tareflektointia ylittäen näin pelkän käy-tännön opetusmateriaalin kuvailun, jonkatulisi ennen kaikkea inspiroida opettajia.Ensimmäinen osa tarkastelee interkulttuu-risuuden ajatusta polyesteettisen kasvatuk-sen taustaa vasten. Jälkimmäinen lähesty-mistapa kehitettiin Saksassa 1970-luvulla.Raportti projekteista, jotka olennaisestisaivat vaikutteita kahdesta sveitsiläisennykysäveltäjä Klaus Huberin (Die Erde drehtsich auf den Hörnern eines Stiers ja Die Seelemuss vom Reittier steigen) sävellyksestä muo-dostaa artikkelin pääosan kun sen sijaankolmas osa tarkastelee esimerkkejä käy-tännön opetuksesta suhteessa sen eettiseenja esteettiseen merkitykseen.

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Introduction

ietnam has a vast variety ofmusical genres and styles butin comparison to the musicof some of its neighbouringcountries, like China andThailand, the music of Viet-nam is fairly unknown in theWest. This could be due to

Vietnam’s relative isolation, towards West-ern Europe and USA, during the secondhalf of the 20th century, but also becauseof internal cultural politics. After the Vi-etnamese revolution many musical genreswere neglected as the government soughtto create a new national music, based onthe old but reflecting the new revolution-ary spirit. This neo-traditional music wasfor many years presented as the only tra-ditional music of Vietnam (Arana, 1999).The economic and political reforms in themid 1980s saw a growing interest in pre-revolutionary styles of music in Vietnam,an interest that seemed to escalate in the1990s and 2000s (To, 1999; Le, 1998).During the last ten years researchers andmusicians have been involved in preser-vation and teaching of many threatenedgenres of Vietnamese music. Four of thosegenres have been granted the official sta-tus of intangible cultural heritage byUNESCO2 (The Intangible Heritage Lists,2009), one of which is the North Viet-namese chamber music genre ca tru.

Ca tru3 has been on the brink of ex-tinction in Vietnam but a few ca tru clubsand musicians have kept the genre aliveto the present day. One of the many prob-lems the genre has faced is the lack ofsystematic education. Learning ca tru hasbeen, more or less, restricted to those thathave ca tru musicians in their family and

Esbjörn Wettermark

Thang long ca trù club –new ways for old music1

V˘

today only a few of those families retaintheir music tradition. In 2006 Pham ThiHue started a new ca tru club in Hanoi,the Thang long ca tru club4, with the ex-pressed purpose of training professionalca tru musicians. The Thang long ca truclub is not the biggest or the oldest ca truclub in Hanoi; the Hanoi ca tru club, es-tablished by one of Hanoi’s most wellknown ca tru singers, Le Thi Bach Van, hasbeen going for almost 20 years and it hasbeen crucial for the survival of ca tru inHanoi (Norton, 2005). Neither can Huebe considered one of the foremost ca trumasters in Vietnam. What makes the Thanglong ca tru club and Hue’s work differentfrom most of the other clubs is their fo-cus on education and professionalism5.Hue’s ambitious intentions with thisunique club, and the lack of other similareducation projects, lead me to suggest thather interpretation of ca tru will be of im-portance in the future, both for the genreas a whole and its musicians. Therefore, inthis article, I will try to present Hue’s viewson tradition, change, education and musi-cianship in her work as a teacher and per-former of ca tru. Teaching and performinga genre that at one point almost died outraises many questions about reconstruc-tion, authenticity, and ways of attractingnew audiences. The club’s relationship tothe Vietnam National Academy of Music,where Hue is a part-time teacher, is an-other interesting issue as an ambitiousprivate teaching institution might chal-lenge the academy’s view on traditionalmusic. Hue and her club have receivedsome criticism from other members of theca tru community. The criticism has main-ly been about Hue’s quick transition from

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student to teacher, the fact that she playswhat is often regarded as a male instru-ment (the dan day lute) and the club’smedia popularity; part of that criticism willbe dealt with in this article. By focusingon the work done by Pham Thi Hue andthe Thang long ca tru club I wish to showhow music education can lead to changefor a small genre striving to survive incontemporary Vietnam.

Background

Pham Thi Hue is a former student of theVietnam National Academy of music inHanoi. Since the years after her gradua-tion from the school, in the 1990s, she hasbeen teaching dan pi ba (a pear-shapedlute) in the academy’s department for tra-ditional music. During, and after, her stud-ies at the academy she focused mainly ontai tu, a South Vietnamese chamber musicgenre, until she became fascinated with catru after attending a New Year’s perform-ance in 2001. However, it took severalyears until Hue managed to find a ca trumaster to teach her. Eventually she wastaken on as a student by the singer Nguy-en Thi Chuc and the dan day player Nguy-en Phu De, both well-known ca tru mas-ters. When Hue established the Thang longca tru club in late 2006 she had only stud-ied with Chuc and De for little more thana year. Shortly thereafter she started toteach ca tru to some of her young stu-dents from the academy of music. A grantfrom CEEVN, the Center for EducationalExchange with Vietnam, enabled Hue toorganise a more focused teaching projectin the club, and to arrange a free monthlyca tru concert together with her mastersand students. From the very start the clubgained a lot of media attention and whenI visited Hanoi in 2008 there were evenpictures of Hue, with her dan day, in theVietnamese airline information booklet onthe flight over. Hue’s interest in ca tru, andthe foundation of the Thang long ca truclub, coincided with (and might even havebeen dependent on) efforts by the Viet-namese government to persuade

UNESCO to recognise ca tru as an offi-cially designated form of intangible cul-tural heritage. During the application pe-riod6, the government sponsored ca trufestivals, showed ca tru documentaries onstate television and took other measuresto document and preserve the genre. InApril 2009, a ca tru theatre, the Thang longca tru theatre7, opened to present the musicto tourists and ca tru is likely to have aprominent position in the 1000 years cel-ebration of Hanoi in 2010. In his master’sthesis about ca tru from 1996, Barley Nor-ton writes that he had difficulties in find-ing ca tru musicians on his trips to Hanoiin 1994 and 1995. There are still only afew master ca tru musicians in Hanoi but Idoubt that anyone visiting the city todaycan avoid encountering ca tru in someform, either through advertisements, news-paper articles or performances. During thelast few years, ca tru seems to have beenrediscovered by many as a symbol forHanoi, and Vietnam, but the genre has along history in the area. Before looking atthe work done by Hue and the Thanglong ca tru club, I will give a short intro-duction to the history of ca tru and theorganisations once surrounding it.

Ca tru and ca tru teachingin the past

It is likely that ca tru originated in theVietnamese court sometime in the fif-teenth or sixteenth century (Norton, 1996,2005). In the last two hundred years it hasmainly been performed for ancestral wor-ship ceremonies in the dinh (the villagetemple), the homes of mandarins, and, inthe early to the mid 20th century, in barsand “singing houses”. After the Augustrevolution in 1945 and the communists’victory in 1954, ca tru was discouraged,according to some sources even banned,by the government, and only a few musi-cians kept the tradition alive (Le, 1998;Norton, 1996, 2005). In the past, a ca truensemble could have consisted of severaldifferent instruments but a present dayensemble (Fig. 1) consists of three people,

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a female singer and phach (a piece of bam-boo or wood beaten with two sticks) play-er, a dan day (a three stringed, long neckedlute) player, and an audience member whoplays the trong chau (a small drum beat-en with a thin and long stick). Trong chaumeans, “praise drum”, and it is used toshow appreciation of the music, to startor end the performance, and to articulatephrase endings in the song. The drummeris often a ca tru connoisseur or even theauthor of the lyrics performed by the sing-er. The songs consist of long and complexpoems in certain metres, each set to amusical “form” (Norton, 1996). A ca trupoem often references historical events andborrows words, or phrases, from Sino-Vi-etnamese; the language that was onceused by the high society in the Vietnam.Many of these poems can be difficult tounderstand even for native Vietnamesespeakers (Norton, 1996, 2005).

Figure 1: Doan Dan Huu (trong chau), Pham Thi

Hue (phach) and Nguyen Thu Thuy (dan day)performing in front of Cong Vi dinh, Hanoi.

Ca tru has had a close association tothe dinh, and connected to the dinh wereoften a giao phuong, or musician’s guild.These guilds were each governed by afamily of musicians; family, in this case,did not only mean parents and siblingsbut also relations through adoption, mar-riage and so forth. These musicians werein charge of teaching and performing catru, and sometimes other genres, in thelocal community. The giao phuong each hadslightly different styles of ca tru. They hadrules of conduct and an often-strict mor-al code for its musicians (Nguyen, 2005[1923]; Tran, 2005 [1960]). The guilds inHanoi started to disappear during theFrench occupation; in the countryside theguilds continued to function longer butby the mid 20th century they had diedout.

After the disappearance of the guilds,ca tru remained as a family tradition. In

Hanoi the singing continued in “ca truhouses” or “singing houses”, bars and evenbrothels, until the fall of the French occu-pation. By then ca tru had gained a badreputation and was being connected with

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prostitution and drinking (Norton, 2005).Ca tru’s supposedly bad influence on mor-als and its connections to the old feudalsociety made it unpopular with the newcommunist government. This could havebeen the beginning of the end for ca tru.However, thanks to the interest of someVietnamese musicologists, documentaryrecordings of the genre were made in the1970s. In the 1980s and 1990s, a few eld-erly performers, such as the famous sing-er Quach Thi Ho, were encouraged toteach their art to a new generation ofmusicians8. Since the 1990s, there havebeen some projects in the Hanoi area toteach ca tru to children (Norton, 2005),but there is still a lack of really skilled catru musicians. That is what Hue and theThang long ca tru club are trying tochange.

Changing the path of ca trueducation

I met Hue for the first time in Sweden2003 and was introduced to the Thanglong ca tru club on a trip to Hanoi in2007. Since then I have had the pleasureof visiting the club’s performances andconcerts on three more trips between 2008and 2010. The Thang long ca tru club isnow in its fourth year and with its ambi-tious students and enthusiastic members,the club is well on its way toward makinga major impact on the ca tru community.In this section, I will present what Hueconsiders being her three major goals withthe club. They can be described as, 1) toattract a larger audience for ca tru; 2) toteach a new generation of competent catru musicians and; 3) to revive, or ratherreinvent, the giao phuong. Hue talks aboutthese goals as being much entwined, andthis division into three sections arose with-in our conversations in Hanoi during Feb-ruary and March 20099.

The audience

For a musical genre to survive, it needs anaudience. After years of neglect, the gen-

erations that enjoyed listening to ca truhave died off and few new enthusiasts haveemerged. This is a big problem for manysmall genres of music around the world.For ca tru, this is further complicated bythe fact that it does not only need an au-dience, it needs a skilled audience, an au-dience that can participate by hitting thetrong chau in the correct way, that under-stands the poetic language, and can addto the repertoire by composing new po-ems in the right metre and style. Some“world musics” manage to find an audi-ence abroad, but due to its literary back-ground, this is not a likely path for ca tru.The literary tradition of ca tru does notonly make it hard to market the music tonon-Vietnamese speakers, but as men-tioned earlier, it is also a major obstaclefor many native speakers. Consequently,Hue believes that something more needsto be done in order to attract, and main-tain, an audience.

Many in the Vietnamese audience to-day don’t understand the poems andthey feel bored. If we want to makepeople like ca tru we have to do some-thing more, not only play well. So, wetry to keep the ways the musicians weredoing in the past and at the same timecreate something new to make theaudience understand and like ca tru.

To make ca tru interesting for an au-dience that is more used to Western andVietnamese popular music or the neo-tra-ditional music broadcasted on TV and ra-dio is, no doubt, difficult. The idea of us-ing elements from popular music, like inneo-traditional music, to make ca tru moreaccessible does not appeal to Hue. Insteadof mixing ca tru with other genres, shewants to make it more accessible by com-bining the performances with other relat-ed styles of Vietnamese music like bat am(an instrumental ceremonial music oftenused in conjunction with ca tru in the dinh),by bringing other traditional instrumentsinto the ca tru trio, and by performingreconstructions of ca tru dances.

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Now we are putting together the batam ensemble for the future giao phuong.There are also documents saying thatthe ca tru ensembles in the past hadmore instruments and that it was onlylater that it came to be only threepeople in the ensemble, to make itmore easy to move around and per-form, so now we are thinking aboutadding more instruments to the ca truensemble, as they had in the past, tomake it more exiting for the audience.When only three people play thewhole concert it can get boring forthe audience.

When I visited the club’s monthlyperformance in December 2009, it fea-tured both an instrumental bat am ensem-ble and an extended, or reconstructed, catru ensemble with several singers besidethe usual ca tru trio. In this way, the audi-ence enjoyed some refuge between thelong poems with different kinds of musi-cal experience in the same concert. Huemaintains a rather hostile view of “mod-ernised” traditional music, which often usesreconstructions of instruments and music(like stone xylophones; lithophones). Thisled me to ask her what makes the club’smodern reconstruction of a ca tru ensem-ble any different from those reconstruc-tions? Is a reconstructed music, based onpictures and descriptions that she has onlyseen in woodcarvings and old manuscript,still traditional Vietnamese music?

In the past they have had the sameproblems as we have now; they alsohad wars and lost music and they hadto build it again, this time we do thesame. Where we have lost somethingwe’ve created something new that wethink is suitable. The most importantthing is that we don’t borrow fromother countries’ music, like people donow in traditional music, so that thebasics are changed; that’s not reallyVietnamese music it’s a mix betweenVietnamese and Western music. Wetry to keep the way that the old peo-

ple have been doing ... I think that isbetter, and not only better, that is themeaning of what we are; the way theold people did it, that is also the mean-ing of the soul of the whole country.

In Hue’s opinion, reconstruction of lostmusic can be seen as a part of the tradi-tion even though it will be different fromthe original. The difference between theclub’s reconstructions of Vietnamese mu-sic and other examples, according to Hue,is that they only use what she considersto be Vietnamese “building blocks”. Hue’snationalistic pride is obvious; the musicshould be Vietnamese and nothing else,and there are limits to how much she willadapt it to suit the ears of the listeners.There are still connections between thepoems used in ca tru and Vietnamese po-etry in general, for example, the metreused in the ca tru song Hat noi10 is stillpopular among Vietnamese poets. In thepast, it was not uncommon that a wealthypoet hired a group of ca tru musicians tosing his poems, and being able to sing anew poem on sight was considered as animportant skill for a ca tru singer. Occa-sionally, a few poets have approached theclub and asked to have their poems per-formed.

We still have poets that write newpoems and sometimes they’ll hand oneto us during a concert; then we justlook at it and sing it immediately ...at the concert yesterday we had oneperson that gave me a poem but be-cause the programme was already verylong I told him that we’ll sing it nextmonth.

When I visited the club in late De-cember 2009, they had started to worktogether with the poet Gan Phi Anh. To-gether with Anh, they have started a week-ly audience evening class, where interest-ed people can come to learn about ca truand how to hit the trong chau. At one ofthose evening classes I took the opportu-nity to talk to Thang, a young man who

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works at a bank in Hanoi. He said that hewanted to learn to appreciate ca tru be-cause he saw it as a symbol of Hanoi, andwanted to be able to show his friends, fromother parts of Vietnam, that part of Ha-noian culture. Thang has no intention oflearning to play ca tru himself, other thanbeating the trong chau, and at home heprefers to listen to Vietnamese pop music;for him learning to appreciate ca tru is away of learning more about the city, andcountry, he loves. According to Hue, manyof the participants in these classes havebeen students undertaking projects aboutthe history of Hanoi. They usually onlygo to the classes for a few weeks but somehave stayed on as members in the club.

We have to connect with people whowant to study, who want to listen tothis kind of music and teach them howto enjoy it! You know, the drummingis done by the audience and that’s whywe need to have lessons for the audi-ence.

Hue is confident that educating theaudience is crucial for the survival anddevelopment of ca tru and, beside theevening classes, most of their concerts alsoinclude a teaching component. On mylatest visit, the audience at the monthlyconcert was taught how to sing the firstphrases of Bac phan by one of Hue’s stu-dents, and Phi Anh demonstrated the trongchau and invited some of the first timevisitors to play drum together with theensemble under his lead. There have beensome people who come to the club to askfor singing or dan day lessons but Hueturns most of them down. She says thatshe already has a full schedule with thestudents she has and instead tells them tojoin the club as audience members. In thefuture she hopes that the club will be ableto provide more lessons, but it will haveto wait until they are more organised.

The club and Hue have received quitea bit of media attention during the lastfew years. Hue always says yes to an in-terview request or a TV performance, as

she believes that it is a good way of pro-moting both her own club and ca tru ingeneral. This publicity has definitely helpedthe club to attract a bigger audience totheir concerts. Hue has even been con-tacted by people who have read about theclub in the newspapers and want to sup-port them financially. Their audience mem-bers have also contributed to this mediasuccess. Among the members are journal-ists, computer consultants, artists, poets anda photographer: Hue’s father, who docu-ments more or less every performance theclub gives. They have seen to it that theclub has a frequently updated website withpictures and movies from concerts, as wellas their own YouTube channel and Face-book account. Thanks to their enthusias-tic members, the club is probably the catru group that is easiest to get in contactwith, for both journalists and the generalpublic.

The education

It is very hard to make a living as a musi-cian, or music teacher, in Vietnam. Manyof Hue’s classmates from the academy havenever worked as musicians after their grad-uation, and still many students go back totheir home province without expectationsof finding a job that suits their education.Vietnam’s adaptation to world capitalismsince the mid 1980s has definitely made iteasier for astute businessmen to make theirfortune, but for professional musicians, orteachers in the academies of music, theeconomic reforms have led to few finan-cial benefits. It is widely understood thatif you choose to become a musician youwill most certainly be poor, you will notafford a big car or house, and you mighteven have problems supporting your fam-ily. Hue thinks it is important that her stu-dents realise all this before they graduatefrom the academy. To prepare them forthe harsh reality of the life of a profes-sional musician, she talks a lot with herstudents about musicianship, dreams andgoals.

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If you dream about being a goodmusician and then you become a goodmusician that will make you happy,and if you are just a musician you can-not be rich; if you want to be richyou will have to do business. So nowthey [the students] choose if they wantto become masters or rich, they choosetheir future.

Happiness is an important aspect ofHue’s conversation with her students.Many of the younger students equate hap-piness with having a lot of money, an equa-tion that, according to Hue, would leadto a miserable life for most potential mu-sicians in Vietnam. Hue encourages herstudents to set up goals and to work hardto accomplish them; succeeding in accom-plishing your goals will, according to Hue,lead to both a better self-esteem and realhappiness. This far none of her studentshave left the club to pursue another ca-reer but she says that many of the stu-dents are uncertain of what they reallywant to do with their life. Hue stressesthe importance that the students in theclub should not only learn music but alsoa way of living their lives. None of thestudents are charged for their lessons butshe demands that they help out with eve-rything in the club. By working togethershe wants them to establish a relationshipto each other and to learn skills that willhelp them in their professional, and per-sonal, lives. Together, they organise every-thing in the club, from keeping track ofthe finances, to arranging practice groups,taking care of sound and lighting duringconcerts and making schedules. This is allpart of Hue’s holistic and, as it turns out,practical approach to education as she saysthat, “If I would do everything … Iwouldn’t be able to do it very well so it’sbetter that I teach them [how to do it]”.

Hue is the main teacher of the clubbut the students meet with several otherteachers as well. Bui Trong Hien, one ofHue’s old teachers from the academy,teaches regularly in the club. He teachesVietnamese music theory to the students

as a compliment to the Western theorythey learn at the academy. Hien and Huehave known each other for a long timeand he was an important inspiration forher when she decided to start the club in2006. Nguyen Thi Chuc, has been per-forming in the club’s monthly concertsince the beginning and since about a yearback she is also teaching regularly in theclub. With her many years of experienceas a ca tru musician, Chuc is an importantlink to the ca tru tradition for the club.Hue’s dan day master, Nguyen Phu De doesnot perform with the club as much as heused to, due to old age, but one of theclub’s members goes regularly to his homefor dan day lessons. Hue’s way of teachingher students is different from the way shewas taught herself by Chuc and De. Theydid not use any special method of teach-ing or any specific exercises, at least notin any formal sense11. They simply played,sang or drummed out the part Hue wassupposed to learn and then expected herto repeat what they played with little ex-planation. This way of learning, throughimmersion and imitation, that Hue wentthrough, takes time and when Hue start-ed to work with her own students shethought that it could be done in moreefficient ways. By analysing her masters’ways of playing, singing and drumming,she has come up with specific exercisesthat she teaches her students. This meth-od makes it possible for students to getstarted quicker so that they, after only ashort time, can participate in some of themusical activities at the clubs monthlyconcerts.

From the beginning I teach them thefive basic rhythms while singing thewords … of the dan day. So, they singthe dan day melody and play the phach,and when they get inside rhythm Ijust teach them how to sing Bac phan.It usually takes them two lessons tolearn the five basics rhythms and twomore lessons for the song, so it’s aboutfour, maybe five, lessons to make itfluent.

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The “five basic rhythms” and the“words of the dan day” means that thestudents learn to play the phach rhythmsand the melodies of the five instrumentalinterludes, kho, used between phrases andverses in a ca tru performance. To get “in-side rhythm” means that they have learnedthe rhythms by heart. The students learnthe dan day interludes by singing the namesof the notes in a kind of “do-re-mi” sys-tem, while clapping the phach rhythms ontheir knees to get them in sync. Hue’smasters never analysed the music in thisway and Hue doubts if there have everbeen any special methods or exercises inca tru and says that, “I think they alwaysimprovised [any exercises] themselvesduring the lesson”12. Hue has developedher own method for teaching ca tru butthere is at least one part of Chuc’s teach-ing that she has held on to. Chuc, andHue, always begin by teaching new stu-dents the song Bac phan, even though it isnot the easiest or might not appear to bethe most suitable one for a beginner. Thereason for this is that Bac phan containsmany common ca tru features that willreappear in other tunes, so if the studentsknow Bac phan the following tunes willcome much easier for them. As Hue’s ideais that the club should prepare the stu-dents for different aspects of a life as amusician, she wants them to learn how toteach music as well as playing it. Sincethe end of 2008 the older students eachwork as a mentor for a first year studentat the academy to practice their teachingskills. Besides being a support for the newstudents, this has had some good side ef-fects on the older students well.

If you manage to get good results fromyour student you will learn how topractice and how to be a teacher …When I teach them how to practicethey always says, “yes”, and then whenthey practice by themselves they for-get everything … now when they haveto teach another student they have tolearn how to teach and they have totell their student how to practice and

then the older students will remem-ber this when they have to practiceby themselves.

Most of the first year students followtheir mentor to the club’s concerts to helpwith arrangements, so this is also a way ofbringing a new generation of academystudents into the club.

The organisation of the club has somesimilarities with the academy; there arestudents at different levels, lessons in manysubjects, and the monthly concert can beseen as reoccurring evaluation of the stu-dents’ progress. Like in the academy, thereis a graduation as well. When Hue hadstudied with her masters for about a year,and they thought that she was becominga proficient ca tru musician, they were en-couraged by Bui Trong Hien to revive thetradition of a graduation concert, le moxiem y. That concert became the begin-ning of the Thang long ca tru club andHue has decided to use graduation con-certs as a way to show that the studenthas passed a first step in their training.After their graduation, the students willbe allowed to teach ca tru in the club andwith more teachers Hue hopes to take onmore students. She estimates that it willtake around three to four years of studyfor an ambitious student to pass the grad-uation. Hue’s plan was to get her firstgroup of students ready to do their grad-uation in the fall of 2009. This would havecoincided with UNESCO’s decision togrant ca tru status as an intangible culturalheritage in September 2009. However, dueto lack of time Hue later decided to post-pone the graduation to the following year.According to Hue, le mo xiem y was usedin a similar way in the giao phuong beforethe breakdown of the guild system.

The giao phuong

To accommodate her growing club, Hue’svision is that the club should revive thegiao phuong and create a school for severalkinds of traditional Vietnamese music.There are records on how the giao phuong

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were organised but their rules and stand-ards do not always fit the present day. Huehas no interest in museum-like reconstruc-tions, as I mentioned earlier, Hue’s idea ismore of a reinvention than a revival. Shesays that the new giao phuong has to “ac-cord with the times we live in”.

The world has changed now and wecannot keep everything and we can-not copy everything … so instead wetry to keep the real meaning of thegiao phuong. The meaning in giao phuongis to care about the old masters whocannot go and perform themselvesanymore, the younger musicians, whocan earn money by their singing,should give back some of that moneyto their masters and in turn the oldmasters can stay at home and teachchildren how to play and sing, in thisway they will develop a very tightrelationship with their students.

Now when we have concerts we al-ways keep some money for Chuc andDe, because they are old and cannotalways go and perform with us. Bygiving back some money to theirmasters the students will also feel thatthey will not get abandoned whenthey get old, otherwise it is easy forthe masters to get envious towardstheir students when they no longercan go and earn money by perform-ing themselves.13

The musician’s responsibilities towardstheir master are important for Hue. Shethinks that if the old masters feel aban-doned by their former students they mightstop taking on new pupils. Giving a littleof their earnings from concerts to theirmaster and ensuring that they always, “havea seat and some green tea”, is the club’sway of showing them their respect. Hueherself does not get any money from theclub, even though she is the main teacher,as she thinks it is more important that hermasters get a share of the club’s modestearnings. In a few years’ time when moreof her students have done their gradua-

tion and when they have gotten the clubmore organised, Hue hopes they will beready to start calling the club a giao phuong.As a future larger organisation—that teach-es several kinds of traditional music—might be considered a potential rival tothe Vietnam National Academy of MusicI could not help asking Hue about herrelationship with the academy. Since I firstmet Hue, she has often expressed criti-cism towards the way the academy teach-es traditional music and she, in part, blamesthem that so few of its students under-stand ca tru and other traditional genres.

My wish when I was a student at theacademy, and still now when I’m teach-ing there, is that we could develop abasic music theory based on traditionalVietnamese music … now we teachtraditional music but all students, andeven I when I was a young, studiedWestern music theory. This makes usmisunderstand our own traditionalmusic; even now my students in theclub misunderstand many things.

Hue is not alone in her critique ofthe academy’s focus on Western musictheory and most of the academy teachersI have talked to have expressed similarconcerns (Nong, 2004; Göthlin & Wet-termark, 2008). Although Hue is scepticalabout parts of the academy curriculum,she continues to take most of her recruitsfrom the academy. I asked her if she thinksthat it will continue that way.

I think most of our students will comefrom the academy because they haveso many students, but … sometimesthey cannot find what they want atthe academy so those students whowant to play in a more traditional waycan come to us.

Hue sees the club, and the future giaophuong project, as a supplement to theacademy and in spite of her criticism shedoes not think that there will be any con-flicts between them and the academy.

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No, I don’t think so, I think that theclub is very good for the developmentof the academy because we help themto develop their students so that theycan live from their job and learn moreabout traditional music. We just helpeach other and if we can develop theclub in a good way I think the acade-my will change their ways.

If we can build a good club and thestudents there develop themselves, playwell and become masters, or even pro-fessors in the academy, then other stu-dents from the academy will look atthem and want to be like them.

Instead of actively trying to changethe department of traditional music,through her job as an academy teacher,Hue hopes that its teachers, students, andboard will get inspired by her students’progress and eventually change on theirown accord. The giao phuong is a long-term goal for Hue, one that she mightnot be able to realise for some time, butshe has grand hopes for it. One problemwith Hue’s plans is that the term giaophuong is still used by some ca tru musi-cians to describe different styles of ca tru,even though the actual guilds are longgone (Norton, 1996, 2001). Using it torefer to a new organisation—that in real-ity may not have that much in commonwith its old namesake—may lead to irri-tation for some in the ca tru community.Hue and her club might have been theVietnamese newspapers’ sweethearts dur-ing the last few years, but they have alsoreceived a lot of criticism.

Criticism

Hue and the Thang long ca tru club havebroken with many conventions in the catru community. Hue’s quick transition fromstudent to teacher, the fact that she, andsome of her female students, play the danday, and the sheer amount of students Hueis teaching are all things that have beencriticised by other ca tru musicians. Muchof this criticism can probably be put down

to rivalry between the different ca trugroups, a rivalry that has been going onsince before Hue started her club (Nor-ton, 1996, p. 14). However, some of thiscriticism is quite reasonable. When Huestarted the club she was more or less abeginner and taking on students after onlya year of study could have been seen asarrogant, at least in the eyes of more ex-perienced ca tru musicians. Although rea-sonable, and easy to do, before accusingHue of not being experienced enough toteach ca tru, or being arrogant towards thetradition, I think one should bear in mindthree things. First, Hue did study with twowell known and awarded ca tru musiciansthat both approved on Hue’s decision tostart teaching ca tru after only a year ofstudy. In Vietnam age and experience arehighly valued and the fact that Hue’s mas-ters supported her in her endeavour shouldbe to her advantage. Secondly, even thoughHue is now teaching ca tru in her club shehas not stopped studying herself. She doesnot claim to be an expert on everythingassociated with ca tru and is still develop-ing her skills as a dan day player and sing-er together with her masters. Thirdly, Hueis an experienced music teacher with awide range of knowledge about Vietnam-ese traditional music. Besides learning fromChuc and De, she has spent a lot of timelistening to, and learning about ca tru fromother well-known ca tru musicians in Ha-noi. I am not saying that there is not roomfor critique of Hue’s quick shift from stu-dent to teacher, but dismissing her justbecause of that seems a bit hasty. Anothercommon comment is that Hue, and herfemale students, should not play the danday because the instrument should be re-served for men14. Again, one should re-member that Nguyen Phu De acceptedHue as a dan day student even though sheis a woman and Hue has played similarstringed instruments for most of her life.The antagonism between the ca tru groupsin general, and the critique directed to-wards the Thang long ca tru club, is mainlyabout authenticity—who is doing it thecorrect way and who is doing it wrong—

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but sometimes there is money involved aswell. Hue recalls several times when theThang long ca tru club had been prom-ised a performance and was then told thatit had been cancelled, only to hear thatanother ca tru group had performed thereinstead. The media’s interest in the clubhas not always been to Hue’s, or the club’s,advantage. In 2009, a copyright-conflict,about the name Thang long ca tru club,broke out between Bach Van, the musicalleader of the Thang long ca tru theatre15,and Hue. At least one of the articles aboutthe conflict portrayed Hue as rather ob-sessed with the success of her club16

(Nguyen, 2009). When the club had tomove their rehearsals and concerts fromCong Vi dinh after a disagreement withthe board in October 2009, this was alsoreported about in the newspaper and, ac-cording to Hue, blown out of proportion(Ca tru Thang long mat cho, 2009). Get-ting the occasional bad press is probablyhard to avoid, but because of the limitednumber of paid performance opportuni-ties in Hanoi the reputation of the club isvery important for Hue and her students.When I talked to Hue in the beginningof January 2010 she said that she thoughtthe club had become more accepted dur-ing the last year and she was now, onceagain, on speaking terms with one musi-cian that had more or less stopped talkingto her after she started the club. Shethought that the reason for this was thatthe attention that her club has receivedhas led to more attention to ca tru in gen-eral, and that has benefited everyone inthe ca tru community.

Theoretical approaches to teaching inthe Thang long ca tru club

Hue bases most of her teaching in the clubon her own experience as a teacher andmusician, however, much of what the clubdoes can be connected to modern researchin music education. It seems useful to con-sider a few elements of teaching in theclub that I believe are of special impor-tance. One important aspect that pervades

music instruction in the club is the closeconnection between performing and teach-ing, notably in the form of the monthlyconcert in which all students are expectedto participate. Hue wants her students tobecome professional musicians, thereforethe education is centred on performanceand musicianship, not only learning to singor play the dan day. Even the exercises thatHue has devised to make learning moreefficient are made with this notion in mind;a new student should be able to partici-pate in the club’s concerts as quickly aspossible. This connection is easily over-looked in the academy, where the focususually on technique, assessment and ex-ams, not always leaving time for publicperformances. Hue’s reality-centred meth-ods resonate well with Roger Säljö’s (2000)theories about situated learning. Accord-ing to Säljö, the context of learning—which is created by the participants’ cog-nitive and communicative abilities as wellas the historical and physical backdrop—is essential for our ability to use what wehave learned in other contexts. Säljö issceptical about the approach— often ad-vocated in institutionalised teaching envi-ronments, such as the academy— that aspecific skill learned in a specific contextis supposed to be immediately transfera-ble to a new context and situation. Thatkind of ‘transfer’ is, according to Säljö, lesseffective than is usually assumed (2000, p.142). With this point in mind, the clubseems to have the upper hand on the acad-emy from several perspectives. By constant-ly linking its education to the concert sit-uation and everything connected with it—writing programmes, doing presentations,taking care of payments, sound and lights—Hue’s students are not only learning toplay their instruments, they learn to be-come professional musicians. Furthermore,most of the lessons take place in the samesetting as many of their concerts, in thedinh. Teaching in the club is thus situatedin a similar context, as the location theyare likely to perform in later on, as well asin an historical and physical context ofsome importance for ca tru. Compared to

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students only familiar with the academycontext— where they seldom get to ar-range their own concerts or encounter tra-ditional music milieus—the club’s studentsshould have an advantage when they em-bark on their careers as professional musi-cians. Hue is not altogether opposed towhat the students learn in the academy,and she is, after all, part of the academystaff. To help her students to consolidatewhat they learn in the academy and whatthey learn in the club and through per-formances, Hue encourage them to dis-cuss their experiences, which may be seenas a form of reflective practice. In muchpedagogical literature, reflection is de-scribed as a crucial method for change anddevelopment (see for example, Burnard &Hennessy, 2006). Reflection can be a wayof developing skills as musician, connect-ing knowledge from different fields intoone’s learning, and a way to create mean-ing from what is learned. Hue and herstudents’ discussions and reflections cantherefore help them to bridge the gap be-tween ‘academy (or club)-teaching’ and‘real-world performing’. Their often rath-er philosophical conversation about hap-piness, musicianship and life in a similarway help the students to develop their iden-tities as musicians and citizens in a coun-try where money and personal success havebecome the main concerns. By learningto reflect on music, learning and society,Hue’s students will be better prepared tohandle their roles both as students in theacademy and as future professional musi-cians in Vietnam. The Thang long ca truclub positions itself in between the insti-tutionalised teaching in the academy andthe older models of teaching through im-mersion and apprenticeship; borrowingfrom both but conforming to neither. Inhis new book Facing the Music: Shaping MusicEducation from a Global Perspective, HuibSchippers (2010) writes about this transi-tion from “traditional” community settingto academy setting as follows17:

Much learning of music has depend-ed partially or entirely on community

settings. These stimulating learning en-vironments are vulnerable. Whilemany long to restore these, often glo-balized and mediatised societies havemoved on. Then the complex task ofrecontextualising these transmissionprocesses into formal environmentsbegins. Traditional musics have to con-sider adapting their systems of trans-mission to new realities, while con-servatories can find inspiration inmethods of world music transmissionand learning that adhere less strictlyto a single idea of the truth, notation,structure, and authenticity and putgreater responsibility on the student.In that sense, with a little creativity,some of the practices that were onceregarded as “primitive” or “preliter-ate” because they had not developednotation, explicit theories, and curric-ula can now be considered cutting-edge examples of innovative approach-es to music learning and teaching andhelp higher music education carve aniche in the musical complexities ofthe twenty-first century (p. 117).

The giao phuong system in Hanoi brokedown many years ago and the continua-tion of family traditions that had since beenthe foundation of ca tru teaching are nolonger a given. Groups like the Thang longca tru club can definitely help to fill thevoid that is left when the old teachingsystems break down. With a change oftransmission setting and methods comesalso changes to the music. Individuals,guilds, families and academies have all lefttheir imprint on the music they teach andso will the Thang long ca tru club on catru. As Schippers says, the society hasmoved on and attempts of reconstructionand recontextualisation have to take thisinto consideration to be successful. Hue’sthoughts about the need to make changesand adaptations for ca tru to continue tobe interesting for the modern day audi-ence reflect similar principles. The acade-my in Hanoi has yet to officially recog-nize the value of older teaching methods.

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Nevertheless, Hue is not the only teacherin the academy that encourages her stu-dents to improvise and learn by ear ratherthan simply play the notated versions inthe official textbooks. Among the young-er academy teachers whom I have talkedto there seems to be an awareness of thedifferences—positive and negative—be-tween teaching methods inside and out-side of the academy. I am confident thatthere will be more exchange and interestin music and methods between the acad-emy and outside music groups in the fu-ture, but—as often is with any institution—real change will take time.

Conclusions

When Hue and I begun our conversa-tions leading up to this article I got theimpression that Hue held a very conserv-ative position regarding ca tru. However,when I started to look at what she wasactually doing, I realised that she has aquite pragmatic view on ca tru teachingand tradition. In her club she has chosento teach in a different way from how shewas taught herself. Without dismissing theneed for long-term interaction with amaster musician, she has created a meth-od that she considers to be more efficientthan the old ways. Her methods are, with-out doubt, influenced by her work as anacademy teacher, but also from her yearsof experience learning cheo (theatre mu-sic), tai tu and ca tru by immersion andimitation. Hue is not trying to change catru by her personal whims; rather she doesit using the same practical approach asshe has done with her teaching methods.A similar strain of thought can be foundin an article by Huib Schippers (2006)entitled Tradition, authenticity and context: thecase for a dynamic approach, in which heincludes a model of a dynamic and “com-monsense view on context” (p. 346). Thatmodel, which shows recontextualisingfrom original to new contexts throughfour steps, reads like this: “What is rele-vant there/then?—What is relevant here/now?—What is feasible (in practical

terms)?—What can/should be added?” (p.346). I think this model is applicable tomany things that Hue and the club aredoing, whether it is the reinvention of thegiao phuong, the teaching methods, or theway they play in their ensembles. If Huebelieves something in ca tru was relevant—like showing respect to your master—and if it still is relevant and feasible shewill argue that the club should keep ondoing it; but when something was rele-vant in the past—like some of the rules inthe giao phuong—and it is not relevant oreven feasible any more, she discards it. Onecould ask why Hue, if she has such a prac-tical approach to teaching and tradition,wants the club to construct a giao phuong,as it will, in essence, be doing the samething as the club is doing now. I thinkthat Hue and her club see the giao phuongas a way of reconnecting to a past thatwas lost during years of war and occupa-tion. In the last paragraph in one of hisarticles, Barley Norton (2005, p. 48) writesabout ca tru enthusiasts using the music asa way of remembering the past.

The nostalgia for ca tru is a patrioticform of nostalgia, in which outsideinfluences, including the French co-lonial presence, is erased from mem-ory. Patriotic nostalgia is a narrativeof pure Vietnameseness, a longing fora utopian past.

It is obvious that the club’s giao phuongwill be different from their namesake inthe past, but the use of the old name cangive the members a sense of authenticity,or Vietnameseness, that “club” cannot. Theclub’s grand plans for a giao phuong mightbe well into the future but their attemptsto gain a new audience for ca tru has beena more immediate success18. The club’saudience evening-classes are a very goodexample of taking action and actively try-ing to change a situation that is not goingto resolve itself. Their cooperation withpoets like Anh and their willingness toconnect with young people looking fortheir roots, like Thang, will hopefully re-

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sult in a new enthusiastic ca tru audiencefor the club. In the end, these first stepsmay lead to that ca tru musicians, onceagain, can develop their art in active in-teraction with knowledgeable and skilledlisteners.

By breaking with many of the con-ventions in the ca tru community Hue, andthe Thang long ca tru club, have creatednew possibilities for ca tru in Hanoi. Huehas tried to balance changes that she thinksare necessary for the survival of ca tru withwhat she considers being its essentials.Although, from the criticism she and herclub have received, it is obvious that thereis no consensus about these matters. Viet-nam is not the only country in the worldwhere musicians are challenging old con-ventions and traditions to find a place fortheir “old” music in the “new” world. JaliAlagi Mbye’s reasons to challenge theMandinka music tradition in Gambia, byteaching children to play the kora (a West-African harp) regardless of gender or her-itage, are strikingly similar to Hue’s rea-sons for setting up her club in Vietnam,and I am convinced that there are manymore examples from around the world(Saether, 2003, pp. 101–104). In his 1996thesis, Barley Norton wrote that hethought ca tru needed “a more radical re-vival … to survive” (1996, p. 38), than thefew workshops conducted in the early1990s. There have been more ca tru work-shops since then (Norton, 2005), and catru has become more popular since the1990s, but the Thang long ca tru club mustbe one of the most radical things that hashappened in ca tru education for a longtime. I am looking forward to see and hearmore about the club’s progress and I hopethat they and other ca tru performers inHanoi will have a growing audience fortheir music.

Notes

[1] The fieldwork leading up to this article was made

possible thanks to the Sida, Swedish international

development agency, exchange project between the

Vietnam National Academy of Music and the Malmö

Academy of Music (Sweden). Many thanks to Pham

Thi Hue and the Thang long ca tru club, Dr. Eva

Saether for comments and advice on writing this

text, Dr. Håkan Lundström, Jasmine Hornabrook,

and not least, Pia Qvarnström and the rest of the

members of the Swedish-Vietnamese music group

[Ojzaioj].

[2] Nha Nhac (Court music) in 2003, “The space

of gong culture” (gong ensembles among the high-

land minorities) in 2005, and Ca tru and Quan ho(an antiphonal song tradition) in 2009 (The Intan-

gible Heritage Lists, 2009).

[3] Vietnamese is a tonal language that uses dia-

critics on top of, or under, the words to indicate

the tone. Due to editorial issues I have refrained

from using diacritics in this text but I have tried to

keep as close as possible to the Vietnamese spell-

ing of the words. However, for the names of the

Thang long ca tru club and the Thang long ca tru

theatre I have chosen to use their own English ver-

sions of their names.

[4] The term “club” can have a broader meaning

in Vietnam than in, at least, the UK and Sweden.

It can both refer to a group of people with similar

interest and, in the case of some of the ca tru clubs,

to a professional or semi-professional group of

musicians.

[5] Thang long ca tru club is not the only club

teaching ca tru, well known groups such as Ca tru

Thai ha, and individual musicians, like the famous

singer Kim Duc, also teach students, but not on

the same scale as the Thang long ca tru club. As

far as I am aware, no other groups have as their

goal that their students should become professional

musicians.

[6] The formal decision to apply for ca tru to be-

come an UNESCO intangible cultural heritage was

taken by the Vietnamese ministry of culture and

information in May 2005 (Pham, 2005).

[7] There are several other music theatres that per-

form traditional music for tourists in Hanoi; none

of them features ca tru. The other theatres are spon-

sored by the Vietnamese government but the Thang

long ca tru theatre is a private enterprise.

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[8] Notably the members of Ca tru Thai ha (Nor-

ton, 1996, 2001).

[9] The article is mainly based on interviews and

recorded conversations with Pham Thi Hue in Feb-

ruary and March 2009. The interviews were made

in English and all the quotes have been altered for

readability and clarity; Hue has had the opportuni-

ty to confirm these changes so that nothing essen-

tial has been changed. If not noted otherwise all

quotes are taken from those interviews.

[10] Hat noi is a central piece in the ca tru reper-

toire but poems in the Hat noi metre does not au-

tomatically imply a connection to ca tru singing

(Le, 1998).

[11] When using formal in this case I mean that

they did not use scales, etudes or any other meth-

ods that we connect to music education in acade-

mies and schools. See Folkestad (2006) for a fur-

ther discussion on formal and informal teaching

situations.

[12] In this case Hue is comparing learning from a

master with learning music in the academy, where

everything is written down and accounted for in

practice books and study plans. I do not think she

would disagree with the argument that just because

there is no explicit method that does not mean that

there is no method at all.

[13] Hue is speaking in general terms. I doubt that

Chuc and De are teaching Hue only because of the

small amount of money they get from the clubs’

concerts.

[14] Hue usually answers that critique by referring

to a few old woodcuts possibly showing women danday players.

[15] Since then Bach Van has left the theatre (Tran,

2009), and, according to Hue, it closed down in

late 2009.

[16] The article also contained criticism from Nguy-

en Phu De against Hue’s and Bach Van’s behav-

iour. He accused them of having “taken a simple

matter and turned it into a big fuss” (Nguyen,

2009). Such a comment from her master may have

been very embarrassing for Hue.

[17] Schippers has visited Hue and her students

on several occasions and some of those meetings

are also accounted for in his book and articles

(Schippers, 2009, 2010). Ca tru is one of the gen-

res that are studied in a new international research

project, Sustainable futures for music cultures—towards an ecology of musical diversity, initiated

by Schippers.

[18] In late March 2010 Hue decided that the club

was to start to call itself a giao phuong. At the time

of publication of this article I have not yet heard

any comments about how this was received by oth-

ers in the ca tru community.

References

Arana, M. 1999. Neotraditional music in Vietnam.

Ohio: Nhac Viet.

Burnard, P., & Hennessy, S. Eds. 2006. Reflective

practices in arts education. Dordrecht: Springer.

Ca tru Thang Long mat cho. 2009. Retrieved Feb-

ruary 2, 2010 from http://www.tinmoi.vn/Ca-tru-

Thang-Long-mat-chohellip-ca-1064525.html

Folkestad, G. 2006. Formal and informal learning

situations or practices vs formal and informal ways

of learning. British Journal of Music Education 23

(2), 135–145.

Göthlin, O., & Wettermark, E. 2008. Excursions in

Vietnamese music – genres, notation and reper-

toire. Unpublished bachelor thesis. Malmö: Malmö

Academy of Music.

Le, T. H. 1998. Dan Tranh music of Vietnam –

traditions and innovations. Melbourne/Tokyo: Aus-

tral Asia foundation.

Nguyen, D. P. 2005 [1923]. A treatise about A

Dao singing. Bulletin of the Vietnamese Institute

for Musicology 15, 86–102.

Nguyen, Y. 2009. Ca tru artists spar over name of

center. Retrieved February 2, 2010 from http://

www.thanhniennews.com/enter ta iments /

?catid=6&newsid=47836

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Norton, B. 1996. Ca tru – a Vietnamese chamber

music genre. Nhac Viet – the journal of Vietnam-

ese music. Ohio: Nhac Viet.

Norton, B. 2001. Sleeve notes on. Ca tru - the

music of North Vietnam [CD]. The Hanoi Ca tru

Thai Ha Ensemble. UK: Broadbank.

Norton, B. 2005. Singing the past: Vietnamese Ca

tru, memory, and mode. Asian Music 36 (2), 27–56.

Nong, T. N. 2004. Advantages and challenges

posed by globalization in education of traditional

music in Vietnam. Paper presented at the 2004

conference, “Traditional music in globalization con-

text”, organised by the Vietnamese Institute for

Musicology and printed in: Scientific conference:

Traditional music in globalization context (pp. 386–

387). Hanoi: Vietnam Institute for Musicology.

Pham, Q. N. 2005. Decision issued by the minis-

ter of ministry of culture and information. Bulletin

of Vietnamese Institute for Musicology 15, 5–6.

Saether, E. 2003. The oral university: Attitudes to

teaching and learning in the Gambia. Malmö:

Malmö Academy of Music.

Schippers, H. 2006. Tradition, authenticity and

context: the case for a dynamic approach. British

Journal of Music Education 23 (3), 333–349.

Schippers, H. 2009. Ecologies of creative diversi-

ty. Griffith Review, 23. Retrieved January 4, 2010

from http://www.griffithreview.com/edition-23-es-

sentiallycreative/210/572.html

Schippers, H. 2010. Facing the music. Shaping

music education from a global perspective. New

York: Oxford University Press.

Säljö, R. 2000. Lärande i praktiken. Ett sociokul-

turellt perspektiv. Stockholm: Norstedts Akadem-

iska Förlag.

The Intangible Heritage Lists. 2009. Retrieved

February 2, 2010 from http://www.unesco.org/cul-

ture/ich/en/lists/

Tran, T. 2009. Quanh viec Bach Van bo Ca tru Thang

Long. Retrieved February 2, 2010 from http://

www.tienphong.vn/tianyon/index.aspx?articleid=

174269&channelid=7#top

Tran, V. K. 2005 [1960]. A Dao Singing. Bulletin

of the Vietnamese Institute for Musicology 15, 131–

151.

To, N. T. 1999. Documents of Vietnam’s court

music. Hanoi: Vietnam Institute of Musicology.

Abstrakti

Esbjörn Wettermark“Thang long ca trù club –uusia lähestymistapoja vanhaanmusiikkiin”

Pohjois-vietnamilainen kamarimusiikin lajica trù on ollut Vietnamissa häviämisen ra-joilla, ja sitä ovat pitäneet elossa vain muu-tama esiintyjä ja musiikkiklubi. Ca trù-koulutuksen tilanne Hanoissa muuttuimerkittävästi kun Pham Thi Hue aloittiuuden ca trù -klubin vuoden 2006 lopulla.Hänen klubinsa, the Thang long ca trùclub, ilmaisee tavoitteekseen kouluttaa am-mattimaisia ca trù -muusikoita ja auttaasäilyttämään ca trù -musiikki. Vuosina 2009ja 2010 tehtyjen haastattelujen avulla ar-tikkelin kirjoittaja pyrkii kuvaamaan Huennäkemyksiä traditioon, muutokseen, kas-vatukseen ja musikkouteen työssään opet-tajana ja ca trù -esiintyjänä. Artikkeli tar-kastelee myös klubin suhdetta Vietnaminkansalliseen musiikkiakatemiaan (VietnamNational Academy of Music) sekä osaa siitäkritiikistä, jota Thang long ca trù -klubion kohdannut alusta alkaen. Kaiken kaik-kiaan artikkeli pyrkii osoittamaan, kuinkamusiikkikasvatus voi johtaa muutokseenja häviämässä olevan musiikin lajin kestä-vyyteen muuttuvassa vietnamilaisessa yh-teiskunnassa.

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igher education music insti-tutions in Northern Europehave become internationallyknown for their effective andinnovative approaches in re-cent years, particularly whenit comes to such subjects asconducting, European folk

music, jazz studies, and even popular mu-sic pedagogy. However, with the excep-tion of just a few institutions in Sweden(specifically, Gothenburg, Malmö andStockholm), music academies in the Nor-dic region have generally been rather slowto develop programs for the teaching andlearning of non-European music and in-tercultural aspects of the meeting betweenEuropean and non-European music in thespheres of musicianship, pedagogy and re-search. Meanwhile, European societies havebeen rapidly changing, as Europe becomesboth more integrated and culturally di-verse (Allemann-Ghionda, 2009; Starkey& Osler, 2009), and at the same time newforms of music are emerging as a conse-quence of cross-cultural contact and pio-neering forms of artistic collaboration. Inthis article, which is partly based on a re-cent conference presentation (Hebert,2010), we are pleased to announce a newprogram that seeks to open up this fieldin Europe through international collabo-ration and sharing of resources amongmusic institutions in three Nordic coun-tries: the Master of Global Music (GLO-MAS) program, which is scheduled tobegin in Autumn, 2010. The GLOMASprogram was conceived and launchedwithin the context of the Glomus Net-work, which is an international networkamong a select group of Nordic higher

David G. Hebert, Tuovi Martinsen & Keld Hosbond

Launching the NordicMaster of Global MusicProgram

Heducation academies and their partner in-stitutions.

Glomus Network for Higher MusicEducation

The Glomus Network is an internationalnetwork for higher education in globalmusic and related arts. As we explain onits website, “Founded by three Nordichigher education academies of music, theGLOMUS network aims to develop col-laborative projects to enhance: (1) inter-cultural communication, (2) knowledgesharing, (3) capacity building and organi-zational development, and (4) musical in-teraction for mutual inspiration and inno-vation” (Glomus Network, n.d.). The rangeof activities associated with the GlomusNetwork is rather broad, including:

(1) Exchanges and fieldwork,(2) Online networking,(3) Annual Glomus camp,(4) Tours (which may be of eitherperformers or lecturers), and(5) Database of relatedresearch projects.

The founding partners of the GlomusNetwork include the Royal Academy ofMusic, Aarhus (in Denmark), Lund Uni-versity’s Malmö Academy of Music (inSweden), and Sibelius Academy, (in Fin-land). There are several prospective part-ner institutions from outside Europe, withwhom formal agreements have alreadybeen finalized or are currently under ne-gotiation, including the Higher Instituteof Music in Syria, University of Cape Town,University of Ghana in Accra, University

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of Cape Coast (Ghana), Eduardo Mond-lane University (Mozambique), the Con-servatoire des Arts et Métiers Multimédi-as (in Bamako, Mali), and the Edward SaidNational Conservatory of Music in Pales-tine. New additions to the Glomus Net-work include some prominent Americaninstitutions: the Butler School of Musicof the University of Texas at Austin, theBoston University School of Music, andthe Manhattan School of Music.

Master of Global Music (GLOMAS)Program

Within the context of the Glomus Net-work, which will enhance the ease ofmobility and international exchange ofboth music students and teachers, thefounding institutions have also launcheda new Master of Global Music program(GLOMAS). Below is the text we collab-oratively developed within the steeringcommittee to explain this new programon its website (Glomas: Global MusicMaster Degree, n.d.):

The Master of Global Music (GLOMAS)is a joint study programme offered in collabora-tion between higher education music academiesin three nations: Royal Academy of Music(Aarhus, Denmark), Lund University, MalmöAcademy of Music (Malmo, Sweden), and Si-belius Academy (Helsinki, Finland). The pro-gramme leads to a Master degree according toeach institution’s regulations and national leg-islation. GLOMAS is a highly innovative, inter-disciplinary programme that is responsive tonew needs arising from globalization in thefield of music. The programme emphasizes de-velopment of “bimusical” performance skills(typically within at least two traditions fromdifferent parts of the world), as well as studiesof topics relevant to the career of a professionalmusician, including such areas as musical lead-ership and instructional skills, project manage-ment, and applied research.

The two-year programme (120 ECTS /150 ECTS in Finland) is flexible to accom-modate diverse student specializations at theirhome institutions through elective courses anda final project based on personal interests. At

the same time, it is united by a core curriculumof required studies offered jointly through a com-bination of face-to-face and online courses. Stu-dents will occasionally be expected to travel tothe other member institutions for joint courses,and will do fieldwork studies (typically duringyear 2 of their degree) at locations either out-side the Nordic region or among ethnic minor-ity communities in Nordic nations. Upon en-trance to this programme, students will join anonline network developed for the programme tofacilitate communication across the three mem-ber institutions as well as with advanced stu-dents and faculty “in the field” who are alreadydoing music research or performance projectsoutside Nordic nations or among ethnic minor-ity communities in the Nordic region.

Graduates from this Master degree pro-gramme will demonstrate: (1) a high level ofcomprehensive musicianship that transcendscultural boundaries, (2) knowledge of both tra-ditional and contemporary hybrid music genres,in and outside of Europe, (3) an ability to ef-fectively lead music ensembles, communicate andteach music across a diversity of formal andinformal settings, and (4) an ability to success-fully develop, document and manage intercul-tural music projects. The GLOMAS programmeseeks to play a transformative role at the levelof both individual students and Nordic society,by broadening musicianship and enhancing bothintercultural understanding and lifelong musiclearning, inside and outside of schools.

Rationale for the GLOMASProgram

This new international-collaborative Mas-ter degree program seeks through highereducation to foster innovative forms of“bimusical” musicianship and intercultur-al understanding, and is offered as a stra-tegic educational response to music glo-balization, as well as to the rapidly chang-ing student demographics in urban schoolswithin the Nordic region (Saether, 2008).It may also be understood as arising atleast partly through a growing understand-ing of the changing musical and educa-tional needs in Africa and the Middle East,and recognition of Europe’s obligation to

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develop nurturing partnerships with thesouthern hemisphere. In recent decades,the national strategies of Nordic coun-tries have placed greater emphasis on in-ternationalisation, and national ministriessee the importance of supporting multi-cultural initiatives, a position that extendsto educational programs. Education is seenas a tool for community development andsocial integration, while internationalisa-tion is also viewed as advantageous interms of both economic and diplomaticobjectives (Finnish Ministry of Education,2009). Nordic countries also desire to carrya significant share of global responsibilityto support the capacity building of devel-oping countries in such spheres as highereducation and culture, including music. Inthis way, the ethical dimensions of demo-cratic pluralism have also informed thedevelopment of this program with an un-derlying commitment to social justice andcommunity development (Heimonen &Hebert, 2010), yet also—from a much dif-ferent set of values—the program is si-multaneously informed by a very practi-cal awareness of the field of “world mu-sic” as a rapidly developing new sector ofthe global music industry (Womex, n.d.).It has been a uniquely complex task tobalance between the diverse kinds ofmotivations and opportunities that fuelledinterest in developing a new program ofthis kind, and to negotiate its curriculumdesign, admissions process, and eventuallaunch across collaborating music institu-tions in three different nations.

GLOMAS Auditions and Intothe Future

We are pleased to report that many out-standing musicians applied to the programin the spring of 2010, with an especiallylarge number at the Sibelius Academy.Auditioning musicians came to us from awide variety of musical and cultural back-grounds, including a flamenco guitaristwith experience playing the Arabic oud,an experienced performer of the Kurdishsaz, a singer and dancer who has been

inspired by living in Ghana, an avant gardejazz trumpeter with experience in Indianmusic, a Tanzanian drummer and dancer,a harpist-songwriter influenced by musicof the Andes mountains, specialists in Bra-zilian percussion, a fiddler and a kanteleplayer, to name but a few examples. Thelaunch and ongoing development of theNordic Master of Global Music program isa challenge for the involved academies—both on the teaching side (raising ques-tions like “how do we hire highly compe-tent teachers in a variety of non-Europe-an instruments, and what should be thefocus of their teaching?”) and on the or-ganisational side (“in which departmentdo we place cross-disciplinary pro-grammes?”). At the same time, this im-portant project has been a great source ofinspiration for the curriculum develop-ment of pre-existing programs, and weremain convinced that by raising the over-all level of cultural diversity and aware-ness of global musics, we definitely con-tribute to the development of a moreopen-minded, stimulating, and inclusivelearning environment for everyone at themusic academies.

References

Allemann-Ghionda, C. (2009). From intercultural

education to the inclusion of diversity: Theories and

policies in Europe. In J. A. Banks (Ed.), Routledge

international companion to multicultural education

(pp.134-145). London: Routledge.

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Saether, E. (2008). When minorities are the ma-

jority: Voices from a teacher/researcher project in

a multicultural school in Sweden. Research Stud-

ies in Music Education, 30(1), 25-42.

Starkey, H. & Osler, A. (2009). Democracy, antira-

cism, and citizenship education: European policy

and political complacency. In J. A. Banks (Ed.),

Routledge international companion to multicultur-

al education (pp. 348-359). London: Routledge.

Womex (n.d.). http://www.womex.com/

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onimuotoinen musiikki -han-ke toteutettiin vuosien 2007ja 2008 aikana, ja sen tehtä-vänä oli kartoittaa suomalai-sen musiikkikasvatuksen jamusiikkielämän eri kohderyh-mien nykytilanne ja kehittä-mistarpeet. Kohderyhmiä oli-

vat vähemmistökulttuurit, maahanmuut-tajat, erilaiset oppijat sekä syrjäytymisu-han alla olevat ja syrjäytyneet. Opetusmi-nisteriön tukemaa hanketta hallinnoi Suo-men musiikkineuvosto, ja sen toteuttaja-na toimi Suomen musiikkioppilaitostenliitto (SML). Hanketta varten koottu asi-antuntijaryhmä auttoi hankkeen suunnit-telemisessa ja toteuttamisessa. Kerätyn tie-don perusteella asiantuntijaryhmän jäsenetlaativat toimenpide-ehdotukset kunkinkohderyhmän tarpeisiin. Toimenpide-eh-dotuksille haettiin rahoitusta opetusminis-teriöstä.

Musiikkielämän eri kohderyhmiennykytilan ja kehittämistarpeiden selvittä-miseksi tehtiin kysely, joka lähetettiin säh-köpostin välityksellä laajalle musiikkitoi-mijoiden joukolle. Kyselyyn voi vastatamyös SML:n internet-sivuilla. Jotta vas-taajaotos olisi ollut mahdollisimman kat-tava, haastateltiin tämän lisäksi yksi mu-siikillinen toimija jokaisesta kohderyhmäs-tä. Hankkeen kuluessa osoittautui vaikeaksitavoittaa toimijoita, jotka työskentelivätsaamelaisten ja romanien parissa. Syvähaas-tattelussa kävi ilmi, että romaniväestönmonikulttuurisia haasteita ja kehittämis-kohteita ovat muun muassa pääväestön jaromanien keskinäinen verkostoituminen,romanimusiikin ja -muusikoiden osaamis-tason kohottaminen sekä romanilahjak-kuuksien löytäminen, esiin nostaminen jatukeminen. Oli myös haastavaa saada tie-toa syrjäytymisuhan alla olevien kohde-

Laura Miettinen

Monimuotoinen musiikki-hanke

Mryhmältä, varsinkin vanhuksilta ja työttö-miltä. Yksi syy tähän oli mahdollisesti se,että näille ryhmille järjestetty musiikkitoi-minta on kovin vähäistä. Moni vastaaja,joka valitsi syrjäytyneet kohderyhmäkseen,työskenteli kehitysvammaisten, mielenter-veyskuntoutujien, lasten tai nuorten pa-rissa. Siksi nämä kyseiset vastaukset otet-tiin huomioon erilaisten oppijoiden ja var-haisiän musiikkikasvatuksen toimenpide-ehdotuksissa.

Tulokset

Kyselyyn saatiin 181 vastausta eri puolel-ta Suomea. Perustietojen lisäksi (toimi,koulutus, toiminta-alue, työpaikka ja koh-deryhmä, jonka kanssa vastaaja ensisijai-sesti toimii) vastaajilta kysyttiin heidänoman musiikkialueensa koulutustilanteesta,oman koulutuksen vastaavuudesta työelä-män vaatimuksiin, jatko- ja täydennyskou-lutuksen sekä opetuksen ja opetusmateri-aalin kehittämistarpeista, opetuksen järjes-tämisestä sekä oman toimintaympäristönhenkisestä asenteesta ja suvaitsevaisuudestamonikulttuurisuutta kohtaan. Kyselynavoimissa kysymyksissä vastaajat saivatkertoa oman ammattinsa haasteista suh-teessa monikulttuurisuuteen sekä ehdot-taa ideoita oman musiikkialueensa kehit-tämiseksi.

Vastaajista 54 prosenttia ilmoitti Ete-lä-Suomen läänin pääasialliseksi toimin-ta-alueekseen. Toiseksi yleisin toiminta-alue oli Länsi-Suomen lääni (25%). Seu-raavina olivat järjestyksessä Itä-Suomen(8%), Oulun (5%) ja Lapin (2%) läänit.Kuusi prosenttia vastaajista työskenteliuseammassa kuin yhdessä läänissä. Vastaa-jista 40 prosenttia työskenteli suomenkie-lisen valtaväestön parissa kouluissa tai seu-rakunnissa, kun taas 29 prosenttia työs-

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kenteli erilaisten oppijoiden parissa. Pie-nempiä vastaajaryhmiä olivat syrjäytynei-den (11%), maahanmuuttajien (8%), vä-hemmistökulttuurien (6%) ja suomenruot-salaisten (6%) parissa työskentelevät. Huo-mattava määrä vastaajista, noin 25 prosent-tia, työskenteli useamman kuin yhdenkohderyhmän parissa.

Vastaajat näkivät edustamansa musiik-kialan nykytilan pääosin kohtalaisena taihyvänä. Kysyttäessä minkälaiseksi omanmusiikkialueen ammattilaisten koulutus-volyymi koettiin suhteessa työtilanteeseenmielipiteet hajosivat selkeästi. 44 prosent-tia vastaajista piti koulutusvolyymia riittä-vänä, kun taas 26 prosenttia piti sitä liianvähäisenä. 18 prosenttia vastanneista näkikoulutusvolyymin jopa liian suurena. Lii-an vähäiseksi koulutusvolyymia luonneh-tivat kohderyhmistä selkeimmin erilaistenoppijoiden ja syrjäytyneiden parissa työs-kentelevät.

Kaiken kaikkiaan 50 prosenttia vas-taajista näki, että heidän ammatillinen kou-lutuksena vastasi työelämän vaatimuksiajoko kohtalaisesti tai heikosti. Siksi ei oleyllättävää, että 88 prosenttia vastaajista pitijatkokoulutuksen ja täydennyskoulutuksenkehittämistä joko hyvin tärkeänä tai tär-keänä. On kuitenkin huomionarvoista, ettätoimijoiden oman koulutuksen vastaavuustyöelämään nähtiin kohderyhmien parissatyöskenneltäessä yleisesti ottaen kohtalai-sena tai hyvänä. Vastausten mukaan omantoimintaympäristön henkinen asenne mo-nikulttuurisuutta kohtaan koettiin yleen-sä hyvänä tai melko hyvänä joka puolellaSuomea, positiivisimpana Etelä-Suomessa.Vastaajien työympäristön suvaitsevaisuusarvioitiin keskimäärin hyväksi tai kohta-laiseksi. Hieman positiivisemmin asiaansuhtautuivat vastaajat, jotka työskenteliväterilaisten oppijoiden tai suomenruotsalais-ten parissa.

Vastaukset sisälsivät joitakin kehitys-tarpeita, jotka olivat yhteisiä kaikille koh-deryhmille. Näitä olivat jatkokoulutuksenja täydennyskoulutuksen kehittäminen,uuden opetusmateriaalin tarve ja parem-pien monikulttuuristen kanssakäymistai-tojen kehittäminen. Vastauksista näkyi huoli

muusikko-musiikkikasvattajien toimeentu-losta. Moni vastaajista toivoi myös, ettäkoulut pystyisivät tarjoamaan riittävää jamonimuotoista taiteen perusopetusta. Yh-teistyö opetusministeriön kulttuuri- jaopetushallinnon välillä nähtiin tärkeänäosana monimuotoisen musiikkikasvatusjär-jelmän kehittämistä. Kulttuurin rahoituk-seen liittyen moni vastaaja kaipasi kult-tuurialan ja sosiaali- ja terveysalan välistäyhteistyötä sekä uusia kulttuuritoiminnanrahoitusmahdollisuuksia.

Toimenpide-ehdotukset

SML:n kokoama asiantuntijaryhmä valmis-teli kyselyvastausten ja oman asiantunti-juutensa pohjalta maahanmuuttajia, saame-laisia, suomenkielistä valtaväestöä ja suo-menruotsalaisia, erilaisia oppijoita ja var-haisiän musiikkikasvatusta koskevat toi-menpide-ehdotukset, joiden toteuttamisek-si haettiin rahoitusta opetusministeriöltä.

Kyselyvastausten perusteella maahan-muuttajat tarvitsevat lisää pedagogista jamuuta ammatillista koulutusta. Syrjäyty-misen uhka on keskeinen ongelma var-sinkin maahamuuttajalasten keskuudessa,ja tämä voi johtua esimerkiksi musiikki-oppilaitosten korkeista maksuista tai las-ten kulttuurisesta taustasta, joka estää heitäosallistumasta musiikinopetukseen kouluis-sa tai musiikkioppilaitoksissa. Maahan-muuttajien kohderyhmän toimenpide-eh-dotuksia olivat muusikoiden pedagoginenkoulutusohjelma ja tuutorointi.

Saamelaisten kanssa työskentelevätmusiikin ammattilaiset ovat huolissaanperinteisen saamelaismusiikin säilymises-tä. Haasteina nähdään erityisesti päteviensaamenkielisten opettajien, opetussuunni-telmien ja opetusmateriaalin puute. Saa-melaisten kohderyhmän toimenpide-ehdo-tukseksi asiantuntijat suosittivat saamelais-musiikin oppimateriaalihanketta.

Suomenkielisen valtaväestön ja suo-menruotsalaisten keskuudessa erityisinäkehitysalueina nähdään maailman ja vä-hemmistöjen musiikkikulttuurien koulu-tus, eri musiikkityylien ja soitinten hallin-ta, yrittäjyys- ja arts management –taidot,

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saatavilla olevan opetuksen ja oppimate-riaalin maanlaajuinen kartoittaminen sekäkansanmusiikin integroiminen populaari-kulttuurin kanssa. Kohderyhmien toimen-pide-ehdotuksia olivat Monikulttuurinenvuorovaikutus musiikin ja tanssin keinoin–koulutusohjelma sekä monikulttuurisenmusiikintutkimuksen, kehittämistyön jaoppimateriaalin kartoitus.

Erilaisten oppijoiden näkökulmastakatsottuna kulttuurin ja musiikin palvelu-jen tavoitettavuus on avainasemassa. Vas-taajat, jotka toimivat erityispedagogiikanparissa, työskentelivät joko musiikkitera-peutteina tai musiikkikasvattajina. Enitenkentällä kaivataan musiikkiterapian ja eri-tyispedagogiikan koulutusta sekä kartoi-tusta olemassaolevasta oppimateriaalista ja-laitteista. Toimenpide-ehdotuksia erilais-ten oppijoiden kohderyhmälle olivat muunmuassa Kehitysvammaiset muusikkoina-hanke, musiikkiterapian koulutus kentäl-lä työskenteleville, monikulttuurinen täy-dennyskoulutus musiikkiterapeuteille sekämateriaali- ja välinepankki monimuotoi-sen musiikin erityisiin tarpeisiin.

Kyselyvastausten perusteella varhaisiänmusiikkikasvatuksen parissa työskentelevi-en erityisiä haasteita ovat muun muassa ra-kentavan keskutelun ja vuorovaikutuksenpuute sekä riittämättömät opetustiedot ja–taidot. Kyseisen kohderyhmän parissa toi-

mivat tarvitsevat myös tietoa työhön liit-tyvistä monikulttuurisista mahdollisuuksis-ta. Toimenpide-ehdotuksiin kuuluivat var-haisiän musiikkikasvatuksen monimuotoi-sen opetuksen lyhytkoulutukset, laatu- jaarviointityön kehittäminen, verkkosisältö-jen luominen henkilöstön tueksi sekä eri-tyistä tukea tarvitsevan lapsen kohtaami-seen tarvittavien taitojen kehittäminen.

Lopuksi

Monimuotoinen musiikki -hanke vahvistikäsitystä siitä, että monikulttuurisuus näh-dään tärkeänä ja ajankohtaisena osana suo-malaista musiikkikasvatusta. Kyselyvasta-uksista huokui valtava innostus monikult-tuurista ja monimuotoista musiikkikasva-tusta ja sen kehittämistä kohtaan. Alantoimijat tarvitsevat kuitenkin lisää tietoa,koulutusta ja taloudellista tukea kehittääk-seen taitojaan ja työskentelymahdollisuuk-siaan monimuotoisen musiikkielämän hy-väksi.

Lähteet

Suomen musiikkineuvosto. (2008). Monimuotoi-

nen musiikkielämä hyvinvoinnin rakentajana. Mo-

nimuotoinen musiikki -hankkeen loppuraportti.

<http://www.musiccouncil.fi/index.php?mid=78>.

(Luettu 2.12.2009).

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he term “multiculturalism” iscommonly used to describerapidly increasing diversity insociety. It can help draw at-tention to such change and tothe social structures, such asschooling, needed to deal withthe trend. However, the catch-

word can also mislead since it depends onarguable but taken-for-granted premises.One such premise is the theory of cultur-alism: the belief that cultures differ mark-edly according to race, ethnicity, religion,language (etc.) and, accordingly, exhibitidiosyncratic ‘ways of life’. Music is usual-ly implicated in culturalist and commonsense notions of “culture” and thus thevirtue of multicultural music education israrely questioned.1

However, culturalism is problematicon several grounds, all of which are mag-nified by the prefix “multi.” In such theo-rizing, a culture is oversimplified into ahomogeneous entity that supposedly hasits own general yet distinctive ‘character’and lifestyle. Differences between culturesare assumed to be determined by domi-nant groups within a culture, althoughcertain dissimilar values and practices canapparently coexist—each of which is, inturn, dependent on its own dominant fac-tions.2 However, some sub-cultures are saidto be complementary and interconnectedin their influences, while others competewith each other, the “mainstream,” or both.Despite this mélange of crisscrossing sub-cultures, individual consciousness is none-theless portrayed by culturalism as a de-terministic imposition of a culture’s sup-posed social construction of reality bymeans of primary socialization into the

Thomas A. Regelski

Culturalism, Multi-Culturalism, and Multi-Musical Prosperity

Tvarious symbolic, artistic, and other man-ifestations of this ‘reality’ and its attendantvalues and social practices.3

In actuality, however, differences with-in groups are often greater than, or asimportant as—even sometimes more im-portant than—differences between groups.And belonging to one group typically in-tersects with participation in a host of othergroups—more so the more complex thesociety. The musical preferences and prac-tices of adolescent, or mass and popularculture4 are far from uniform, for exam-ple, and the musical diets of adults ex-pand as new musics are encountered viatechnology and travel. Thus, a multiplicityof musical “taste publics” and “taste cul-tures” (Russell, 1997)5 overlap and oftencancel out other supposedly more homog-enous cultural identities and influences.Hybrid, fusion, and ‘cross over’ genres addfurther complications.

Claims that members of a culture sharean essential world-view and autonomousmind-set also suffer from the usual cri-tiques of essentialism. Contrary to cultur-alism’s essentialism, personal and groupidentities (and related social practices, suchas music) vary greatly according to ever-changing and always intersecting socioe-conomic, sociopolitical, intellectual, anddemographic contexts. Hence, traits sup-posedly held in common are often sharedonly superficially. Individual consciousnessis thus not deterministically dictated by aparticular “cultural heritage,” as though‘it’ is a discrete collection of customs trans-mitted to, and ‘received’ as a package bygroup members. Younger generations areespecially resistant, especially regardingtraditional musics.

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A key problem with multiculturalmusic education is that often the musicsat stake are traditions where “the music”is inseparable from the social practices thatoccasion them. For example, ethnomusi-cologists worry that recording only thesounds of a musical praxis leaves out thesocial functions being served in situ andthus misrepresents “the music” as stand-ing alone, as though concert music.6 Fur-thermore, outsiders cannot gain meaning-ful insights into a social group simply by‘exposure’ to its musical practices: under-standing or appreciating its musics requiresdeep familiarity with the group to beginwith. Attempts at importing such musick-ing into schools thus risks misrepresent-ing both “the music” and “the culture.”

Dealing authentically with such mu-sics involves ‘practicing’ a practice in termsof its situated conditions, and this is oftendifficult to do in schools. In fact, authen-ticity is falsified when westernized arrange-ments of ‘world musics’ (etc.) are per-formed for audience contemplation ac-cording to western standards of artistry.7

Moreover, studying ‘about’ the situatedconditions of such musics is not the sameas experiencing or producing a music inits praxial context, the only authentic wayof studying or benefitting from it. Andincluding such musics in the curriculumsimply because students from this or thatgroup are enrolled risks both superficiali-ty and tokenism.

Many of the problems of multicultur-alism are overcome when social (not cul-tural) pluralism is stressed. Modern socie-ties are inherently and increasingly heter-ogeneous, consisting of countless ‘com-munities’, each with its own practices andcollective sociality (Schatzki, 2002; Tuome-la, 2002). Social pluralism recognizes thisdiversity, but celebrates its creative dynam-ics while nonetheless confronting its so-cial tensions.8 Various social frameworks,institutions, and practices are needed, then,to manage such tensions and maximizetheir creative possibilities. Pluralism alsorecognizes that diversity varies considera-bly according to locale. Cities are often

more pluralistic than rural areas and suchregional differences need to be accom-modated, even within the same society.Thus a modern society is understood bet-ter in terms of its multi-faceted diversityrather than its only nominal homogeneity.When pluralism is acknowledged as thenorm, and is seen as creative not just aschallenging the “mainstream,” then man-aging its challenges becomes a matter ofmaximizing its creative contributions.

When “culture” is understood socio-logically, without culturalism’s questiona-ble assumptions of cultural autonomy(Bauman, 1999, p. 138-39), it is regardedas a “nexus of social practices” (Schatzki,2002, p. 59): “the continuous and unend-ing structuring activity” that creativelyconstitutes “the human mode of being-in-the-world” (Bauman, 1999, p. 43). So-cial practices of all kinds, then, are “mul-ti-faceted and multi-leveled human prax-is” (p. 61) at work in and on the lifeworld,and are both structured by and structur-ing of it (p. 61, 83, 95). Understanding“culture as praxis” is thus

as much about inventing as it is aboutpreserving; about discontinuity asmuch as about continuation; aboutnovelty as much as about tradition;about routine as much as about pat-tern-breaking; about norm-followingas much as about the transcendenceof norm; about the unique as much asabout the regular; about change asmuch as about monotony or repro-duction; about the unexpected asmuch as about the predictable. (p. xiv)

With “culture as praxis,” musical prac-tices are absolutely central, but need tobe approached in music education withthe above qualifications in mind, not aseither ‘tokens’ of, or for ‘conserving’ cul-tural autonomy or distinctiveness.

In thus addressing musical diversity,music education would analyze key musi-cal practices shared by different communi-ties: that is, the various musical practicescommon to most societies (e.g., music as

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ritual, sociality, celebration, recreation, etc.).Such study demonstrates how basic andrelevant music is to life and society. Sec-ondly, the ways in which different musicsserve such common social needs revealsimilarities and creative contrasts—both ofwhich can serve living traditions as well asinspiring new practices and genres. Thisschooling for a multi-musicking societywould not, however, be simply study‘about’, but engagement with those mu-sics selected for study as particularly im-portant to society—all segments of it—and especially to the students and com-munities effected. Such multi-musical pros-perity is thus properly engaged in prag-matic and praxial terms. Music educatorscan thus focus more directly on music assuch, not on the assumptions of cultural-ism or on music education as social engi-neering or amelioration.

References

Bauman, Zygmunt. 1999. Culture as Praxis. Lon-

don: Sage Publications.

Berger, Peter L. and Thomas Luckmann. 1967. The

Social Construction of Reality. New York: Anchor/

Doubleday.

Nightingale, D. J. and J. Cromby, eds. 1999. So-

cial Constructionist Psychology. Buckingham: Open

University Press.

Regelski, Thomas A. 2002. “ ‘Critical Education’,

Culturalism and Multiculturalism.” Action, Criti-

cism, and Theory for Music Education, 1/1: http:/

/act.maydaygroup.org/articles/Regelski1_1.pdf.

Russell, Philip A. 1997. “Musical tastes and soci-

ety.” In The Social Psychology of Music, D. J. Har-

greaves and A. C. North, eds., 141-58. Oxford:

Oxford University Press.

Schatzki, Theodore. R. 2002. The Site of the So-

cial: A Philosophical Account of the Constitution

of Social Life and Change. University Park, PA: Penn

State Press.

Searle, John. 1995. The Construction of Social

Reality. New York: Free Press.

Strinati, Dominic. 1995. An Introduction to Theo-

ries of Popular Culture. London: Routledge.

Tuomela, Raimo. 2002. The Philosophy of Social

Practices. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Notes

[1] Except by aesthetes who want to protect west-

ern art music from other musics. For an analysis of

multicultural music education from the perspec-

tive of Critical Theory, see Regelski, 2002.

[2] Thus culturalism always risks transmitting and

therefore reproducing the hegemony of dominant

groups in a culture or sub-culture, rather than re-

sisting or creatively transforming such patterns.

“Appeals to the rights of communities to preserve

their cultural distinctiveness more often than not

‘hide brutality of dictatorial power under a thin crust

of culturalism’ ” (Bauman, 1999, xl, quoting Alain

Touraine).

[3] See Berger & Luckman, 1967 (sociology), Sear-

le, 1995 (philosophy), Nightingale & Cromby, 1999

(psychology) for contradictory accounts of construc-

tionist/constructivist epistemology and ontology.

[4] For distinctions between “popular” and “mass”

culture, see Strinati, 1995, passim.

[5] According to Russell, a “taste culture” is “de-

fined in terms of musical values and choices, and

its taste public described in terms of such socio-

demographic variables as sex, age, social class, and

ethnic group” (Russell, 1997, p. 143). “Culture”

is also defined differently by various social scienc-

es, and the term is often abused when applied to

any group profile: e.g., corporate culture, youth cul-

ture.

[6] The social nature and roots of western classical

music are less obvious but just as praxial in their

effects.

[7] Performance by indigenous musicians for west-

ern audiences changes a participatory into a pres-entational praxis. For example, the taiko drumming

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of the ascetic Japanese sect Kodo is a religious

practice. As performance, however, the spiritual

discipline of its in situ musicking is transformed

into concert and entertainment values. Thus eso-

teric appeal to an audience overrides the originat-

ing spiritual praxis.

[8] Even so-called ‘traditional societies’ show in-

creased heterogeneity as result of being ‘opened’

by outside influences. This may be regrettable; but

conserving a tradition is best understood in the

context of pluralism because isolationism is no long-

er possible: e.g., even the American Amish protect

their traditions by selectively accommodating parts

of the larger society in which they unavoidably live.

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Thomas A. Regel-ski is “Distin-

guished Professor

of Music” (Emeri-

tus), State Univer-

sity of New York at

Fredonia NY. A

graduate of SUNY

Fredonia, and a

former public

school music

teacher, he took his

Masters degree in

choral music education at Teachers College, Colum-

bia University, and his PhD in Comparative Aesthet-

ics at Ohio University.

He has taught choral conducting, secondary school

music education methods, and foundations courses

to undergraduate and graduate students. He has

taught at Aichi University in Nagoya, Japan, the Si-

belius Academy in Helsinki, Finland (where he had

a Fulbright Award in 2000), Helsinki University, and

was a research fellow at the Philosophy of Educa-

tion Research Center at Harvard University.

He is the co-founder of the MayDay Group, an

international/interdisciplinary society of scholars in-

terested in music, music education, and cultural

studies and, from its inception until 2007, editor of

its e-journal, Action, Criticism, and Theory for Mu-

sic Education.

In addition to over 70 published journal articles,

he is author of Principles and Problems of Music

Education (1975), Arts Education and Brain Re-

search (1978), Teaching General Music (1981),

Teaching General Music in Grades 4–8 (2004), and

co-editor (with J.T. Gates) of Music Education for

Changing Times (2009). Thomas A. Regelski is cur-

rently living in Finland.

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usiikkikasvattajat jakavat maa-ilmanlaajuisesti huolen musii-kin asemasta koulussa. Mu-siikki ja taideaineet ylipäänsänäyttävät olevan koulumaail-man uhanalainen laji, ja alanedustajat joutuvat jatkuvastiperustelemaan taiteen merki-

tystä yleissivistävässä kasvatuksessa. Mu-siikkikasvatuksen tutkijat ja filosofit ovat-kin käyttäneet huomattavan määrän voi-mavaroja aineen puolustamiseen ja oikeut-tamiseen (Wright 2009, 1053). Asiasta jul-kaistaan puheenvuoroja, keskustellaan alanlehdissä, musiikki- ja taidekasvatuksen tut-kimuksen käsikirjoissa on omia teema-ar-tikkeleita aiheesta ja esimerkiksi kansain-välisen musiikkikasvattajien järjestöISME:n (International Society for MusicEducation) sivustolla on oma osastonsa pu-heenvuoroille musiikkikasvatuksen oikeut-tamisesta (ISME 2010). Tarve perustellamusiikin merkitystä ei ole vain teoreetti-nen. Jokainen koulussa musiikkia opetta-nut tunnistaa tuntiresurssien sekä aineenmarginaalisen ja epävarman statuksen mer-kityksen opetustyölle.

Suomalaiselle musiikinopettaja-am-mattikunnalle aineen asema on ollut jat-kuva huolen aihe. Laulun aseman paran-taminen oppikoulun lukusuunnitelmissa1900-luvun alussa toimi itse asiassa sysä-yksenä sille, että ammattikunta perustiLaulunopettajayhdistyksen, nykyisen Kou-lujen musiikinopettajat ry:n (Kiuasmaa1985, 189; Pietinen 2009, 10–11). Vuoden1909 perustamiskokouksen asialistalla olipedagogisten aiheiden lisäksi alustuksialaulunopetuksen asemasta, oppiaineen saa-misesta kaikille pakolliseksi ja opetustun-tien määristä (Pietinen 2009, 11–12). Mie-

Minna Muukkonen

Monipuolisuuden eetosMusiikin aineenopettajat artikuloimassatyönsä käytäntöjä

Lectio Praecursoria, Sibelius-Akatemia 9.6.2010

Mlenkiintoista on se, että kyseiset teemat ovatolleet keskeisiä edelleen tänä vuonna jol-loin on jälleen käyty keskustelua kouluntuntijaosta.

Suomalaisen peruskoulun 40-vuotisenhistorian aikana opetussuunnitelmia jatuntijakoja on uudistettu noin kymmenenvuoden välein. Taistelu opetusajasta sävyttijo peruskoulun syntyä. Valmisteluvaihees-sa 1960-luvulla yksi hankalimmista kysy-myksistä koko koulun kannalta oli juurituntijako: miten opetusaika jaettaisiin erioppiaineiden välille ja millainen suhde olisikaikille yhteisillä ja valinnaisilla aineilla.(Lappalainen 1985.)

Musiikki on muiden taito- ja taideai-neiden ohella ollut peruskoulussa sekäkaikille yhteinen että valinnainen aine.Yhteisten musiikintuntien määrä on ollutviimeiset vuosikymmenet koulun koko-naisuudessa vaatimaton: vuoden 1993 (Val-tioneuvoston päätös 834/1993) ja vuoden2001 (Valtioneuvoston asetus 1435/2001)tuntijaoissa vähimmäistuntimäärä on ol-lut seitsemän. Se on noin kolme prosent-tia koko perusopetuksen tuntimäärästä.

1.6.2010 julkistetussa opetusministe-riön asettaman työryhmän laatimassa pe-ruskoulun tuntijakoehdotuksessa (Opetus-ministeriö 2010) musiikki on sijoitettuoppiainekokonaisuuteen taide ja käsityö,johon kuuluisivat myös kuvataide, käsityötsekä uutena oppiaineena draama.

Musiikille esitetään kaikille yhteiseksituntimääräksi seitsemää (emt., 95). Se oli-si siis sama kuin kahdessa edellisessä tun-tijaossa. Työryhmä kirjaa kuitenkin halu-avansa vahvistaa taidekasvatuksen asemaa;tämä tapahtuisi suuntaamalla oma valin-naistuntipaketti taide ja käsityö -oppiai-nekokonaisuudelle (emt., 158). Musiikille

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tuntijako ei siis toisi suuria muutoksia.Musiikinopettajat ovat toistaiseksi olleetvarovaisia kannanotoissaan, Kuvataideopet-tajat ry sen sijaan on ehtinyt julkistaa lau-suntonsa, jossa se toteaa myönteisenä va-linnaisaineiden tuntimäärän kohdentami-sen eri oppiaineryhmille mutta esittäähuolensa muun muassa taideaineiden yh-teistuntimäärän vähenemisestä yläluokilla(Kuvataideopettajat ry 2010). Keskustelujatkuu varmasti vilkkaana tuntijakopäätök-seen saakka, jonka valtioneuvosto tehneealkuvuodesta 2011.

Tutkimuksen kokonaisuus

Musiikinopettaja-ammattikunnalle opetus-aika on siis ollut aina kiperä kysymys.Musiikinopettajan kannalta se on tarkoit-tanut useimmiten sopeutumista käytettä-vissä olevaan vähään aikaan ja opetuksenmoninaisten tavoitteiden suhteuttamistasiihen. Ajan niukkuus pakottaa tekemäänvalintoja. Vuonna 1956 musiikinopettajaRakel Suominen pohti asiaa KoulujenMusiikinopettajat ry:n vuosikirjassa seu-raavasti:

Vaikein seikka musiikinopetuksessa lie-nee opetettavan aineiston runsaus. Mitäsiis pitäisi opettaa [oppikoulun] kah-della alimmalla luokalla: äänenmuo-dostusta, säveltapailua, musiikkioppia,musiikinhistoriaa, musiikkitietoa, yksi-ja moniäänisiä lauluja ja virsiä, soitto-taidon alkeita, käytännöllistä perehty-mistä musiikkiin, siis musiikin kuun-telua ym. ym.? (Suominen 1956, 28.)

Tämän päivän musiikinopettaja poh-tii samaa tematiikka. Opetukselle suun-nattujen tuntiresurssien ja opetussuunni-telman moninaisten tavoitteiden välinenkitka oli myös yksi tänään tarkastettava-na olevan tutkimuksen alkuun sysääjistä.Työssäni musiikin aineenopettajana koinristiriitaa joutuessani tekemään valintojaja erityisesti poisvalintoja. Kiinnostuin laa-jemminkin siitä, millaista on opettajan arkinäissä puitteissa, näillä tuntiresursseilla,hyvin avoimella opetussuunnitelmalla,

useimmiten ainoana aineen edustajanakoulussa: miten musiikinopettajat raken-tavat työnsä käytäntöjä?

Tarkastelen väitöskirjassani musiikin-opetusta ja musiikinopetuksen käytäntöjämusiikin aineenopettajan näkökulmasta janäin ollen pääasiassa perusopetuksen ylä-luokkien ja lukion musiikinopetusta. Toi-nen rajaus on se, että olen nimenomaanollut kiinnostunut musiikinopetuksesta niinsanotun tavallisen tuntijaon puitteissa, ensiis paneudu esimerkiksi musiikkiluokka-toimintaan. Kysyn tutkimuksessani: mitenmusiikin aineenopettajat artikuloivat opetustyön-sä käytäntöjä institutionaalisessa ja historial-liskulttuurisessa kontekstissaan?

Muodostaakseni ymmärrystä 2000-luvun alun musiikinopetuksen käytännöis-tä olen tarkastellut tätä kysymystä kolmestanäkökulmasta, sekä aineiston avulla ettäavaten musiikinopetuksen institutionaalistakontekstia. Tutkimusaineisto koostuu kah-deksan musiikin aineenopettajan haastat-teluista. Aineiston myötä pyrin kuvaamaanja jäsentämään ensinnäkin musiikinopet-tajien persoonallisten käytäntöjen raken-tamista ja sitä, mikä yhteisesti arjen käy-täntöjä virittää ja suuntaa. Toiseksi olentarkastellut aineistoa keskittyen aineistonpuhuntaan, siihen, mistä oikeastaan pu-humme, kun puhumme musiikista musii-kinopetuksessa ja siihen, miten haastatte-lupuhunnoissa legitimoidaan eli oikeute-taan käytännön ratkaisuja. Tutkimuksessaavaan myös koulun musiikinopetukseninstitutionaalista kontekstia musiikinope-tuksen historialliskulttuurisen kehkeytymi-sen näkökulmasta jäljittääkseni aineistos-ta esiin nostamieni tematiikkojen kiinnit-tymistä musiikinopetustraditioon.

Monipuolisuuden eetos

Kun tarkastellaan koulun musiikinopetustaopettajien tai tradition ja opetussuunni-telmien näkökulmasta, yhteiseksi itsestään-selväksi johtoajatukseksi kohoaa monipuo-lisuus. Opettajien puhunnoista, osana opet-tajien ammatillista eetosta, tulkitsin yhtei-siä eettisiä periaatteita, vastuita ja sitou-muksia suhteessa niin oppilaisiin kuin ope-

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tettavaan aineeseen, musiikkiin. Väitöskir-jan nimi "monipuolisuuden eetos" kiteyt-tää tulkintani tästä yhteisestä ammatilli-sesta moraalista (esim. Tirri 1996).

Monipuolisuus artikuloitiin musiikin-opetuskulttuurissa esiin 1950-luvulta läh-tien ensin ammattikunnan keskusteluissaja musiikinopettajakoulutuksen vähittäise-nä muutoksena. Suomalainen musiikkikas-vatuskulttuuri on tällä johtoajatuksellamyötäillyt kansainvälisiä musiikkikasvatuk-sen muutossuuntia (Barrett 2007, 149),jossa keskeistä on ollut laajentuva käsitysmusiikista sekä monimuotoinen musisointija musiikkipedagogiikka. Suomalaisen kou-lun opetussuunnitelmadiskurssissa moni-puolisuus nostettiin ideaaliksi peruskou-lun ensimmäisessä opetussuunnitelmassa1970 (POPS 70 I; POPS 70 II), ja se ontämän jälkeen tulkintani mukaan täsmen-tynyt ja muotoutunut erilaisiksi koulunmusiikinopetuksen kulttuurisiksi käytän-nöiksi. Vuoden 1994 musiikin ainekohtai-sesta opetussuunnitelmasta löytyvä sana-pari "mahdollisimman monipuolisesti"(POP 1994, 97) ilmenee aineistossani tun-nuslauseenomaisena. Monipuolisuudenvaatimus sävyttää lisäksi oletusta opetta-jan musiikillisesta ammattitaidosta: opet-tajan odotetaan olevan paitsi monitaitoi-nen muusikko ja pedagogi myös hallitse-van musiikkikulttuurin eri muodot, lajitja aikakaudet.

Opetustyön käytäntöjenvirittäjät

Tässä monipuolisuuden ideaalin virittä-mässä kulttuurissa musiikin aineenopetta-jat rakentavat musiikinopetuksen käytän-töjä. Väljän opetussuunnitelman puitteissaon tilaa omille näkemyksille, usein ainoi-na aineensa edustajina kouluissaan opet-tajat voivat toimia itsenäisesti – itsenäi-syyden kääntöpuolena on kuitenkin yksi-näisyys.

Aineistoni narratiivisen analyysin (Pol-kinghorne 1995) tulokseksi olen muotoil-lut neljä kertomusta musiikinopettajienjokapäiväisestä arjesta. Kertomusmuodonmyötä pyrin tuomaan esiin opettajien käy-

täntöjä kontekstissaan, joka on näkemyk-seni mukaan oleellinen käytännön ymmär-tämisen kannalta. Opettajan työn käytän-nön yhteisiksi virittäjiksi ja suunnan anta-jiksi osoittautuivat tässä aineistossa erityi-sesti opettajan oma musiikkisuhde ja olo-suhteet, joissa työtä tehdään. Käytäntöjämuotoavat lisäksi eettinen suhde oppilai-siin, toiminnallisuuden ja toisaalta musii-killisen maailmankuvan laajentamisen ee-tokset.

Musiikinopettajan oma suhde musiik-kiin, jonka on lukuisissa kansainvälisissätutkimuksissa osoitettu olevan avainase-massa opetustyön käytäntöjen muotoutu-misessa, osoittautui tässä tutkimuksessa niinikään tärkeäksi. Kansainvälisissä tutkimuk-sissa (Bernard 2005; Dolloff 2007; Roberts2007; Stephens 2007; Pellegrino 2009) onyhtäältä tuotu esiin muusikkouden ja opet-tajuuden välinen ristiriita ja jännite ja se,että ne koetaan erillisiksi. Tämän tutki-muksen aineistossa muusikkous ja opetta-juus näyttävät ennemminkin täydentäväntoisiaan. Tulkintani aineistosta myötäileenäin musiikkikasvatustutkijoiden keskus-telussa sitä suuntaa, jossa nostetaan esiinmuusikkouden laadun merkitys ja muu-sikkouden ja opettajuuden kietoutuminenmusiikinopettajan kompetenssiin. Aineis-toni suomalaiset musiikinopettajat näyt-tävät luottavan musiikillisiin taitoihinsa jahyödyntävän työssään omaa musiikillistaerityisosaamistaan. Tämä ei kuitenkaantarkoita pitäytymistä omiin erityistaitoihin,vaan yhteistä monimuotoisen musiikinope-tuksen ihannetta noudattaen opettajat ra-kentavat opetuksesta sisällöllisesti ja me-netelmällisesti laaja-alaista ja kertovat myösoman muusikkoutensa muuttumisesta ope-tustyön myötä.

Arkea kannattavat eetokset

Oppilaat ja opettajien näkemys heille par-haasta mahdollisesta musiikinopetuksestaja oppilaiden huomioiminen on aineistos-sani moninaisesti esillä ja se suuntaa vah-vasti käytäntöjen muotoutumista. Kasvat-tajan moraalinen eetos, eettinen suhdeoppilaisiin liittyy ennen kaikkea oppilai-

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den kohtaamiseen ja kohteluun yksilöinäja ryhmän jäseninä, joille opettajan vel-vollisuus on löytää väylä myönteiseenmusiikkisuhteeseen ja kullekin ominaiseenja mieluisaan tapaan musisoida. Opettajatartikuloivat tehtäväkseen auttaa kutakinoppilasta tämän omista lähtökohdista kä-sin. Verrattuna esimerkiksi amerikkalaiseenstandardi- ja testipainotteisen musiikinope-tuksen nykykäytäntöön kertoo tämän tut-kimuksen aineisto suomalaisten musiikki-kasvattajien mahdollisuudesta rakentaakäytäntöjään omiin eettisiin periaatteisiinnojaten.

Opetus on siis oppilaslähtöistä, opet-tajat haluavat ottaa huomioon oppilaidenhalut ja toiveet. Mutta toisaalta he katso-vat myös tehtäväkseen avartaa oppilaidenmusiikillista maailmankuvaa ja näin esi-merkiksi kehittää suvaitsevampaa musiik-kimakua. Myös yleissivistyksen käsite tu-lee tässä usein esille. Opettajan tehtävääkuvataan muun muassa ikkunoiden avaa-jan metaforalla, jolloin keskeiseksi nouseeopettajan vastuu oppilaille ennestään tun-temattomien musiikkien ja musiikkikult-tuurien esittelystä. Tällainen tasapainotte-lu yhtäältä oppilaiden maailman, lähtökoh-tien ja toiveiden, toisaalta opettajan arvos-tamien asioiden ja taitojen välillä kuvaaomalla tavallaan suomalaiselle opettajalleyleisestikin annettua kaksoisroolia sekäkulttuuriperinnön siirtäjänä, uusintajana,että kulttuurin uudistajana (Räsänen 2007,34; Raivola 1993; ks. myös POPS 2004).

Käytäntöjen rakentumiseen liittyy näi-den lisäksi oleellisena toiminnallisuudenperiaate: yhteismusisointi – soittaminen jalaulaminen – ovat ensiarvoisia. Tässä toi-minnallisuuden eetokseksi kutsumassaninäkökohdassa tulee esiin musisoinninmerkityksellisyys ja jokaisen oppilaan oi-keus musisointiin. Yhteismusisointi on tä-män aineiston opettajien opetuskäytäntö-jen vakiintunut ja välttämätön osa. Ontärkeää luoda oppilaille olosuhteet, joissakoko luokan yhdessä musisoiminen mah-dollistuu, tavoitteena on kaikkien osallis-taminen lauluun ja soittoon.

Kaiken kaikkiaan tämän aineiston ana-lyysissa merkityksellisinä näyttäytyvät ope-

tuksen käytännöt – laulu, yhteismusisoin-ti, musiikkitieto ja esiintymiset – kiinnit-tävät 2000-luvun alun musiikinopetuksenkoulun musiikinopetustradition jatkumonkatkeamattomaksi osaksi. Laulaminen onkautta aikain ollut ensisijainen toiminnanmuoto opetuksessa, ja sen merkitystä op-pilaille ja opetusmenetelmiä on alati poh-dittu. Myös soittaminen on ollut esillä lau-lun rinnalla aina 1600-luvulta lähtien.Kuitenkin yhteismusisoinnin nousu ja va-kiintuminen käytännöksi on varsinaisestitapahtunut vasta 1980-luvulta alkaen. Nytyhteissoitto on itsestäänselvä osa suoma-laista musiikinopetusta.

Musisoinnin oheen ja sitä tukemaanon keskiajalta, kouluhistorian alusta asti,kuulunut musiikkitieto jossain muodossa,aluksi musiikin teoriana ja säveltapailuna,sittemmin laajasti musiikkikulttuureja jahistorioita esittelevänä opetuksen osana.

Puhe musiikista jaopetuskäytäntöjen legitimointi

Toisessa aineiston analyysissa keskityin sii-hen, minkälaisia yhteisiä, kulttuurisia mer-kityksenantoja puhunnoista on tunnistet-tavissa: miten yhtäältä musiikki merkityk-sellistyy opettajien puhunnoissa ja toisaal-ta, mihin suhteessa opetuskäytäntöjä oi-keutetaan. Näiden tematiikkojen tarkas-telu osoitti myös vahvan kiinnittymisenmusiikinopetustraditioon ja musiikinope-tuskulttuuriin.

Identifioin opettajien puhunnoista(Suoninen 1993; Alasuutari 2006) neljäselkeästi yhteistä tapaa merkityksellistäämusiikkia musiikinopetuksessa. Musiikki-analyyttisessa puherepertuaarissa musiik-kia jäsennetään sen osatekijöistä käsin jakulttuurihistoriallisesta näkökulmasta, ko-kemuksellisessa musiikki merkityksellistyyelämysten antajaksi, terapeuttisessa hyvin-voinnin lisääjäksi. Sosiaalinen puhereper-tuaari tuo esiin musiikin ja musisoinninyhteisöllisenä ilmiönä.

Oikeutuspuheen tarkastelu toi opet-tajat esiin vahvoina ja itseensä luottavinamusiikkipedagogeina, jotka usein viimekädessä suhteuttavat opetustaan oppilai-

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siin päin. Ilmassa on myös oletuksia kult-tuurisista odotuksista, siitä, miten musiik-kia “pitäisi” opettaa ja mitä ainakin “täy-tyy olla”: ja näitä vasten opettajat puhun-noissaan heijastavat omia käsityksiään.

Tämän tutkimuksen myötä voi tode-ta, että koulun musiikinopetus näyttää löy-täneen monin tavoin toimivan käytäntö-kulttuurin, jota opettajat situaatiossaanrakentavat kontekstin ehdoilla vahvoineettisin perustein. Aineistoni musiikin ai-neenopettajat ovat tyytyväisiä omaan am-mattitaitoonsa – tämä tyytyväisyys välit-tyy myös ammattijärjestön puheenvuorois-sa. Opettajan työtä luonnehtii yhtäältä it-senäisyys, toisaalta yksinäisyys. Musiikin-opetuksen toimintamuodoiksi on löydet-ty yläkoulu- ja lukioikäisten opettamiseensoveltuvia tapoja – erityisesti yhteismusi-soinnissa näyttävät kohtaavan musiikinope-tuksen arvot ja oppilaiden toiveet. Mu-siikki näkyy ja kuuluu koulun arjessa jajuhlassa – huolimatta aineen marginaali-sesta asemasta koulun tuntijakokokonai-suudessa. Tässä tutkimuksessa tulee koros-tuneesti esiin kontekstin merkitys niinmusiikinopetuksen käytäntöjen muotou-tumiselle kuin tutkimuksellisessa mieles-sä: käytäntöjä ei voi irrottaa konteksteis-taan ja niiden tulkinta tulisi aina tehdäsuhteessa niihin.

Kohti uuden opetussuunnitelmanvalmistelua

Suunnatakseni katseen yleissivistävänmusiikinopetuksen tuleviin suuntiin, pa-laan lopuksi vielä alussa esillä olleeseentuoreeseen tuntijakotyöryhmän muistioon(Opetusministeriö 2010), jossa tuntijako-ehdotuksen lisäksi esitetään ehdotus pe-rusopetuksen uusista yleisistä valtakunnal-lisista tavoitteista. Nostan esiin näkökoh-dan, joka kiinnittyy selkeästi peruskoulu-ajan musiikinopetustraditioon. Musiikindidaktiikassa nostettiin 1970-luvulla vah-vasti esiin luovuus ja säveltäminen ja neovat olleet esillä myös kaikissa peruskou-lun opetussuunnitelmissa. Esimerkiksi sä-veltäminen ja musiikillinen keksintä eivätkuitenkaan ole vakiintuneet suomalaisen

koulun työtavoiksi. Työryhmän muistios-sa otetaan kantaa tähän teemaan todeten,että sen lisäksi, että musiikinopetuksen“painopisteen tulee säilyä edelleen musii-killisten taitojen harjoittamisessa musiik-kia tekemällä, tulevaisuudessa opetuksentavoitteeksi tulee kuitenkin asettaa aiem-paa selkeämmin oppilaan luovuuden, ajat-telutaitojen ja ongelmanratkaisutaitojenkehittäminen muun muassa luovan toimin-nan ja tuottavan musiikillisen toiminnankautta” (Opetusministeriö 2010, 161). Sä-veltäminen ja sen mahdollisuudet musiik-kikasvatuksessa ovat yhä enenevässä mää-rin esillä myös monissa tutkimusprojek-teissa koskien niin luokkatyöskentelyä kuinerilaisia informaaleja oppimisympäristöjä.Ehkä tässä on yksi tulevaisuuden suunta.

Toivokaamme vilkasta, idearikasta jahedelmällistä keskustelua uuden musiikinopetussuunnitelman rakentamisen puitteis-sa musiikkia opettavien opettajien, opet-tajankouluttajien ja tutkijoiden kesken.Onhan perusopetuksen yleissivistävä mu-siikinopetus se, joka tavoittaa jokaisen suo-malaisen, ja näin musiikkikasvatuskentäl-lämme ainutlaatuinen.

Lähteet

Alasuutari, P. 2006. Merkitys, toiminta ja rakenne

sosiologiassa: kulttuurinen näkökulma. Sosiologia

2, 79–92.

Barrett, J. 2007. Currents of Change in Music Cur-

riculum. Teoksessa L. Bresler (toim.) International

Handbook of Research in Arts Education. Dor-

drecht: Springer, 147–163.

Bernard, R. 2005. Making Music, Making Selves.

A Call for Reframing Music Teacher education.

Action, Criticism & Theory for Music Education 4

(2). http://act.maydaygroup.org/articles/Bernard4_

2.pdf (Viitattu 26.3.2010)

Dolloff, L. 2007. ’All the Things We Are’ : Balanc-

ing our Multiple Identities in Music Teaching. Ac-

tion, Criticism, and Theory for Music Education 6

(2). http://act.maydaygroup.org/articles/Dolloff6_

2.pdf (Viitattu 25.1.2010)

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telman syntyprosessi ja peruskouluopetuksen joh-

tamisjärjestelmän muotoutuminen. Helsingin yli-

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Opetusministeriö 2010. Perusopetus 2020 – ylei-

set valtakunnalliset tavoitteet ja tuntijako. Opetus-

ja kulttuuriministeriön työryhmämuistioita ja sel-

vityksiä 2010:1. Opetus- ja kulttuuriministeriö,

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Wright, P. 2009. Teaching in Arts Education. Teok-

sessa L. J. Saha & A. G. Dworkin (toim.) Interna-

tional Handbook of Research on Teachers and

Teaching. Part One. USA: Springer, 1049–1060.

Abstrakti

Muukkonen, Minna 2010.Monipuolisuuden eetos. Musiikinaineenopettajat artikuloimassatyönsä käytäntöjä. Sibelius-Akatemia. Musiikkikasvatuksenosasto. Studia Musica 42.Väitöskirja. 256 sivua.

Tämän tutkimuksen tavoitteena on lisätäymmärrystä koulun musiikinopetuksenkäytännöistä ja musiikin aineenopettajantyöstä. Tutkimuksen viitekehys on herme-neuttinen ja musiikinopetusta tarkastellaansosiokulttuurisena käytäntönä. Tässä näkö-kulmassa musiikinopetus näyttäytyy yhtei-sen, kulttuurisen ja yksittäisen, persoonal-lisen kudelmana. Musiikinopetuksen käy-täntöjen tarkastelu keskittyy musiikin ai-neenopettajien näkökulmaan ja näin ollenperusopetuksen yläluokkien ja lukionmusiikinopetukseen. Tutkimuksen pääky-symys on: miten musiikin aineenopettajatartikuloivat opetustyönsä käytäntöjä insti-tutionaalisessa ja historiallis-kulttuurisessakontekstissaan? Päätutkimusaineisto koos-tuu kahdeksan kokeneen musiikin aineen-opettajan teemahaastattelusta.

Työ muodostuu kolmesta tutkimusky-symystä eri näkökulmista avaavasta pää-luvusta. Ensimmäisessä pääluvussa tutki-mustehtävänä on jäsentää musiikinopetuk-sen institutionaalista, historiallis-kulttuu-rista kontekstia traditiosta ja opetussuun-nitelmista käsin kahdesta näkökulmasta:ensin musiikkia oppiaineena koulun kon-tekstissa, sitten oppiaineen sisäistä kehkey-tymistä ja opettajan työn muutosta. Kon-tekstin hahmottaminen osoitti musiikinopetukselle ajan saatossa annetut monettehtävät ja tavoitteet. Kronologisessa tar-kastelussa tuli esiin, miten oppiaine laa-jentui laulun ja teorian opetuksesta mo-nipuoliseksi musisoinniksi sekä musiikki-kulttuureja ja musiikin lajeja laaja-alaises-

ti esitteleväksi. Opettajan musiikillisetammattitaitovaatimukset ovat tämän ke-hityksen myötä lisääntyneet. Erityisesti1990-luvulta lähtien opettajan työnkuvaon kaiken kaikkiaan laajentunut.

Kaksi jälkimmäistä päälukua rakentu-vat aineiston laadulliselle analyysille. Lu-vussa neljä tutkimustehtävänä on analy-soida ja tulkita musiikin aineenopettajienartikuloimia opetuksen käytäntöjä. Nar-ratiivisen analyysin tuloksena ovat neljäkertomusta opettajien työn käytännöistä.Luvun lopussa musiikin aineenopettajantyön eettinen ulottuvuus kiteytetään kol-meen yhteiseen eetokseen: toiminnallisuu-den eetos, kasvattajan moraalinen eetos jamusiikillisen maailmankuvan laajentami-sen eetos, jotka opettajan oman musiikki-suhteen ohella muodostavat perustan, jol-le opetuksen arki rakentuu.

Luvussa viisi aineiston puhuntaa ana-lysoidaan identifioiden siitä puherepertu-aareja. Kulttuurisia puhumisen tapoja jä-sennetään kahdesta näkökulmasta. Ensim-mäisessä osassa jäsennetään puhuntaa mu-siikista ja musisoinnista ja nostetaan esiinneljä puherepertuaaria: musiikkianalyytti-nen, kokemuksellinen, terapeuttinen jasosiaalinen. Jälkimmäisessä osassa opetus-työn legitimointiin tuodaan näkökulmiakolmen puherepertuaarin: kulttuurisen,opettaja- ja oppilasrepertuaarin avulla.

Tutkimuksen lopussa kiteytetään tul-kinta opettajien arjesta ja institutionaali-sesta kontekstista monipuolisuuden eetok-seksi. Monipuolisuuden eetos tulkitaan si-sään kirjoitetuksi ja julki lausutuksi niinkoulun opetussuunnitelmateksteissä kuinaineiston musiikin aineenopettajien puhun-noissa. Monipuolisuuden johtoajatuksellaon paitsi musiikillisia, myös pedagogis-eet-tisiä ulottuvuuksia. Opettajien puhunnoissamonipuolisuuden tulkinta rakentuu suh-teessa omaan muusikkouteen, kasvatusnä-kemyksiin sekä yhteiseen, kulttuuriseenymmärrykseen. Musiikinopetuskäytäntö-jen yhteiset piirteet tuovat opetustyönpääteemoiksi luokkahuonetyöskentelyn jaesiintymiset. Luokkatyöskentelyn yhteisiätoimintamuotoja ovat laulu, yhteismusi-sointi ja musiikkitieto, johon kuuntelu lin-

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kittyy. Aineenopettajien opetuskäytännötmuotoavat koko koulun musiikin toimin-takulttuuria.

Abstract

Muukkonen, Minna. 2010.The Ethos of Versatility. MusicTeachers Articulate TheirPedagogical Practices. SibeliusAcademy. Music EducationDepartment. Studia Musica 42.Doctoral Dissertation. 256 pages.

The purpose of this study was to increaseunderstanding of Finnish school musicteaching practices from the point of viewof teachers. In order to investigate the waysin which music educators articulate theirpedagogical practices, eight experiencedmusic teachers were interviewed. Theywork with pupils aged 13 to 18 studyingin grades 7 to 9 of basic comprehensive education and in general upper education.

The research employs a hermeneuti-cal framework, and music teaching isexplored as a sociocultural practice. Thisapproach displays music teaching as a mix-ture of the collective and the personal.This dissertation is organized into five mainchapters, the first of which serves to in-troduce the institutional, historic, and cul-tural contexts of music education. By trac-ing the evolution of music instruction fromits early focus on singing and theory tothe recent inclusion of practical ensembleplaying and exposure to music that is di-verse in genre and cultural origin, this dis-sertation chronicles the rise of the con-temporary music education professionalsince the 1990s and the establishment ofmusic as a school subject.

The key question ‘How do musicteachers articulate the practices of their

teaching in their institutional and histor-ic-cultural context?’ is approached fromtwo analytical perspectives. Chapter Fourspecifically investigates music teachingpractices by analyzing and interpretinghow music teachers describe their workduring interviews. Four stories concern-ing professional practice emerge from theresults of the narrative analysis. The chap-ter concludes by summarizing three cor-nerstones of a music teacher’s ethos: ac-tive student participation in classroomwork, the teacher’s morality, and an ex-tensive musical worldview. Together withthe teacher’s relationship to music, thisethos forms the basis of everyday musicteaching practices.

Chapter Five contains an analysis ofthe discursive practices utilized by inter-view subjects. First, the analysis is con-ducted concentrating on investigatingmusical paroles, and four speech reper-toires are identified: music analytical, ex-periential, therapeutic, and social. A sec-ond focus of the analysis reveals the teach-ers’ justifications for certain practicesthrough three additional speech reper-toires: cultural, teacher, and pupil.

The research closes by highlightingthe ways in which the analysis of the dataand institutional circumstances suggest ahigher ethos of versatility, which is mani-fested in both curricula and music teach-er paroles. The articulation of versatilityin teacher paroles is constructed througheach narrator’s relationship to his or hermusicianship, pedagogical views, andshared cultural understanding. The resultssuggest that the most important teachingpractices are classroom work and publicperformance and that classroom workconsists of musicking—singing, playing ina classroom band and listening—and build-ing of musical knowledge.

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sPetter Dyndahl

Book Review

Vesa Kurkela and Lauri Väkevä(eds): De-Canonizing Music History.Newcastle upon Tyne: CambridgeScholars Publishing, 2009 (199 pp).

his anthology is about de-can-onizing music history, or, rath-er, different music histories.The book is the outcome ofa symposium of the same ti-tle, held at the Sibelius Acad-emy, in 2007. What, in thiscontext, de-canonizing refers

to more specifically, appears to be some-what ambiguous, which may also be quiteexpected. The conference papers, later onbook chapters, obviously turn on differ-ent and diverse musical traditions and his-torical phenomena; like historical positionsconcerning art and popular music, jazz androck music, as well as history and histori-ography in music education. Furthermore,the anthology is divided into different sec-tions, according to these categories, whichseems to be a reasonable editorial choice.The four main sections of the book areentitled Re-locating Art and Popular inMusic (three chapters in all, e.g. by DerekB. Scott, Alexander Carpenter and Chris-topher Wilkinson) Re-reading the JazzCanon (four chapters, by Sonya Lawson,Pekka Gronow, Kevin Fullerton, and PaulCarr), Re-visioning Rock Discourses (threechapters, by Chris Anderton, Holly Tessler,and Janne Mäkelä), and Re-reading Histo-ry in Music Education (two chapters, e.g.by Roberta Lamb and David G. Hebert),respectively. The italics are mine, demon-strating how the editors are trying to pin-point some of the many aspects of ”thelarge thematic umbrella of de-canonizing”(ix), I assume. Moreover, the editors andcontributors are utilizing terms like re-consideration, re-thinking, re-interpreta-tion, re-examination, re-vealing, re-union,re-evaluation, re-definition, re-categorisa-tion, re-making, and so on, in order to

obtain critique of some master narratives—or canons—governing the fields of musichistory and music education.

However, I must admit that I wasslightly confused by the fact that the mostcommon phrase used by the editors todescribe the overall critical analysis, is de-construction. The back cover promises that:“This book also shows how different stylesand traditions in music have formed theirown canons. Its main goal is to decon-struct these canons: to describe, analyzeand problematize them in their variety,” astatement which is also repeated in theintroduction, where it is further construed:“Deconstruction of canons involves a pos-sibility to frame new study objects, as wellas a change to re-interpret previous disci-plinary truths” (ix).

So far, so good. The problem may ariseif, or when, the individual chapters do notmeet the ambition of deconstruction in amore specific sense of the word. Whatseems to be the problem, is that this bookbears a tendency to conceive of decon-struction as an everyday expression, de-noting something like critical analysis, dis-mantling etc. In contrast, I find it appro-priate to recall that deconstruction is anintentional neologism, coined by JacquesDerrida, and invented to imply a certainkind of philosophical approach, which isconcerned with binary oppositions—notin order to reduce, reconstruct or elimi-nate those, but to comprehend such dif-ferences not as inherent, but instead associally produced and hierarchical mech-anisms for providing systematic priorityto one aspect of the dualism to the ne-glect of the other. Since it would havebeen very exciting to examine some ofthe internal/external dichotomies of mu-sical canons, the common lack of tracesof qualified Derridean deconstruction wasa bit disappointing, according to the teas-ers given. Deconstruction might, in thatcase, have helped the de-canonizing ef-forts to get a better focus on the dia-chronous and synchronous contextuality,complexity and contingency of musicalcanons as aesthetically and socio-cultur-

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ally charged fields of power, for instance.That said, the book is nonetheless

worthy of attention. For the readers ofthis journal, the chapters that cultivatepedagogical aspects of music and historymay be of particular interest. So even ifthere are several fine and well-writtenarticles within different directions and tra-ditions of music history (Derek Scott’schapter on the popular music revolutionin the Nineteenth century is for instancea very rich text, grounded in solid re-search), as well as articles that implythemes and topics of music education (likeChristopher Wilkinson’s chapter “A NewMaster Narrative of Western Musical His-tory: An American Perspective,” and Son-ya Lawson’s text on “Defy(n)ing Catego-rization: Moving Beyond the Jazz HistoryCanon”), I will comment more specifi-cally on the two articles, which have ex-plicit agendas regarding music education:

In his chapter “Rethinking the Histo-riography of Hybrid Genres in Music Ed-ucation,” David Hebert discusses how his-torical presentations of music education,its foreground figures and institutions, mostoften lack the narrative depth, by whichsystems of power and ideology associatedwith institutionalization could have beencontested. Thus, music education historiestend to neglect the: “examination of mul-ticultural identities, social inequalities, andthe experiences of common music learn-ers among newly-emergent genres out-side formal educational contexts” (163),he claims. Hebert further argues that theemergence of hybrid musical genres andprocesses has remained understudied inmusic education as well as in musicology.By describing three cases in which musi-cal hybrids are represented within variousnational histories of music education, hetries to underscore his points. However,while the presentation of musical hybrid-ity and transculturation in Japan, in NewZealand, and in the USA, may show somestrength in the broad, comparative scope,it seems, at the same time, to have somelimits, both in order to form a proper ba-sis of comparison, and when it comes to

the required degree of depth of the casestudies.

As opposed to this, Roberta Lamb’schapter on “Ethnomusicology, Feminism,Music Education: Telling Untold Tales”indeed demonstrates careful, and bold,investigation of biographical and histori-cal details. In her thorough way of de-canonizing the histories of the NorthAmerican Music Educators National Con-ference (MENC) and its apparently criti-cal alternative, the MayDay Group, shereveals how both organizations tend tomarginalize—and thereby placing as theOther—those in the field of music educa-tion who is: “excluded from the canon:feminists; anti-racists; those who are notmiddle-to-upper-class, white, American,able-bodied, heterosexual, male, Anglo-phones” (156). From the perspective of a—as you may have gathered—reviewerpreoccupied with deconstructive perspec-tives, this is the far more interesting, andradical, contribution in order to de-can-onizing history in music education in theanthology. In fact, Lamb’s chapter repre-sents an approach that is very closely as-sociated with deconstruction, in the wayshe draws attention to the marginal issuesand shows deep interest in exposing what—and who—is marginalized in music ed-ucation. By emphasizing an ethical im-portance of respecting differences and di-versities, this perspective may lead to anadded weight on the otherness of the oth-er, and consequently of the other’s socialjustice and human rights, eventually. Inline with this, I find Roberta Lamb’s arti-cle very inspiring, not least for scholarstrying to deconstruct taken-for-grantedbinaries, power structures and regulationsconcerning for instance gender issues andsocio-cultural hierarchies in music educa-tion.

So, when putting my music educator’s(deconstructive) hat on, this is what wasin this book for me. However, I realisethat one might very well find other mat-ters of interest in it. The anthology is sub-stantial enough for that.

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Yhteisön merkitysmuusikonkasvatuksessaKirja-arvio Tuula Kotilaisenteoksesta Portaat Parnassolle.Nuorisokoulutusta Sibelius-Akatemiassa125 vuotta. Classicus 2009.

ortaat Parnassolle sisältää kir-joittajansa, Sibelius-Akatemi-an nuoriso-osaston pitkäaikai-sena johtajana toimineen Tuu-la Kotilaisen näkemyksiä jakokemuksia nuoriso-osastonmerkityksestä suomalaistenhuippumuusikoiden kasvatta-

jana. Kirjoittajan positiivinen elämänasen-ne, suuri asiantuntemus ja pitkä kokemusmusiikillisesti lahjakkaiden nuorten kou-lutuksen luotsaajana välittyvät helppolu-kuisesta ja värikkäästi kirjoitetusta teks-tistä lukijalle. Kirjaa voi suositella yhtähyvin kiinnostavana puheenvuorona ainaajankohtaiseen ja tunteita herättävään ky-symykseen lahjakkaiden yksilöiden teho-koulutuksesta kuin viisaana näkemyksenäyhteisön kasvattavasta merkityksestä kai-kessa opetus- ja kasvatustoiminnassa.

Tuula Kotilainen on lähestynyt aihet-taan eri näkökulmista ja jaotellut teok-sensa kolmeen osaan, joista ensimmäises-sä hän kuvaa nuorisokoulutuksen kehitystäalkuajoista nykypäivään. Kuten kirjoittajaitsekin toteaa, näkökulma on hyvin oma-kohtainen ajanjaksolta, jolloin kirjoittajaitse vastasi osastosta. Teoksen toisessa osassakirjoittaja tarkastelee erityslahjakkuuttaopettajien ja opiskelijoiden kokemustenvalossa. Kolmas osa on nimeltään ”galle-ria”. Siinä kirjoittaja antaa äänen nuoriso-osaston kasvateille ja opettajille.

Kirja herättää paljon ajatuksia. Huip-puun hiottu laatu edellyttää aikaa ja kes-kittymistä, joka mahdollistuu esimerkiksisiten, että nuoriso-osastolainen harjoitte-lee päivisin ja suorittaa kouluaineita ilta-lukiossa tai tenttimällä. Ympäröivän yh-teisön – nuoriso-osaston – tärkeys on kir-jan ydin. Lahjakkaan nuoren lannistajana

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nähdään pikemminkin yksinäisyys (esimer-kiksi pienellä paikkakunnalla tai koulu-luokassa, jossa kukaan muu ei soita) kuinkurinalainen harjoittelu ja vaativa koulu-tus. Yhteenkuuluvuuden tunne, yhteisetviikonloppukurssit ja luokkatunnit huip-puopettajien johdolla muiden muusikoksiopiskelevien kanssa ovat edesauttaneetmonen nuoriso-osastolaisen kasvua niinihmisenä kuin taiteilijana.

Opettajan merkitystä korostetaan, eiainoastaan muusikkona vaan myös asen-teellisena kasvattajana. Kasvattaminen esi-merkiksi musiikilliseen moniarvoisuuteenperustuu opettajan toimintaan ja asentee-seen, joka välittyy herkkään, omaa identi-teettiään etsivään nuoreen. VisionäärinäTuula Kotilainen lopettaakin kirjan teks-tiosuuden Meta4-kvartetin haastatteluun,jossa nämä maailmalla mainetta niittävätja genre-rajoja rohkeasti ylittävät kvarte-tin jäsenet korostavat kamarimusiikin tär-keää merkitystä osana opintoja. Tulevai-suutta ennustetaan myös siten, että kirjanlukuisista kuvista viimeiseksi on sijoitettukuva Meta4-kvartetista esiintymässä kvar-tetin viulistin perustamalla Klasariklubillalokakuussa 2009.

Teoksen 304-sivuisen tekstiosuudenlisäksi kirja sisältää CD-levylle kootunmatrikkeliosuuden, johon on koottu op-pilastiedot vuosilta 1884–2009. Kaikenkaikkiaan kirjassa on valtavasti aineistoajatkotyöskentelyä ajatellen. Mielenkiintois-ta ja ajankohtaista aihetta käsittelevää teos-ta voi suositella kaikille, joita kiinnostavatmuusikoksi kasvun problematiikka ja muu-sikon koulutuksen mahdollisuudet nyky-yhteiskunnassa.

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Instructions toContributors

The Finnish Journal of Music Educationpublishes articles and reviews on the re-search and practice of music education.The Editorial Board will consider manu-scripts written in the following languag-es: Finnish, English or Swedish. Articleswritten in a language other than Englishmust include an English summary of max-imum length 200 words. The journal usesin-text references. The ethical code ofFJME does not allow consideration of anyarticles already published or submitted forpublication in other journals or books.Publishing decisions on manuscripts aremade by the Editorial Board of FJME. Thearticles are blind-reviewed by researcherswith relevant topical or methodologicalexpertise.

Please submit your text to the editor(s)by e-mail as an attachment (rtf). Furtherinformation about submitting contributionsis available from the Managing Editor.

Contact information

Postal addresses, e-mail addresses and tel-ephone numbers of the contributorsshould be enclosed.

Other remarks

The author of an article or review pub-lished in FJME will receive two copies ofthe issue.

Ohjeita kirjoittajille

Käsikirjoitukset

Musiikkikasvatus julkaisee musiikkikasva-tuksen alaa koskevia tieteellisiä ja käytän-töön liittyviä artikkeleita, katsauksia, pu-heenvuoroja, ajankohtaisiin tapahtumiin jaasioihin liittyviä kirjoituksia, kirjallisuus-arviointeja ja väitöslectioita. Lehden toi-mitukselle voi lähettää kirjoituksia jokosuomeksi, ruotsiksi tai englanniksi. Kirjoi-

tusten tulee olla sellaisia, joita ei ole lähe-tetty muualla julkaistavaksi. Käsikirjoituk-set arvioidaan lehden toimituskunnassa,joka käyttää vertaisarviointimenetelmää.

Suomenkielisiin teksteihin tulee liit-tää enintään 200 sanan englanninkielinentiivistelmä (Summary tai Abstract), muun-kielisiin vastaavan mittainen suomenkieli-nen tiivistelmä. Käsikirjoitukset lähetetääntoimitukselle sähköpostin liitetiedostona(rtf-muoto). Lähdeviitteissä käytetään kas-vatusalalla vakiintunutta merkintätapaa.Suositeltava lähdejulkaisujen maksimimää-rä on n. 20 kpl.

Esimerkkejä lähdeviitteiden merkitse-misestä / Examples of quotes:

Hakkarainen, K., Lonka, K. & Lipponen, L. 2000.

Tutkiva oppiminen. Porvoo: WSOY.

Richardson, L. 1994. Writing as a method of in-

quiry. Teoksessa N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (toim.)

Handbook of Qualitative Research. London: Sage,

516–529.

Soini, T. 2001. Aktiivinen transfer koulutuksen

tavoitteena. Psykologia 36 (1–2), 9–17.

Lehtonen, K. 1996. Musiikki, kieli ja kommuni-

kaatio. Mietteitä musiikista ja musiikkiterapiasta.

Jyväskylän yliopisto. Musiikkitieteen laitoksen jul-

kaisusarja A. Tutkielmia ja raportteja 17.

Kirjoittajan yhteystiedot

Kirjoittajaa pyydetään kertomaan yhteys-tietonsa (nimi, oppiarvo / virka-asema,osoite ja sähköposti) toimitukselle.Muuta

Lehti ei maksa kirjoituspalkkioita. Artik-keleiden ja katsausten kirjoittajat saavatkaksi kappaletta kyseisen lehden nume-roa ja muut kirjoittajat yhden lehden.

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Musiikkikasvatus 2010 / vsk. 13 nro 1

Contributors /Kirjoittajat

Petter DyndahlProfessor of Music Education and MusicologyHedmark University Collegepetter.dyndahl@hihm.no

David G. HebertAssociate Professor of Music EducationUniversity of Southern Mississippi (2010-)Professor, Sibelius Academy (2008-2010)davidgabrielmusic@yahoo.com

Marja HeimonenResearcher and scientific advisorSibelius Academymarja.heimonen@hihm.no

Ylva Hofvander-TrulssonDoctoral studentMalmö Academy of Music, LundUniversityylva.hofvander_trulsson@mhm.lu.se

Keld HosbondInternational Affairs CoordinatorRoyal Academy of Music, Aarhus,Denmarkhttp://glomus.net

Tuovi MartinsenSenior Advisor for International AffairsSibelius Academy, Finlandhttp://glomus.net

Laura MiettinenDoctoral studentSibelius Academylaura.miettinen@siba.fi

Minna MuukkonenLecturer in Music EducationSibelius Academyminna.muukkonen@siba.fi

Rauni RäsänenProfessor of EducationUniversity of Oulurauni.rasanen@oulu.fi

Thomas A. RegelskiProfessor Emeritus, DocentSchool of Music, SUNY, Fredonia, U.S.A.University of Helsinkitom.regelski@helsinki.fi

Eva SætherSenior Lecturer of Music EducationMalmö Academy of Music,Lund Universityeva.saether@mhm.lu.se

Huib SchippersProfessor and DirectorQueensland Conservatorium ResearchCentre, Griffith Universityh.schippers@griffith.edu.au

Michaela SchwarzbauerAssociate Professor of Music EducationUniversität Mozarteum Salzburgmichaela.schwarzbauer@moz.ac.at

Esbjörn WettermarkPostgraduate studentMalmö Academy of Music,Lund Universityewettermark@gmail.com

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FJME 2010 / vol. 13 nr. 1

Editorial Office /Toimitus

Review Readers forthe Editorial Board /

Toimituskunnanlausunnonantajat

Randall Allsup, Columbia University,New York, U.S.A.

Cathy Benedict, New York University,U.S.A.

Ulla-Britta Broman-Kananen,Suomen Akatemia, Sibelius-Akatemia /Academy of Finland, Sibelius Academy

David Hebert, Sibelius-Akatemia /Sibelius Academy

Marja Heimonen, Sibelius-Akatemia /Sibelius Academy

Airi Hirvonen, Oulun yliopisto /University of Oulu

Matti Huttunen, Sibelius-Akatemia /Sibelius Academy

Eeva Kaisa Hyry, Oulun yliopisto /University of Oulu

Marja-Leena Juntunen, Oulunyliopisto & Sibelius-Akatemia /University of Oulu & Sibelius Academy

Sidsel Karlsen, Hedmark UniversityCollege, Norway

AddressSibelius Academy

Department of Music EducationP.O. Box 86, FIN-00251 Helsinki

Sähköposti / E-mail: fjme@siba.fi

Toimituskunta / Editorial BoardMaija Fredrikson, Oulun yliopisto /

University of OuluJukka Louhivuori, Jyväksylän

yliopisto / University of JyväskyläHeikki Ruismäki, Helsingin

yliopisto / University of HelsinkiLauri Väkevä, Sibelius-Akatemia /

Sibelius Academy

Päätoimittaja / Managing EditorHeidi Westerlund,

Sibelius-Akatemia / Sibelius Academy

Toimitussihteeri /Editorial Assistant

Marja Heimonen,Sibelius-Akatemia / Sibelius Academy

OsoiteSibelius-Akatemia

Musiikkikasvatuksen osastoPL 86, 00251 Helsinki

Roberta Lamb, Queen’s UniversitySchool of Music, Canada

Markus Mantere, Sibelius-Akatemia /Sibelius Academy

Minna Muukkonen, Sibelius-Akatemia /Sibelius Academy

Ava Numminen, Sibelius-Akatemia /Sibelius Academy

Pirkko Paananen, Jyväskylänyliopisto / University of Jyväskylä

Thomas A. Regelski, Helsinginyliopisto / University of Helsinki

Marja-Liisa Saarilammi,Korkeakoulujen arviointineuvosto /Higher Education Evaluation Council

Miikka Salavuo, Sibelius-Akatemia /Sibelius Academy

Patrick Schmidt,Westminster Choir College, U.S.A.

Sara Sintonen, Helsingin yliopisto /University of Helsinki

Lauri Väkevä, Sibelius-Akatemia /Sibelius Academy

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