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Peta Minda Untuk Sains Tingkatan Satu. Mengandungi 20 peta minda merangkumi kesemua 7 bab yang berkaitan. Dapatkannya di www.petaminda.comTRANSCRIPT
www.petaminda.comPeta Minda Untuk Sains Tingkatan 1
www.petaminda.comPeta Minda Untuk Sains Tingkatan 1
SyaratSyarat Dan Terma Penggunaan E-Book Ini
Produk : "E-Book" Peta Minda Untuk Sains Tingkatan Satu
Syarat Penggunaan Produk
Dengan pembelian produk ini anda telah bersetuju dan mengakuiuntuk mematuhi syarat dan terma bagi penggunaan produk ini.
Produk ini diterbitkan oleh Mohd. Nasarruddin Bin Ahmad dandilindungi di bawah Akta Hak Cipta 1987.
Anda tidak dibenarkan untuk menyebarkan produk ini dengan apa-apacara sekalipun. Produk ini hanya untuk kegunaan peribadi andasendiri.
Anda tidak dibenarkan untuk menyalin-ulang mana-mana bahagiandalam produk ini atau mengeditnya menggunakan perisian lain tanpakebenaran daripada pihak penerbit. Sebarang perbuatan untukmenyebarkan produk ini secara sengaja atau tidak sengaja akanmenyebabkan hak anda untuk menggunakan produk ini terbataldengan serta-merta.
Penafian Penerbit
Produk ini dihasilkan untuk menyediakan maklumat berkaitan subjekyang dinyatakan. Kami telah berusaha sedaya upaya agar maklumatyang dihasilkan dalam produk ini adalah tepat.
Walau bagaimanapun, pihak kami tidak akan bertanggungjawabterhadap perubahan maklumat semasa berkaitan dengan subjek yangberkenaan kerana perubahan maklumat sentiasa berlaku sepanjangmasa.
Pembelian dan penggunaan produk ini adalah tanggungjawab andasepenuhnya. Kami tidak akan bertanggung jawab terhadap sebarangliabiliti dan risiko kerugian sepanjang penggunaan produk ini.
Tiada jaminan bahawa produk ini mampu mengubah kehidupanpengguna dari segi kebolehan dan sebagainya kerana ianya bergantungkepada usaha pengguna itu sendiri.
Pengguna adalah bertanggungjawab sepenuhnya di atas tindakansendiri yang dilakukan berdasarkan kandungan di dalam produk ini.
Tujuan utama produk ini adalah untuk perkongsian maklumat semata-mata.
Xi
Lesen: Kegunaan sendiri Jangan sebarkan Kegunaan anda sahaja
Hak Cipta Terpelihara Mohd Nasarruddin Bin Ahmad
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Sebelum mendudukipeperiksaan anda akanhanya lakukan ulangkajipantas yang merumuskankesemua bahagian ingatan.
Ulangkaji semula darimasa ke semasamengikut keperluan anda.Masa yang diambil akanmenjadi semakin singkatkerana ingatan andasemakin mantap.
Ulangkaji peta mindaanda seberapa kerapyang mungkin.Abaikan bahagianyang anda telah ingat.Baca bahagian yanganda terlupa.
Baca semula peta mindaanda keesokan harinyauntuk mengisi semulaingatan yang telah hilang
Selepas 1 jam prosespembelajaran, andaseharusnya mengulangkajisemula selama 10-30 minit.
CARAPENGGUNAAN
A
Sebagai contoh,sila lihat petaminda yangpertama di muka1 iaitu"Introduction ToScience"
Nota yang terdapat dalam peta minda ini hendaklahdibaca menurut turutannya. Ia mengandungi cabangutama yang berlabel dengan huruf bersaiz besarseperti:
dan seterusnya.CBA
Ia bermula dengancabang utama
iaitu "SCIENCE: PARTOF EVERYDAY LIFE"
A
Ini diikuti oleh katakunciyang bercambah daricabang ini iaitu yangberlabeliaitu "Science"
1
Ulangi langkah yang samabagi dahan dandengan membaca rantingdan ranting kecil mengikutturutan huruf a, b, c....dannombor 1, 2, 3.... sebelumanda pergi ke cabangutama berlabel
iaitu "AREAS OF STUDY ANDCAREERS" untukmeneruskan bacaan.
2 3
B
Cabang "Science" pula akanbercambah menjadi ranting yangmengandungi fakta yang berturutanyang berlabel , , dan .Habiskan membacanya sebelum andapergi ke dahan yang berlabeliaitu "Natural Phenomena".
ca b
2
4
3
2
5
1 6
BE-book Peta MInda untuk SAINS UPSR adalah dalamformat PDF. Untuk membukanya komputer anda harusmempunyai program Adobe Acrobat Reader. Jika tidakmuaturunkan dari:http://get.adobe.com/reader/
Gunakan pencetak warna untuk supaya gambar yangdipaparkan adalah berwarna dan menarik untuk dibacasebelum dijilidkan. Ini adalah kerana warna berupayameningkatkan ingatan. Apabila dicetak, mukasuratnyaadalah dalam saiz A4. Walaupun boleh dibaca oleh matakasar, jika anda mahukan saiz huruf yang lebih besar, andaboleh membuat salinan fotokopi ke kertas A3 denganpembesaran 141% untuk paparan yang lebih besar danjelas. Selepas itu bolehlah dijilidkan menjadi buku.
SALINANKERAS,
PENJILIDAN DANPEMBESARAN 2
1MENGULANGKAJIPETA MINDA
ANDA
C
Kajian telah menunjukkanbahawa ingatan akan
berkurang mengikut masa yangtertentu.Sebagai persediaan
bagi peperiksaan, andaharuslah mengulangkaji peta
minda anda dari masa kesemasa. Ini membolehkan anda
untuk memperbaiki bahagianyang kurang diingati, atau
mengingatkan semula bahagianyang terlupa .
CARA 12
c
d
ab
e
Saiz A4
KEJAYAANAKAN MENANTI
ANDA !
3
3
Penjilidan
Saiz A3
Fotokopi
141%
Penjilidan
ii
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iii
CHAPTER 1 :INTRODUCTION TO SCIENCE
A. SCIENCE PART OF EVERY DAY LIFE........................... 1
B. AREAS OF STUDY........................................................... 1
C. CAREERS..........................................................................1
D. THE SCIENCE LABORATORY (1)................................... 1
E. THE SCIENCE LABORATORY (2)................................... 2
F. USING THE BUNSEN BURNER....................................... 2
G. HAZARD SYMBOLS........................................................ 2
H. SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION......................................... 3
I. PHYSICAL QUANTITIES................................................. 3
J. PREFIXES......................................................................... 4
K. MEASURING LENGTHS.................................................. 4
L. MEASURING AREAS........................................................ 4
M. MEASURING LIQUID VOLUMES.................................... 5
N. MEASURING SOLID VOLUMES..................................... 5
O. MEASURING TEMPERATURE........................................ 5
P. CHOOSING SUITABLE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS.. 6
Q. WEIGHT AND MASS........................................................ 6
R. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WEIGHT AND MASS........ 6
Q. IMPORTANCE OF STANDARD UNITS........................... 6
CHAPTER 2 :CELL AS A UNIT OF LIFE
A. CELL................................................................................. 7
B. MICROSCOPE.................................................................. 7
C. CELL STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS......................... 7
D. USING A MICROSCOPE.................................................. 7
E. ANIMAL AND PLANT CELL COMPARISON.................. 7
F. UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS.......................................... 8
G. MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS..................................... 8
H. MICROORGANISMS........................................................ 8
I. HUMAN CELL ORGANISATION........................................ 8
J. HUMAN BEINGS: COMPLEX ORGANISMS.................... 8
CHAPTER 3: MATTER
A. CHARACTERISTICS........................................................ 9
B. MADE UP SMALL PARTICLES........................................ 9
C. 3 STATES OF MATTER.................................................. 9
D. PARTICLE ARRANGEMENT........................................... 9
E. PARTICLE MOVEMENT.................................................. 9
F. DENSITY............................................................................ 10
G. FLOAT OR SINK?............................................................ 10
H. NUMERICAL EXAMPLES................................................ 10
I. APPLICATIONS OF PROPERTIES OF MATTER.......... 10
CHAPTER 4:VARIETY OF RESOURCES ON EARTH
A. AIR..................................................................................... 11
B. WATER.............................................................................. 11
C. SOIL.................................................................................. 11
D. MINERALS........................................................................ 11
E. FOSSIL FUELS............................................................... 11
F. LIVING THINGS..................................................................11
G. ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS, MIXTURES....................... 12
H. ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS, MIXTURES COMPARISON............................................................... 12
I. METALS AND NON-METALS.......................................... 12
J. EARTH'S RESOURCES CONSERVATION AND PRESERVATION................................................... 12
CHAPTER 5:THE AIR AROUND US
A. COMPOSITION................................................................ 13
B. AIR: A MIXTURE............................................................... 13
C. PROPERTIES OF OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE.. 13
D. OXYGEN FOR RESPIRATION....................................... 13
E. CARBON DIOXIDE FROM RESPIRATION...................... 13
F. OXYGEN FOR COMBUSTION........................................ 14
G. AIR POLLUTION.............................................................. 14
H. AIR POLLUTION CONTROL.......................................... 14
CHAPTER 6:SOURCES OF ENERGY
A. ENERGY: Ability to do work............................................. 15
B. ENERGY FORMS............................................................. 15
C. ENERGY SOURCES........................................................ 15
D. POTENTIAL ENERGY AND KINETIC ENERGY............ 15
E. NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES...................... 16
F. RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES................................ 16
G. USING ENERGY EFFICIENTLY...................................... 16
H. CONSERVATION OF ENERGY SOURCES................... 16
I. RENEWABLE ENERGY DEVELOPEMENT..................... 16
CHAPTER 7: HEAT
A. A FORM OF ENERGY...................................................... 17
B. HEAT PRODUCTION........................................................ 17
C. HEAT AND TEMPERATURE............................................ 17
D. HEAT/TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES.......................... 17
E. HEAT FLOW EFFECTS.................................................. 17
F. HEAT FLOW..................................................................... 18
G. HEAT FLOW TYPES....................................................... 18
H. HEAT FLOW IN NATURAL PHENOMENA...................... 18
I. HEAT CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS.................... 18
J. USES OF HEAT CONDUCTORS..................................... 19
K. USES OF HEAT INSULATORS....................................... 19
L. EFFECTS OF HEAT ON STATES OF MATTER............ 19
M. CHANGES OF STATE SUMMARY................................. 19
N. APPLICATIONS OF EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION.............................................................. 20
O. SOLVING PROBLEMS USING EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION................................ 20
P. HEAT ABSORPTION AND HEAT RELEASE.................. 20
Q. HEAT FLOW BENEFITS................................................ 20
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Chemicalproperties
Living organism
Life processes
Matter
Energy
Natural forces
Biochemicalprocesses ofliving things
Industrial use ofliving orgnisms
To makeusefulproducts
Plants andtheirstructures
Rocks, minerals,earth's structure
Sun, planets, stars
Microorganisms
Processes andfunctions of livingsystems
Composition
Physics
Biology
Chemistry
AgricultureTransfer money, paybills, shopping, workfrom home
Observation
A
Experimentation
2
1
Systematicstudy ofnature
Tounderstandhow natureaffects lives
andenvionment
Gainedknowledge
from..
Science
Occurencesin nature
Growth of plants
Aurora
Eclipse ofmoon and sun
Rainbowformation
Examples
NaturalPhenomena
SCIENCE:PART OF
EVERYDAY LIFE
3Importanceof Science
Make lives morecomfortable
Improve standardof living
ScientificDiscoveries
Conserveenvironment
Preserveenvironment
ScientificKnowledge
Application ofscientificknowledge
Makes lives morecomfortable
Examples
Technology
Medicine
Faster, safer,vehicles
Modern highways,safer & fastertravelling
Light rail/commutertrains transport morepassengers, reducetraffic jams /pollution
Telephone
Transportation
Facsimile
Radio
Television
ComputersSatellites -long distancecommunication
Tools
Plants withhigher yeilds/resist diseases
Animals grow faster
Tractors, combineharvester
Fertilisers
Insecticides
Increase FoodProduction
ICT(Information
CommunicationTechnology)
Communication
X-raymachines
LasersElectrocardiographs
dialysis
Surgeries
Organ transplant
Healthier &Longer Life
Tools
Biochemistry
BiotechnolgyBotany
Geology
Astronomy
Microbiology
PhysiologyAREAS OF
STUDY
Chemistry trained
Plant sciencespecialist
Trained inmedical science
Preparesanddispensesmedicines
Designs, builts,maintains engines,buildings, roads
Designs buildings
Specialist inmicroorganisms
Patients carespecialist
Animal doctor
Developecomputersoftware
Botanist
Chemist
ComputerProgrammer
Doctor
PharmacistEngineer
Architect
Microbiologist
Nurse
VeterinarianCAREERS
THE SCIENCELABORATORY
(1)
Line upoutside thelab beforeentering
Never entersthe lab withoutpermission
Food and drinksare not allowed inthe lab
Apparatus andchemicals cannotbe taken out of lab
Consult theteacher forhelp and advice
GeneralRules
Never carry outexperiment withoutpermissionRead instructions
carefully beforedoing experiment.Consult teacher ifnecessary.
Handleapparatuscarefully
Checklabels onchemicals
Handlechemicalswith spatula
Use small amounts ofchemicalsto preventwastage
Never pourunusedchemicalinto reagentbottle to
prevent contamination
Never point themouth of test tubetowards anyonewhen heating it
Throw solidwaste into binsnot into sinks
Do not taste anychemicals or inhale
any gas unlessinstructed
Report anybreakages orfaulty equipment
Report any mishaps
Wash and returnapparatus after use
Wash handsthoroughly afterhandling chemicals
Keepbenchesclean
Do not waste water,electricity and gas
SafetyPrecautions
BC
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INTRODUCTIONTO SCIENCE
(1 - 6)
FORM 1 CHAPTER 1
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Avoid directcontact
Wash withrunning waterwhencontacted
Store inlockedplace
Keep awayfrom heat/fire
Catches fire/burn easily
Sodium/potassiummetals
Concentratedacids/alkali
Hydrogen/airmixture Keep in
paraffinAvoidcontactingwater
Keep awayfrom heat/fire
CommonApparatus
(1)
SCIENCELABORATORY
(2)
CommonApparatus
(2)
Evaporating dish
To evaporate liquidfrom solution
Bell jar
Displacementcan
Filter funnel
To separate experimentsetup from outsideenvironment
Tocollectgases
Gas jar Test tube
Boiling tube
To containsmallamounts ofsubstances
To heatsmallamounts ofsubstances
Conikalflask
To contain/collectchemicals
Roundbottomflask
To containchemicalswhenpreparinggases
Measuringcylinder
To measure volumes ofliquid ( 1 cm3 accuracy)
Burette
To measurevolumes ofliquid ( 1 cm3
accuracy)
Pipette
To measurespecificvolumes ofliquidaccurately
Retort stand
To holdapparatus
retor tc l a m p
Tripod stand
To supportapparatusduring heating
wire gauze
Test-tuberack
To hold testtubesvertically
Bunsenburner
Test-tubeholder
To hold test tubewhen heating
To provideheatingflame
Stopwatch
To measuretime
Thermometer To measuretemperatureMetre rule
Beam balance
To measure mass
USING THEBUNSEN BURNER
gas jetair hole
barrel
collar
Turn collar to close air hole
Turn on gas
Bring match tomouth of barrel
Steps
When air holeclosed,
luminousyellow flameWhen air hole
opened ,non-luminous
blue flame
Flame
ExamplesHandlingMethods
HandlingMethods
Explodeswhen mixedwith other
subsrances
Explosive
PetrolKeroseneEthanol
White/yellowphosphorus
Methylatedspir its
Examples
Flammable
paraf f in
Causes harm/death if swallowed
/ inhaled / skinabsorbed
MercuryCyanidesLead
Benzene
ChloroformBromine
Examples
Causes damageto skin / eye
HandlingMethods
Concentratedacids
Hydrogenperoxide
BromineConcentratedalkali
Examples
Corrosive
Do not taste
HandlingMethods
Toxic /poisonous
HAZARDSYMBOLS
Irritates skin /eye / respiratory
system
Avoidinhalation
Use fumecupboard
HandlingMethods
Ammonia
Bromine Chlorine
Chloroform
Examples
Irritant /Harmful
Emits radiationharmful to bodycells / tissues
Keep in leadcontainers
Uranium
PlutoniumRadium
Thorium
Examples
HandlingMethods
Radioactive
Radioactivesubstance
air holeclosed
Temperature300oC
air holeopened
Temperature700oC
E
FG
21
3
2
1
4
32
5
1
6
c
d
abTo find thevolume of
liquiddisplaced
To separate solidfrom liquid usingfilter paper
To heat solids directlyover flames
Crucible
hef g
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2
To measure length(accuracy 0.1 cm)
X
INTRODUCTIONTO SCIENCE
(2 - 6)
FORM 1 CHAPTER 1
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Eg: Normaltemperature ofbody is 37oC
Eg: Time takenfor an athlete torun 100 m is10.00 s
Eg: Length of insect
Eg: Length of book
Eg: Distance between houseand school = 5km
kilometres(km)
Eg: Length of room
met re(m)
In SI units (InternationalSystem of Units)
A quantity that canbe measured
Identify patterns indata and relationshipbetween manipulatedvariable andresponding variable
Make an inference:a statement madeby reasoningbasedobservations andmeasurementsExample: Timetaken for thependulum to makeone swingincreases as thelength of thependulumincreases
H
3
Involve the principleof logic in solvingscientific problems
A systematic methodused by scientists intheir investigations
1 2
SCIENTIFICINVESTIGATION
Thequestion tobe solved
Open endedquestion
What toinvestigate
a
c
STEPS
Identifyingthe Problem
Analysingdata
Shows relationship betweenmanipulated variable andresponding variable
Hypothesis: Astatement that can betested by experiment
Control thevariables Determine
materials andapparatus
Determineprocedure
Determinecollection dataand dataanalysismethod
RespondingVariable : Variablethat is beingobserved
Variables : Factorsthat affect theresult ofexperiment Manipulated
Variable :Variable that ischanged to seethe effect
Fixed Variables :Variable that are notchanged throughoutexperiment
Controllingvariables
Planning theexperiment
Record data by:(a) observation(b) measurements
Measurementstypes:(a) time(b) temperature changes(c) colour
Tabulate data inappropriate tables
Collectingdata
Organise datain tables,graphs,charts,diagrams
Acceptinghypothesisi fsupportedby results
Rejecthypothesisif notsupportedby results
Form newhypothesisand carryfurtherexperiments
(a) Aim of experiment, on therelationship between variables
(b) List the 3 variables(c) List all apparatus and materials
needed(d) Draw a labelled scientific
drawing of the arrangement ofapparatus
(e) Write the procedures carryingout the experiment
(f) Tabulate the data obtained(g) Analyse the data (by graphs,
calculation or comparison)(h) Conclusion
Contains the completeexperimental proceduresand results
Writing areport
Reportformat
Example: The longer the lengthof a pendulum the longer theperiod of osccilation
Forming ahypothesis
TEMPERATURE ELECTRICCURRENT
LENGTH
SI Units
6 m
Longerdistance
Interpretingdata
Example:The longer thependulum, thelonger theperiod ofoscillation.Hypothesis isaccepted
Makingconclusion
centimetres(cm)
milliimetres( mm )
Shorterdistance
20 cm
16 mm
TIME
seconds(s)
SI Units
minutes
hours
days
months
yearsPHYSICAL
QUANTITIES
kilogram(kg)
Eg: Mass of a baby is 3 kg.
SI Units
grams (g)milligrams (mg)
Smallermass
MASS
kelvin (K)
Celcius (oC) :for daily use
SI Units
Ampere (A)
SI Units
Summary
I
3
4
3 2
1
5
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8
ba
c
b
c
d
ab
c
d
ab
c
a
b
c
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a
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a
bc
a
b
Examples
a
b
a a
2
1
2
1
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2 1
2
3
1
4
5
2
1
2
1
2
311
INTRODUCTIONTO SCIENCE
(3 - 6)
FORM 1 CHAPTER 1
Physcical SI unit Symbolquantity
Length metre m
Mass kiogram kg
Time seconds s
Temperature kelvin K
Current ampere A
pie chart
linegraph
bar chart
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Is the size ofsurface of object
Use formulae
Wrap the measuring tape around theobject and read the scale that meets thezero mark on the tape.
Reading = 63 cm
Error caused by the wrongposition of eye is calledparallax error
Example 2:Change the following units ofmeasurements into kg(a) 250 g = (250 / 1000) = 0.25 kg
(b) 6 000 Mg 6 000 Mg = 6 000 000 000 g = (6 000 000 000 / 1000) kg = 6 000 000 kg(c) 5 mg 5 mg = 5 x 0.001 g = 0.005 g = (0.005 / 1000) kg = 0.000 005 kg
(d) 40 000 g 40 000 g = 40 000 x 0.000 001 g = 0.04 g = (0.04/1000) kg = 0.000 04 kg
Example 1:Write the following using prefixes(a) 77 000g 77 x 1000g = 77kg
(b) 0.000 004 A 4 x 0.000 001 A = 4 A
(c) 7 800 m 7.8 x 1000 m = 78 km
(d) 0.006 g 6 x 0.001 m = 6 mg
L
Prefixes Symbol Numerical value
Tera T 1 000 000 000 000 or 1012
Giga G 1 000 000 000 or 109
Mega M 1 000 000 or 106
kilo k 1 000 or 103
hecto h 1 00 or 102
deca da 10 or 101
deci d 0.1 or 10-1
centi c 0.01 or 10-2
milli m 0.001 or 10-3
micro m 0.000 001 or 10-6
nano n 0.000 000 001 or 10-9
pico p 0.000 000 000 001 or 10-12
femto f 0.000 000 000 000 001 or 10-15
To expressphysical quantitieswhich are very big
or very small
Examples
Place one end ofobject at zeromark of ruler/tape
Place eye vertically onmark (correct position)to take reading
StraightObjects
2
Do not place eye at position A or B(incorrect position) because thereadings are not accurate.
XA
3
a
Reading = 2.4 cm4
b4
PREFIXES
CurvedObjects /
Lines
MEASURINGLENGTHS
XBC
Place string on rulerto measure length
Make mark on string
Use string to tracethe curve surface
Using string &meter rule
Diameter ofObjects
(cylinders/spheres)
UsingOpisometer
Usingmeasuring
tape
An instrumentwith a revolving
wheel formeasuring a
curved line
In sophisticated models, the wheel isconnected via gearing to a rotary dial fromwhich the line length can be directly read.
Internalcalipers
Externalcalipers
Externeldiameter
g a sja r
Internaldiameter
Using Calipersand ruler
Measure thediameterusing the ruler
Open the legs of thecalipers until their tips
touches the inner wall ofthe gas jar
cyl indr i ca lt u b e
Grip thecylindricaltube at theplace wherethecalipers'legs openthe largest
Measure thediameterusing the ruler
More AccurateTools
Can measureinternal andexternal diameters
Measurementsto the nearest0.1 mm
Verniercalipers
in tern alc al i p er s Measure
diameters up to0.01 mm
Micrometerscrew gauge
MEASURINGAREAS
Area
Other Units:square millimetres (mm2)square centimetres (cm2)square kilometres (km2)
SI Units:square metres (m2)
Conversions:1m2 = 100 cm x 100 cm = 10 000 cm2
1cm2 = 10 mm x 10 mm = 100 mm2
RectangleArea = width x length
TriangleArea = ½ x base x height
CircleArea = x radius2
RegularShapes
Use graphpaper for
estimation IrregularShapes
Mark ( ) on every completesquare ( 1 cm2) covered byshape
Mark ( ) on everyincomplete square whichcover half the area ofsquare or more
Find totalnumber ofticks ( ) fortotal area
Methods
J
K
3
2 1
3
2
1
3
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da
b
c
d
ab
a
b
a
b
c
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2
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st r i ng
2
1
1
2
a
1
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a
b
21
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2
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1
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w id t h
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1
INTRODUCTIONTO SCIENCE
(4 - 6)
FORM 1 CHAPTER 1
Use ruler ormeasuring tape
Ruler
externalc al i p er s
Number of ticks = 51Area = 51 uni t2
3 0
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Place under toungefor 2 minutes
Fill a eureka canwith water untilexcess wateroverflows
Place an emptymeasuringcylinder below itsspout
Lower a solid tiedto a string intothe eureka can
Volume of solid= Final volume - initial volume= 40 - 30= 10 cm3
Fill a measuringcylinder withwater. Recordinitial volume
Measure fixedvolume (25 cm3)
Suck in water/solutioninto pipette using apipette filler.
Meniscuscurvedownwards
M
MEASURINGLIQUID VOLUMES
Is a measure ofspace occupied
by object
Other Units:cubic millimetres (mm3)cubic centimetres (cm3)millitres (ml)litres (l)
SI Units:cubic metres (m3)
Conversions:1 cm3 = 1 ml1 l = 1 000 ml (cm3)1 m3 = 1 000 000 ml (cm3)
Volume
Usually measured inlitres (l) andmillilitres(ml )
Usually measured incm3 and m3.
Volumes ofLiquids
Volumes ofSolid
A measuringcylinder
Measurementto nearest mlor cm3
Bottom partofmeniscus.Reading= 42 cm3
incorrect X
incorrect X
correct
Placeeye atsamelevel atbottom ofmeniscus
Mercury
UsingMeasuring
Cylinder
1
2
a Meniscuscurve upwards
Water/Solutions
incorrect X
incorrect X
correct Top part ofmeniscus.Reading = 49 cm3
50
40
UsingBurrete
3
A burette
Smallest division= 1 cm3
}
Add water/solutioninto burrete using afilter funnel
Clampvertically
Record initialreading
Record finalreading
(3.90 cm3)
Volume in conical flask= final reading - initial reading= 3.90 - 3.30= 0.60 cm3
Techniques
(3.30 cm3)
Open tap torelease somewater / solution
4
Measurement tonearest 0.1 ml or cm3
Smallest division= 0.1 cm3
}
A pipette
UsingPipette
The volume is exactly25.0 cm3 when themeniscus reaches the25 cm3 mark.
Techniques
25 cm3 mark
0.60 cm3
Lower a solid tiedto a string into themeasuringcylinder. Recordfinal volume
WaterDisplacement
Method
For solids too large formeasuring cylinder
Using EurekaCan
The volume ofwater is equal tothe volume of solid.
MEASURINGSOLID
VOLUMES
Liquid-in-glassThermometer
MEASURINGTEMPERATURE
Bulb containingmercury
capillary tube
Measuresbodytemperature
Between35 oC and 42oC
ClinicalThermometer
Bulbcontaining
alcohol withred dye
To measure temperatureof water, place the bulbof the thermometer inthe water
AlcoholThermometer
N
O
1
2
1
cd
a
b
e
f
c
d
b
c
a
bc
ab
c
ab
c
d
a
b
ab
2
4 1
3
1a
21
2
4
1
3
2
1
5
INTRODUCTIONTO SCIENCE
(5 - 6)
FORM 1 CHAPTER 1
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To enablescientist shareinformation withgreater accuracy
New system(1960):metre-kilogram-second (mks)
Old system:foot-pound-second (fps)
Need to knowexact amount ofmoney to buy foodsupplies at themarket
Need to knowexact amounts ofingredients toproduce foodproducts
Accuracy inmeasurements
Compressionbalance
Springbalance
Force of gravity
Beambalance
The quantity ofmatter of object isconstant
The quantity ofmatter contained ina substance.
Force exerted onobject due toearth's gravity
SI units:Newton (N)
Improve accuracy bytaking average readings
The differencebetween themeasured valueand the actualvalue
P
CHOOSING SUITABLEMEASURINGINSTRUMENT
How closemeasured value isto actual value
ACCURACY
1
More accurate andprecise readingshas smaller errors
Zero error occurswhen reading ofinstrument doesnot show zero
ERRORS
The difference invalue between severalmeasurements
High precision:A set of reading that differsslightly from average
Eg:Three ammeter readings:
1.2A 1.3A 1.4A
Average = 1.2 + 1.3 + 1.4 4
= 1.3A
Example:Three ammeter readings:
1.2A 1.3A 1.4A
Average = 1.2 + 1.3 + 1.4 4
= 1.3A
Example:Three ammeter readings:
1.2A 0.9A 1.4A
Low precision:A set of readingthat differs a lotfrom average
PRECISION
WEIGHTAND
MASS
WEIGHT
MeasuringWeights
Leverbalance SI units:
Kilogram (kg)
MASS
Mass of objectdoes notchange
Solid has themost matter, haslargest mass.
All have same volume and same type of particle.
Gas has the leastmatter, hassmallest mass.
Liquid
DIFFERENCES BETWEENWEIGHT AND MASS
Electronicbalance
Weight
Force of gravity thatacts on object
Changes according togravity
Newtons (N)
Spring balanceCompression balance
Mass
Quantity of matter inan object
Constant at anyplace
Kilograms (kg)
Beam balanceLever balanceElectronic balance
Definition
Value
SI Units
MeasuringInstruments
IMPORTANCE OFSTANDARD UNITS
Old to new systemconversion:
Lengths:
1 inch = 2.54 cm1 foot = 12 inches = 0.3048 m1 yard = 3 feet = 0.9144 m1 mile = 1 760 yards = 1.609 km1 cm = 10 mm = 0.3937 inch1 metre = 100 cm = 3.28 ft1 km = 1 000 cm = 0.621 mile
Weights:1 ounce = 28.35 g1 pouns = 16 ounces = 453.591 tonne = 2 000 pounds = 907.18 kg
Consistency inMeasurements
A single systemmakes
measurements indaily activities,
manufacturing andtrade very easy
Useful in Internationalcommunications
MeasuringMass
Weaker gravity,smaller weight
116N
Moon
Earth
Stronger gravity,larger weight
700N
Weight changeswhen force of
gravity changes
Near zero gravity,near zero weight
Q
R
S
2
2
1
3
2 1
b
c
c
ab
c
a
b
cab
ab
c
ab
d
a2
3
1
23
1
23
1
2
3
4
1
6
INTRODUCTIONTO SCIENCE
(6 - 6)
FORM 1 CHAPTER 1
a
No zero error Zero error occursin both readings
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Concentrateslight ontospecimen
Condenser
Provide lightfor observation
Controlsamount of light
To hold slidespecimens
Magnification range:From x 10 to x 40
Change magnificationby changing objectivelens
Lens thatmagnifiesspecimen
To stabilisemicroscope
To move lenscloser
Caution: Lensmust not touchthe slide
To move lenscloser in smalldegrees
Place for slidewith specimens
Place to holdwhencarrying
Lens to lookthrough Magnifies
the image
Arm
Eyepiece
Contains clipsto hold slideStage
Coarsefocus knob
Finefocus knob
Base
Part that containsall lenses
Body tube
Clips
Diaphragm
Lightsource
PARTS OFMICROSCOPEAnimal cells
No fixed shape
No fixed pattern
Plant cells
Fixed shaped
Regular pattern
Cell shape
Arrangement
Cell wall
Vacuole
Chloroplast
Stores food /waste material
Dense jelly-likestructure
Basic units forplants and animals
Controls substancemovement in and out of cell
Thin layersurrounds cell
Place microscope on flat surface
To observeobjects not visibleto naked eye
Saw corkcells likesmall rooms(cell)Building
blocks of life
Discovered byRobert Hooke
Basic unit ofliving organism
CELL
CELL AS A UNITOF LIFE (1 - 2)
FORM 1 CHAPTER 2
Carry chemicalreactions to keepalive
Reproduce bycell division
PerformLiving
Processes Magnifiesobjects
MICROSCOPE
ANIMAL ANDPLANT CELL
COMPARISON
CELLSTRUCTURES
AND FUNCTIONS
Cellmembrane
ANIMAL CELL
PLANT CELL
Carries geneticinformation
Control centre of cell
Colourlesswatery jelly thatfills cell
Place wherechemical reaction
occurs
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Disc likestructures
Containschlorophyll
Absorb light tomake food(photosynthesis)
Chloroplast
Large space (sac)
Containcell sap
Keep cell firm,take in water
Differences
Carry out lifeprocesses
Both havea. cell membraneb. cytoplasmc. nucleus
Similarities
Vacuole
A
D
BE
1 2
Celldividing
Turn to use low powerobjective lens first
Raise the stage tohighest position.
Look through eyepiece,adjust diapraghm formaximum light
Place slide withspecimen and clip
Turn coarse focus knobclockwise until objective lensalmost touchest the slide
Look through eyepiece, turn coarsefocus knob anticlockwise where thestage is lowered down until a clearimage of specimen is seen
Turn fine focusknob to obtain asharp image
8
6
USING AMICROSCOPE
C
12
3
1
2
34
57
31 2
312
1 2
3
1
2
3
1 2
1
2
c
a
b
ca
b a
b
Thick celluloselayer
Support cell
Give cell fixedshape
Hold togetherwith other cells
Cell wall
4
2
3
1
cellmembrane
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Plant cell
Animal cell
7
Objectivelens
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8
To detectstimuli fromsurroundingTo carry impulses
to parts of body
Nervecells
liver
eyebrain
heart
ear
skin
stomach
To cover outerlayer of body
To absorb & excretesubstances Ephitelial
cells
Respiratorysystem
Reproductivesystem
To transfergeneticinformation Protect from
infection
Speak
Reason
Imagine
Learn
Create
For smooth andefficient functions or
organism
cells
tissues
organs
systems
Division oflabour among:
Perform specificfunction(Division of labour)
Skeletalsystem
Bloodcirculatorysystem
Muscularsystem
Nervoussystem
Digestivesystem
Examples
Examples
Muscle tissueBone tissue
Nerve tissueExamples
Containsdifferent
systems thatwork
together
Contains differentorgans that worktogether to perfom afunction
Contains different tissuesthat work together to perfoma function
Basic unit
Contains same typeof cells that worktogether performspecific function
CellTissue
Organ
System
Organism
To grow anddevelop afterfertilisation
To fertililizeegg (ovum)
Spermcells
Egg cell(Ovum)
Make upbones tosupport body
To kill bacteriainside body
To carry oxygento parts of bodyRed lood
cells
White bloodcells
Bonecells
For bodymovementMuscle
cells
Examples
Have differentfunctions
To perform lifeprocessesefficiently
CellSpecialisation
Human:Complex
multicellularorganism
Hydra
Spirogyra
Examples
Bacteria
Virus
Examples
Most:unicellular
Some:multicellular
Not seen by naked eye,only by microscope
Very tinyorganisms
Trees (plants)
Mammals, birds,reptiles (animals)Complex
multicelluar
The larger thesize, the more
complexMore cells,larger size
Paramecium
Living organismsmade of one cell
UNICELLULARORGANISMS
CELL AS A UNITOF LIFE (2 - 2)
FORM 1 CHAPTER 2
Ameoba
Yeast
Euglena
Pleurococcus
ChlamydomonasAnimal
kingdomPlant
kingdom
MULTICELLULARORGANISMS
Hydra (animal)Spirogyra
(plant)
Mucor(fungus)Simple
multicelluar
Living organismsmade of morethan one cell
MICROORGANISMS
CellOrganisation
HUMAN CELLORGANIZATION
HUMAN BEINGS:COMPLEX
ORGANISMS
Complexorganisation of
cells
Complexbrain
FG
H
I
J
1
2
3
1
1
4
23
1
a b
c
d
a b
c
da
b
1
2
c
d
ab
e
c
a
b
2
4
1
3
2
4
1
5
c
e
ab
6
7
8
3
12
1
a
c
b
2
1a
cd
b
ef
g
2
1
a
c
d
b
e f
g
skullrib cage
back bone
heart
vein
artery
muscle
br ai n
spinal cord
nerve
oesophagus
stomachla rg eintestine
s m a l lintestine
n o s e
trachea
l u n g s
t e st i s
p e n i s
uterusovary
vagina
2
3
4
1
1
22
3
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
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Close together
NOT in fixed pattern
More spaces between particlesFixed volume but NOT fixed shapeDifficult to compress
Lot of spaces between particlesNO Fixed volume and shapeEasily compressed
NOT in fixed pattern
Further apart
Spread outto fillcontainer
Move randomlyin all direction
At highspeeds
Collisionbetweenparticles morefrequent
Collide withone another
GAS
Vibrate, spin andmove aroundone another move freely
LIQUID
Cannotmove freely
Vibrate and spinat fixed position
PARTICLEMOVEMENT
GAS
LIQUID Flows easily inall directions
No fixed shape, followshape of container
Can becompressed
No fixed volume
Properties
Flowseasily Fixed volume
No fixed shape,follow shape ofcontainer
Cannot becompressed
Cannot becompressed
Fixed shape
Fixed volume
Does notflow
Properties
SOLID
GAS
3 STATES OFMATTER
Potassium manganate(VII)particles separate and diffuseinto spaces of water particles
Diffussion of potassiummanganate(VII) particles
Molecules
HAS MASS OCCUPIESSPACE Atoms
MADE UPOF SMALLPARTICLESA
BE
1 2
Liquid
Balloon withmore gas hasmore mass
Solid Liquid Gas
Gas particlesare smallenough todiffuse out ofthe balloon
Balloon filledwith gas
becomes smaller
Potassiummanganate(VII)crystal
Properties
LIQUID
Coverremoved
Smoke
Smokefills bothjars
PARTICLEARRANGEMENT
Close togetherPacked in fixedpattern
Very little space between particlesFixed volume & shapeCannot be compressed
H MATTER (1 - 2)
FORM 1 CHAPTER 3
collide
collide
C
D
SOLID
1
2
3
4
Solid
Gas
1
2
3
SOLID
1
2
3
SOLID
SOLID
SOLID1
2
3
c
a
b
a
b
a
b
c
a
bd
c
a
bd
c
ab
d
c
ab
c
a
b
c
ab
a
b
ab
c
c d
a
b
vibrate spin
9
CHARACTERISTICS
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cork
wood
lead
alcohol
water
mercury
T r ip l ebalance
Volume = MassDensity
Mass = Density x Volume
Floating LargeMetal Ships
Floating/Sinking
Submarine
Float
Fishing buoys
Hot air balloon
Transportingtimber logs
Rafting
UsingDensityConcept
Savespace
Easy transportation3 cm 5 cm
2 cm
Example 4:A 10 g wooden block hasa volume of 13 cm3. I fthe density of cooking oilis 0.6 g/cm3, determinewhether it floats or sinksin cooking oil.
Solution:Density of wooden block,
= =
= 0.77 g/cm3
Density of woodenblock greater thancooking oil
Wooden block sinks incooking oil
MassVolume
10g13 cm3
CookinggasHydrogenOxygen
Nitrogen
Examples
Benefits
Big volumesof gas stored
in smallcontainers(cylinders)
Under highpressure
Compressinggases into
liquidsComparingDensities
Example 2:
The mass of acuboid shown is25 g. What is itsdensity?
Example 3:The density of seawater is 1.03 g/cm3.Calculate the volumeof see water with amass of 82.4 g.Solution:
Volume =
=
= 81.7 cm3
MassDensity
84.2 g1.03 g/cm3
A denserfalse teeth inwater
Example 1:The density of anobject is 2.7 g/cm3.Find the mass of 5cm3 of the object.
Solution:Mass = Density x Volume = 2.7 x 5 = 13.5 g
NUMERICALEXAMPLES
A coinsinksbecause itis denserthan water
A densersubstance sinksin a less dense
liquid
A less densesubstance floatsin a denser liquid
Example:A wooden block of mass 100g hashas a length, width and height of10 cm, 5 cm and 6 cmrespectively. Find its density
Calculate density. Density = MassVolume
kg/m3
(ki logram permetre cube)
g/cm3
( gram percentimetre cube)
UNITS
Find volume:v = l x w x h
Measure:a. length, lb. width, wc. height, h
Measure mass of objectusing triple beam balance
APPLICATIONSOF PROPERTIES
OF MATTER
DENSITY
F
FLOATOR
SINK?
H MATTER (2 - 2)
FORM 1 CHAPTER 3
Density OfRegular shaped
objects
Solution:Mass=100 gVolume = 10 x 5 x 6 = 300 cm3.
Density = = = 0.33 g/cm3MassVolume
100g300 cm3.
Measure mass of object(eg: rock) using triplebeam balance
Measure volume of objectusing water displacementmethod
Volume of object =Final volume - initial volume
Calculate density.
Density = MassVolume
Density OfIrregular
shaped objects
H
Oil is less thanwater. Oil dropletsfloats on water
Ice is less densethan water. Icefloats on water.
Cork f loatson water
Solution:Mass = 25 gVolume = 3 x 5 x 2 = 30 cm3
Density=
=
= 0.83 g/cm3
MassVolume
25g30 cm3
Most dense
Least dense
A i r
ballasttank
Water fills balasttankIncrease densitySubmarine sinks
Water pumped out ofballast tankDecrease densitySubmarine floats
Hollow shapeContains lots of airDecrease density
M assVolume=Density
I
G
Hot air insideballoon is lessdense.raise balloon
Wood is less densethan water.Floats on water
Air inside floatand bouy makesthem less thanthan water.Floats on water
1
2 3
4
1
23
1
23
4
1
2
3
c
a
b
a
b d
e
c
a
b
da
b
c
a
b
c
d
e
a
b
f
g
a
bc
d
10
Electricitygeneration
using steam
Large volumeDecrease density
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Nitrogen
Oxygen
Carbondioxide Water
vapourInertgases
Charcoal(Mangrove)
Petroleum, coal,natural gas (plant &animal remains)
Firewood
Vegetable &animal oi ls
Skin
Wood Rat tan
BambooCot ton
LatexLeaves Wool
Si lk
Skin
Quinine
Ginseng
Honey
Milk
Eggs
Meat
Vegetables+ Oils
Fruits
Drinks(coffee,tea)
Food
Medicines
ClothesBuildingmaterials
Fuels
SourcesOf...
LIVINGTHINGS
Oxygen CarbondioxideObtain energy
from food
PlasticPetrol, diesel
(vehicles)Cookinggas
Burning of coalproduces heat togenerateelectrical energyin power stations
Naturalgas
Petroleum
Coal
FOSSILFUELSglass
(from sand)gem stones(from quartz & feldspar)
Uses
Quartz
FeldsparSand
Examples
Non-metals
Platinum
Ornaments,jewellery
Utensils
Gold
Silver
Cookingutensils
Wires
Construction
Containers
Iron
Copper
Uses
Examples
Fromores of...
Found innaturalstate
Metals
MINERALS
Coal
Petroleum
Naturalgas Formation
of Fuels
Respiration ofsoil organisms
Absorptionby plantroots
microorganisms
ants
earthworms
Watertransport Generation of
electricity
Roads
Glass
Ceramic
Bricks
Clay
Gravels
Sand
Phosphates
Animals
Support plants'growth
Plants
Agriculture
ConstructionLivestock
Mining
Manufacturing
Habitat foraquaticanimals
carbondioxide
oxygenGas exchageduring breathingin moist lungs
Gives outoxygen
Producefood
Photosynthesisin Plants
Body cells carry outliving processes
Respiration
Drivevehicles
Generateelectricity
Produce heat
Combustionof fuels
Oxygen
Carbonateddrinks
Dry ice
Fireextinguishers
Composition
A
B
VARIETY OFRESOURCES ON
EARTH (1- 2)
FORM 1 CHAPTER 4
Carbondioxide
Uses
AIR
Human use:drinking,bath,cooking,washing,wateringplants
Uses
70% ofearth'ssurface
Cell cytoplasm(90% water)
Transportdigestedfood &oxygen
Excretionof wasteproducts
Controls bodytemperature
AnimalsBasic needfor all living
things
Cell cytoplasm (90%)
Transportmineral salts
Support aquaticplants
Germinationof seeds
Plants
ImportantTo..
WATER
cytoplasm
HumanUse
For healthyplants' growth NitratesSulphates
Organic substance fromdecayed plants & animals
Make soil fertile
Respiration ofplant roots
Humus
Water
Air
Habitat
Examples
Minerals
Contains
SOIL
C
D
E
F
12
1 2
3
4
1
23
4
1
2
1
23
1
a
b
c
a
b
aab
cde
a
bf
g
cd
e
ab
c
a
b
ab
a
b
ab
cd
ea
b2
1
24
1
3
2
41
3
5
6
2
4
1
3
2
1
2
1
21
2
1
ab
cd
ea
b
11
1
Wax
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mat er ia ls
XDo not throwrubbish into
drains
Aluminiumbeverage cans
Car pool toreduce carson roads
Avoid open burning
ConservingAtmosphere
ConservingOther
Resources
Conservewater, use less
Do not Pourhazardous
products intodrains eg: paint,
insecticide
ConservingWater
Resources
BY
Iron
Copper
one typeof atom
Gold
Examples
Bromine( l iq u id)
Chlor ine(gas)
SulphurExamples
Fil trate(Salt solution)
Residue(Sand)
Protect naturalhabitat from being
destroyed
Protect natural resourcesbeing depleted
Maintain population ofendangered species
Maintain a balancedecosystem to
minimise destructionof natural habitat
TO
Wise management and systematicuse of natural resources to
prevent waste or loss
Keeping naturalresources in their
original andbalanced state
CONSERVATION
PRESERVATION
EARTH'SRESOURCES
CONSERVATIONAND
PRESERVATIONS
Only one type ofparticle (atom)
Cannot be brokendown into simpler
substance
WaterBloodcells
minerals
Blood
Fertilisers
Nitrogen
Bleach
Explosives
Fertilisers
Germkillers
MedicinesSulphur
Chlorine
Phosphorus
Diamond
Charcoal
Pencil lead
Carbon
Poor heatconductor
Uses
EXCEPT carbon
Poor electricalconductor
SulphurGraphite(Carbon)
BrittleCarbon
Phosphorus
Dullappearance
Bromine( l iq u id)
Sulphur(s ol i d)
Chlorine(ga s)
Solids, liquids orgases at room
temperatureProperties
ElectricalwiresCooking
utensils
Vehicles
Machines ToolsGood heatconductors
Hard
Aluminiumfoil
Malleable
Good electricalconductor &
ductile
Uses
High density
High meltingpoint
Shiny
Solid at roomtemperature(except mercury)
Hard
Malleable
Ductile
Good heatconductor
Good electricalconductor
Properties
NON-METALS
METALS
METALSAND
NON-METALS
Iron fi lingsattracted tomagnet
Use magnetto separate
Mix them Iron filings+ sulphurmixture
Evaporation
Filtration
Dissolvingthe salt
Salt + sandmixture
Salt or sugarSolution
Evaporation
Salt or Sugarsolution
Examples
Filtration Evaporation
Separation byPhysical Methods
Sand
HumusClay
WaterMineralsalts
SoilSalt
Otherminerals
WaterSeawater
Water vapour
OxygenCarbon dioxide
Nitrogen
Dust
AirExamples
Made up of two ormore substances
(elements or compounds)physically combined
MIXTURES
CarbonHydrogenOxygen
Sugar
ChlorineSodium
SaltIron
Oxygen
Rust
Oxygen
HydrogenWaterExamples
Broken down into simplersubstance by chemical methods
Made up of two ormore elements
chemically combined
Atomscloselypackedtogether
Non-Metals
Metals
2 Types
COMPOUNDS
ELEMENTS
G
ELEMENTS,COMPOUNDS,
MIXTURES
VARIETY OFRESOURCES ON
EARTH (2 - 2)
FORM 1 CHAPTER 4
Hea t
Evaporating
SolutionSolvent
Fi l terpaper
Fi l trate
Residue
Fi l terfunnel
SaltSolution
Iron f ilingsand sulphurmixt ure
ELEMENT, COMPOUND,
MIXTURECOMPARISON
Element
Only one type ofparticle
Cannot be broken downinto simpler substances
Compound
More than one type ofparticle
Can be broken down intosimpler substances bychemical methods
Only one type of particle
Cannot be broken downinto simpler substances
More than onetype of particle
Can be broken down intosimpler substances bychemical methods
copper atoms oxygenmolecules sodium
atomchlorineatom
sodium chloride
oxygenatom
hydrogenatom
water
H
I
J
1
23
4
1
2
31 2
1
2
c
d
ab
c
a
b
c
ab
a
b
c
a
b
a
b
ab
2
1
234
1
234
1
2
3
1
234
1
7
6
5
8
9
2
3 4
1
2
3 4
1
5
electron flowseasi ly
electron flowsslowly
2
3
1
2
1
P ap e r
P l a s t i c
G l a s s
C lo t h
a
b
a
a
c
b
1
2
3
4
1
5
a
e l em e n tX
e l em e n tY
Mixture ofX and Y
Different elementscombine chemically
Cannot be broken downinto components byphysical methods. Onlyby chemical means.
Elements/compoundsmix physically
Can be separated intocomponents byphysical methods
Electro lysis:Ac h e m i c a lmethod tobreak downwat er
Sal t, sandand watermixt ure
Iron f ilingsa n ds ul p hu rmixt ure
Oxygena n dni t rog enmixt ure
C o m p o u n dof X and Y
a
cb
a
b
aa b
a
c
b
a
ba b
a b
ab
c
a
a
b
aba
a
b
a
ba
babc
a
cd
b
e
a
cb
a
cd
be
ac
b
12
2
2
1
2
1X
1
Element Compound Compound Mixture
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Nitrogen
oxygen
carbondioxide
+watervapour
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Nitrogen
Water vapour
Temperature
Inhaled air
Air that webreathe in
21 %
0.03%
78 %
Less
Same assurroundings
Exhaled air
Air that webreathe out
16% - less
4% - more
78% - unchanged
More
Higher thansurroundings
Splinterignitesglowing
splinter
CARBONDIOXIDE FROMRESPIRATION
Water
Experiment
Oxygen enters by diffusionacross cell membrane
Oxygen enters throughstomatal pores of leaves
Oxygen entersduring breathingthrough lungs
Glucose + Oxygen
Carbon dioxide+
Water+
Energy
CaC
Living cells oxidise food usingoxygen to produce carbondioxide, water and energy
Microorganisms Animals
Plants
All livingthings
Respiration
white precipitate(cloudy)
Turns limewatercloudy/milky/chalky
Ignites a glowingsplinter
OXYGEN FORRESPIRATION
Nitrogen78%
Oxygen21%
Carbon dioxide 0.03%+ others 0.97%
More oxygenin jungle
More carbondioxide in cities
Examples
Environment
Human activitiesCompositionVaries due
to..
Carbon dioxideWater
Dust + microorganisms
Xenon
Argon
Neon
Helium
KryptonInert gases
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Compounds
Elements
AIR:A MIXTURE
Oxygen
Carbondioxide
Inertgases
Dust
Microorganisms
D
E
A
B
x cm
Percentage of oxygen = x100% ~ 20%
yx
Test forOxygen
Test forCarbondioxide
Oxygen Glucose
Carbondioxide
WaterEnergy
Wire gauze
Redindicatordroplet
Cotton soaked withsodium hydoxidesolution
Cockcroach
Germinatinggreen beans
Cockroach andseeds use oxygenduring respiration
Carbon dioxide producedabsorbed by sodiumhydroxide solution
Oxygen content in tube Aand B decreases causinga decrease in airpressure
Tube A
Tube B
Tube C
Higher atmophericpressure pushes redindicator inwards
c
d
a
b
OxygenGlucose
EnergyCarbondioxide Water
stomata
TESTS
Colour and smell
Solubility inalkalinepyrogallol solution
Solubility In Water
Solubility InSodium hydroxide
Effect onGlowing Splinter
Effect on LightedSplinter
Effect on moistblue & red litmus
Effect on LimeWater
Effect onBicarbonateIndicator
OXYGEN
Colourless andodourless
Very Solube
Slightly soluble
Not Soluble
Splinter ignited
Splinter burns more brightly.
No change. Neutral gas.
No change.
No change.
CARBON DIOXIDE
Colourless andodourless
Not soluble
More soluble
Very Soluble
Splinter goes out.
Splinter goes out.
Moist blue litmus changesto red. Red litmusunchanged.Acidic gasLime water turns cloudy
Indicator colour changesfrom redto yellow
Supportscombustion
Does notsupportcombustion
Supportsburning
Does notsupportburning
oxygenlimewaterunchanged
carbondioxide white
precipitate
glowingsplinter
glowingsplinter
burningsplinter
burningsplinter
PROPERTIESOF OXYGEN
AND CARBONDIOXIDE
THE AIRAROUND US
(1- 2)
FORM 1 CHAPTER 5
C
In Tube C red incicator positionremains unchanged because oxygencontent remains unchanged
Inhaled air
candle A
Candle A burnslonger.Inhaled air hasmore oxygen
Exhaled
candle B
Candle B burnsin shorter time.Exhaled air hasless oxygen
Air Filter pump
Limewaterflask C flask D
Limewater in flask D turnscloudy much faster thanlimewater in flask C because theexhaled air from the mouse hasmore carbon dioxide.
Limewater in flask C turns cloudymuch slower than limewater inflask D because the air has lesscarbon dioxide.
Oxygen Glucose
Energy
Carbondioxide Water
cellmembrane
Air Filter pump
tube X Cobaltchloride paper
tube Y
Cobalt chloride paper intube X turns pink muchslower than intube Y because the airhas less water vapour
Cobalt chloride paper intube Y turns pink muchfaster than intube X because the airhas more water vapour
Respiration of mouseproduces carbon dioxide
Respiration of mouseproduces water vapour
y cm
{
12 3 4
56
7
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
c
a
b
c
ab
c
a
b
a
b
c ab
e
cb
2
1
2 1
1
2
5
34
1
2
1
13
Sterile nutrient agarCover
After 3 days
White thread-like growth andblack spots dueto growth ofm i cr o o rg a n is m s
No change
a
ExperimentsCOMPOSITION
Bicarbonateindicator
oxygen
CO2
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Use less CFC
Fix filters to trappollutants in
chimneys
Usecatalytic
convertersto reducepollutants
Use unleaded petrol
Stopsmoking
habit
Stop openburning
Use public transport /car pool
Recycle paper,glass & metals
Action againstmotor vehicles
owners
Action againstfactory ownersMotor
Vehicles
Set up far awayfrom housing
areas
Factories
Green houseeffect
Increases earth'stemperature
Effects
Fossil fuelburning
Rubbishburning
Sources
Damagesozone layer
Atmosphere cannotfilter harmfulultraviolet light
Effects
Aerosolsprays
Electronicfactories
Sources
Retardschildren'smental
Damageskidney,heart,brain
Effects
Leadedpetrol
Sources
Acid rainEffect
Motor vehicles
Sources
damageslung cellsAcid rain
Damagesmetals
Damagesmarble/limestone
Kills aquatic life Kills plants
Effects
Coal
Sources
Death
Braindamage
Tiredness
HeadacheEffects
Cigarettes
Motorvehicles
Sources
Lung cancerCough & athma
Construction sites
Cement plants
EffectsSources
Burning rubbish
Cigarettes Motor vehicles
Fossil fuel burningForestfires
Breathingdifficulties
Eye irritationHaze
Sources
Effects
Smokeand soot
Due to pollutants -chemicals in
atmosphere harmfulto life
Candle
Carbon + Oxygen
Carbon dioxide+
Heat+
Light
CaC
Reactions
Kerosene
Natural gas
PetrolDiesel
Examples
Contains hydrogenand carbon
Charcoal
Coal
WoodExamples
Hydrocarbon
Carbon
Supportedby oxygen
Types
Heat Light
Produces
Oxygen
Fuel
Heat (to ignite)
Requires
Substancethat burns
Chemical reactionbetween a substance
and oxygen
FuelBurning
OXYGENFOR
COMBUSTION
FHydrocarbon + Oxygen
Carbon dioxide+
Water*+
Heat+
Light CaC
Carbon dioxideproduced whencarbon reacts withoxyg en .
Wate rproducedwhenhydrogenreactswithoxyg en .
Filter pump
Funnel
Burning candle( Hydrocarbon)
Limewater turns cloudy Carbon dioxide produced
Cobalt chloridepaper changes to pink Water produced Hydrocarbon contains hydrogen
Filter pump
Funnel
Burningcharcoal( Carbon)
Limewater turns cloudy Carbon dioxide producedCobalt chloride
paper unchaged No water produced Contains NO hydrogen
candle A candle B
Candle B burnslonger becauseits largercontainercontains moreoxygen.
Candle A burnsin shorter time.Smallercontainer hasless oxygen
DustCarbonmonoxideSulphur
Dioxide
Oxides ofNitrogen
CarbonDioxide
Chlorofluorocarbon(CFC)
LeadAir
Pollutants
AIRPOLLUTION
Public La wEnforcement
AIR POLLUTIONCONTROL
THE AIRAROUND US
(2 - 2)
FORM 1 CHAPTER 5
Acid clouds
Acid snow Acid rain
X
G
H
1
2
3 4
1
1 2
3
4
d
c
a
b
c ab
a
b
a
b
2
d
ea
bc
f
gh
ab
ab
a
b
ab
2
1
a
b
a
ab
c
a
b
a
b c
d
1
2
31 2
a
b
21
2
1
21
21
2
1
14
Experiments
Depleted ozonelayer at south pole
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Coal
Petroleum
All energysources traced
back to Sun
Maximumpotentialenergy(minimumkineticenergy)
Maximumpotentialenergy(minimumkineticenergy)
Maximumkineticenergy(minimumpotentialenergy)
Examples
Interchangeble
POTENTIALENERGY
AND KINETICENERGY
Produce nuclear energyin form of heat energyto generate electricity ina nuclear plantUranium and
PlutoniumSteam producedused to rotateturbines togenerateelectricity, heathomes & factories
In forms of geysersand hot springs
Heat energyfrom inner layerof earth
Stored as potentialenergy in dams
Move water turbines indams to generate electricity(hydroelectricity)
Produceswaves
Move sailing boats
Move windmills to pumpwater or grind corn
Move windturbines toproduceelectricity
Uses
From garbage heat
Animal waste gas
From plantswood, charcoal,alcohol, biodiesel
Natural gas
Types
Formed fromdead plantsand animal
Biomassfuels
Fossilfuels
Classesof Fuel
gives heat andlight energywhen burnt
Energy isstored in food
Uses light energy fromsun, carbon dioxide andwater to make food
heat energy
light energygives
water
fuelsplants
animals
wind
providestored energy
in
Sun
Plants
FuelsWind
Water
Radioactivesubstances
Geothermal
Nuclear bomb
Nucleus
Stored innucleus of
atom
NuclearEnergy
Solar car
Released bythe sun
SolarEnergy
Flying plane
Runningman
Possesed bymovingobjects
KineticEnergy Compressed spring
Stretchedbow
Cyclist on top of hill
Stored inobjects due toits condition/
position
PotentialEnergy
Batteries
FuelsFood
Stored in
Blowing atrumpet
Guitarstring
Released byvibrations
ab
ChemicalEnergy
SoundEnergy
CandleBulb
Releasedby lightedobjects
LightEnergy
PylonsCables
Carried inelectriccurrent
a b
ElectricalEnergy
ElectricheaterSun
Burninggas
Releasedby hot
objects
a b c
HeatEnergy
ENERGYFORMS
ENERGYSOURCES
B
A
ENERGY :Ability to do
worka b
c
a
b
Solarcellsa
Food
turbine andgenerator
Cold waterpumpdown
Steam andhot water
generatingstation
C
Uranium Plutonium
Potentialenergy
Potentialenergy
Kineticenergy
SOURCES OFENERGY (1 - 2)
FORM 1 CHAPTER 6
D
1
6
2 34
5
789
16
2
34
5
7
1
2
a b
a
b
c
Solar heater
abb
a
b
c
a
b
a
ba
b
a
b
a
b
c
a b
a
b
2
34
1
5
2
1
2
b
1 a
2
1
3
b a
c
3
Primary sourceof energy
1
15
1
2
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Wood is still lessexpensive thanfossil fuels
Cane sugar juicecan be fermentedto alcohol for fuel
Palm oil can beprocessed intobiodiesel fuel
Garbage burning inincinerator produces heat togenerate electricity
Plants and animal residues aredecomposed in a digester to producemethane gas and alcohol as fuels.
Biomassfuels
Solar cookersfocuses light thatproduce heat forcooking.
Convert light energyto electrical energyusing solar cells
Solarenergy
Reuse, Reduceand Recyclematerials
Close cooking potswhen cooking, shutrefrigeratorsproperly
Develope more efficientmachines and engines
RENEWABLEENERGY
DEVELOPEMENT
Use wisely so thatcan last longer
If used up leads toenergy crisis(shortage of energy sources)
Took millions ofyears to form
Usingnon-renewable
energy
ab
c
Energy within the earth
Fuel in form of wood, gas, alcoholand biodiesel.
Fuelsprocessedfrom plants,animalwastes andgarbage.
Biomass fuels
Use floats thatmove up and downto generateelectricity
Has lots ofkineticenergy
Cleanenergysource
Propel windturbines toproduceelectricity
Used potential energy of waterto generate electricity in hydroelectric power stations
Water
Solar energyLight energy converted intoelectrical energy usingsolar cells
To heat water inhomes
The Sun
Power ships,submarine,satellites
Produce nuclearenergy in nuclearreactors to generateelectricity
Burnt to produce heatand generate electricity
Burnt to produce heatfor cooking, heatingand electricity
Fuels forvehicles
Fuel to generateelectricity inpower station
Geothermal
WaveWind
Radioactivesubstances
Coal
Natural gas
Petroleum
Types
Can be replaced naturallyor by human
Cannot be used up
Can bereplenished
Cannotbereplaced
Types
Will notlastforever
Will beused up
Cannot bereplenished
NON-RENEWABLE
ENERGYSOURCES
RENEWABLEENERGYSOURCES
solar cells
solar cells
waterheater
a wind turbine
Prevent wastage
Ensure enoughenergy for future
Save cost onpaying for energy
Reduce pollution
USING ENERGYEFFICIENTLY
Userenewableenergysources
Switching off lights/appliances when notusing
Usefluorescentlamps (use lessenergy)
Use public transport, carpool - save petrol
CONSERVATIONOF ENERGYSOURCES
SOURCES OFENERGY (2 - 2)
FORM 1 CHAPTER 6
Bioalcohol plant
Biodiesel plant
Biogas plant
Incinerator
solar cell
E
F
G
H
I
1
2
1
2
12
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
67
1
2
c
d
a b
c
a
b
c
d
f
a
b
a b
c
a
b
e
c
d
e
a
b
a
b2
1
1
1
2
1
23
1
1
1
2
1
1
16
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Acid andbaseLiquid
Contraction
GasContraction
SolidContraction
Called CONTRACTION
Volume decreases
Becomes smallerMATTER
CONTRACTSWHEN HEATED
Bubbles of gasescapes, when gasin flask expands
Water
HEAT/TEMPERATUREDIFFERENCES
GasExpansion
LiquidExpansion
Metal Bexpands fasterthan metal A
BA
Two strips of differentmetals (A and B)joined together
Expanding aBimetallic
strip
SolidExpansion
Called EXPANSION
Volume increases
Becomes biggerMATTER
EXPANDS WHENHEATED
HEATFLOW EFFECTS
Wooden block1 kg; 40oC
Concrete block1 kg; 40oC
Concrete block absorb more heat toto reach 40oC. Concrete block has more heat
Unit :Degree celcius (oC)orkelvin (K)Tells how hot or
cold the object isHot objecthas hightemperature
Cold objecthas lowtemperature
Degree of hotnessTEMPERATURE
Material
Temperature
Mass
Depends on
Hotness ofan object
Unit : Joules
HEAT
HEATAND
TEMPERATURE
Drilling
FuelsRubbing
Bulb
Electricheater
Reactivemetal andacid
Friction
Electricity
ChemicalReaction
Sun:Primary
Source Energy
DryingCookingIroning
Keeping warm
Melting
A cold objecthas less heat
A hot object hasmore heat
BurningUses
HEATPRODUCTION
A FORMOF
ENERGY
FORM 1 CHAPTER 7
HEAT (1 - 4)
Cold Hot
acid
base
acid
meta l
Beaker A Beaker B
Beaker B hasmore massBeaker Bhas more heat
50oCSame
temperaturea
b
Beaker A Beaker B
Beaker A hashigher temperatureBeaker A has more heat
80oC
Same mass
a
b 50oC
Before experiment,the iron ball just fitsthe iron ring Iron ball expands,
becomes bigger
Iron ball cannotpass throughthe ring
ab
Water level riseswhen heated dueto expansion
HEAT
Hotness ofobject
Unit: Joule
Travels from hotto cold area
TEMPERATURE
Degree of hotnessof object
Unit: Celcius (oC) orKelvin(K)
Increases whenmovement ofparticles increases
Iron ball canpass throughthe ring
Iced water
Ice
AB
Metal B contracts fasterthan metal A
BA
Water leveldrops due tocontraction
C
BA
D
E
12 3
4
1 2
3
4
1
21
2
c
d
e
a b a ab
a
b
a
b
c
a
b
cde
a
bc
d
e
a
b
f
c
d e
a
b
f
2
1
17
Ice
Colouredtrappedliquidmovesdown
Both strips bend
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T ov a c u u mp u m p
To switch
After 10 minutes,thermometer shows arise in temperaure.
Heat flows invacuum byradiation.
Vacuum(No conductionor convention)
RADIATION
Cork
PolystyreneAsbestos
Wood Glass
Plastic
Rubber
Examples
Copper
Aluminium
Iron
Examples
Substance thatallows heat to move
through slowly
Alco called poor conductor
Becomes cold very fast
HEATINSULATOR
Substance that allows heat tomove through easily
Becomes hot very fast
HEATCONDUCTOR
HEATCONDUCTORS
ANDINSULATORS
BUILDINGS'COOLING/HEATINGSYSTEM
LAND BREEZE
Forms convection current
B CA
Experiment
Canflowthroughvacuum
Heat flowwithout medium
Experiments
Hot fluids moves upwards,cold fluids move downwards.
By circulatory movementof heated fluid.
Heat flow through fluids(liquids and gases)
Experiment
Low conduction rate
Highconduction rate
Bad conductors : Insulators
Goodconductors
Metals
Non - Metals
Depends onmaterial
Heat flowthrough solids
Heat travels fromhot to cold end
Conductionrate
CONVECTION
CONDUCTION
RADIATION
HEAT FLOWTYPES
Due totemperaturedifference From a hot object
to cold object
WARMING OFEARTH BY SUN
SEA BREEZE
HEATFLOW IN NATURAL
PHENOMENA
HEATFLOW
FORM 1 CHAPTER 7
HEAT (2 - 4)
Potassiumpermanganatecrystal
Purple stream ofwater move upwards,and downwards incircular motion.
hot air
Smoulderingincense stick
cold air
Convection current
Pin A falls first,then pin B followedby pin C.
w a x
Heat flows fromhot end to coldend by conduction
A convection current is formedin heated water and air.
hot cold
During Daytime
Cooler air flowstowards land
C o l dai rs i n k s
Land heatsup faster
W a r mair rises
Sea warmerthan land
Land coolsdown faster
W a r mai rr i s e s
During Nighttime
C o o la i rs i n k s
Cooler air flowstowards sea
Ventilationholes atroof
Hot air risesand escapesfrom top
Cool air enters fromwindows near the ground
Heaterplaced nearfloor
Warm air rises
Colderair sinks
Convectioncurrentproduced
Cold airentersheater
Air condtionerplaced near ceiling
Warm airrises
Cold air sinks
Convectioncurrentproduced
H
G
F
I
1 2
1
2
3
1
23
4
1
2
ca b
c
de
a
b
c
ab
c
a
b
c
ab
d
a
b
c
2
3
4
1
567
2
3
1
2
3
4
1
a b
a
b
b
ab
2
1
21
21
1
34
5
23
4
1
2
1
2
3
1
2
3
4
1
18
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solid
Sublimation
Sublimation CHANGES OFSTATE SUMMARY
Solid carbondioxide (dry ice)
ammoniumchloride
napthalene(mothballs)
Othersubstances
heat absorbed
heat released
liquid
Solid state Gaseous stateWITHOUT
LIQUID
STAGE
100oC
Boilingwater
Occurs atsurface of water
Occurs at anytemperature below100oC (boiling point)
Liquid state
Gaseous state
Liquid state
Gaseous state
WITHOUT
BOILING
Gas loses heatenergy tosurroundings
Particles vibratemore slower andcomes closer
Condensation
Temperature :Boiling point
Particles movemore quickltyand freely Particles
vibrate faster
Liquid absorbsheat energy
Liquid state
Gaseous state
Boiling
Particlesvibrate slower
Temperature :Freezing point
Particlesmove at fixedposition
Heat releasedto surroundings
Liquid state Solid stateFreezing
ice0 oC
Temperature :Melting point
Particlesmove freely
Particlesvibrate faster
Solid state Liquid state
Heat absorbedfrom surroundings
Melting
cottonclothe
Ceilings made of softboards contain airbubbles to preventheat gain or loss byconduction Ice used in igloos
acts as an insulatorto pevent heat loss
by conduction.
Keep homewa r m
woolen blanket
Plastic and glass usedin vacuum flask keepliquids hot or cold
Trapped airin sawdust
prevent heatreaching the
ice
Trapped air infabric preventheat loss
Prevent tablesburnt by hot
objects
To handlepots without
burning hands
Measuretemperature
change accurately
Expand andcontracts
easily
Made of mercury
Thermometer
Become coldquickly
Conduct heat tosurroundings
Goodconductors
Becomehot
quickly
Made ofmetals
Made ofmetals
Goodconductors
Heat upfood
quickly
SUBLIMATION
BOILINGAND
CONDENSATION
EVAPORATION
MELTINGAND
FREEZING
EFFECTS OF HEATON STATES OF
MATTER
Keepliquids hot
or cold
Keep bodywa r m
Slow downmelting of
ice
Table mats/Asbestos
Tiles
Handles ofCookingutensils
USES OF HEATINSULATORS
Engine coolers /cooling coils
Heating coils/ elements
Cookingutensils
USES OF HEATCONDUCTORS
FORM 1 CHAPTER 7
HEAT (3 - 4)
heating coils heatingelement iniron
heating element at tip ofsoldering iron
mercury
Car radiator Motorcycle fins
cooling coil ofrefrigerator
plastic
wood
asbestos tiletable mat
ice covered bysawdust
water0 oC
gas(water vapour)
water
solidgas
gas
iodinecrystalsheated
fine iodinecrystalssublime
Ioinefumesformedthrough
sublimation
liquid
liquid
L
K
JM
1
23
4
1 2
3
4
56
1
2
12
3
4
c
ab
c
a
b
ca b
a
b
a a
a
a
a
a
b
d
ab
e
c
d a
b
e
cd
a
be
c
c
a
b
c
a
b
c
a
b
liquid
231
1
2
3
19
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Cork
Vacuum
Plasticcasing
Liquid
Corksupport
Silvered,shinysurface
Sea & land breezes
Hydro
Waves
Wind
Earth'senergy
Cook food
Warmth
Air conditioning
Comfortablelife
Supports life
Heat flowfrom sun
Thermos flaskkeeps water hotfor a long time
Place a dentedping-pong ball in
hot water
Temperature drops,mercuy contractslevel drops
Temperature rises,mercury expandslevel rises
Expandsrapidly withlittle heat
Goodconductor glass
tube
Bulb
Mercury Temperaturescales
Metal blockcovered with
rough black paper
Metal blockcovered withwhite shiny
paper
After 15 minutes metalblock covered with
rough black paper hasa higher temperature
bulb Dull and darksurface absorbsheat faster than
white shinysurface
Car radiatorpainted black sothat it releasesheat faster
White clothes absorb lessheat, keep us cool
Buildings kept cool byhaving shiny glass to
reflect heat
APPLICATIONS OFHEAT ABSORPTIONAND HEAT RELEASE
Dull and darksurface releases
(radiates) heatfaster than white
shiny surface
HEAT ABSORPTIONAND
HEAT RELEASE
roller
metal bridge
The air inside itexpands and pushthe dented part to
its originalposition
Repairing aDented Ping-
Pong Ball
LooseningTight Bottle
Cap
SeparatingTwo Stuck
Glasses
Preventbridge from
cracking anddamaged
gaps allowsslabs to expandin hot day.
slab
GAPS BETWEENSLABS IN
PAVEMENTSPrevent
bridge fromdistorted and
damange
ROLLERS ANDGAPS OF STEEL
BRIDGES
Preventtrack
buckling
GAPS INRAILWAYTRACKS
Brass expands more than ironbimetalic strip bendstowards contactstart the alarm
Thermometer
Fire alarm
BIMETALLICSTRIP
HEAT FLOWBENEFITS
THERMOMETER
SOLVING PROBLEMSUSING EXPANSION
ANDCONTRACTION
APPLICATIONSOF EXPANSION
ANDCONTRACTIONFORM 1 CHAPTER 7
HEAT (4 - 4)
heatduringa firebrass
iron
contact
Brass stripexpands whenhot, contractswhen coldbimetalic stripcurls to showtemperature riseor fall.
gap allows track toexpand in hot weather.
metal track
alarm bell
gap allowsbridge toexpand in hotweather.
Hotwater
Immerse thetight bottle cap inhot water toexpand it
Expandedbottle cap
lossens
Pointer moves when stripcurls showing temperaturereadings
buckled track
Allows bridge to slideduring expansion
2 hot metalblocks with same
temperature
coveredwith rough
black paper
covered with whiteshiny paper
After 15 minutesmetal block coveredwith rough blackpaper has a lowertemperature
Hot water
Dip the lower glass inhot water so that itexpands
Pull out the topglass after thelower glassexpanded
A good insulator,prevent heatescaping
5
Prevent heatescaping
4
Good insulator
1
Goodinsulator2
Temperaturekept constantlonger
3
P O
N
Q
1 2
3
4
5
1
23
1
2
3
1
2
c d
a
b
a
b
a
a
b
a
b
ab
ab
a
a
a
b
c
d
a
b
1
1
2
1 2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
21 2
3
1
2
1
2
3
20