peter wilcox-rome's enemies (1)_ germanics and dacians (men at arms series, 129)-osprey publishing...

7/26/2019 Peter Wilcox-Rome's Enemies (1)_ Germanics and Dacians (Men at Arms Series, 129)-Osprey Publishing (1982)

1/47


2/47

First published in Great Brita in in 1982 by

Osprey,

an

imprint ofR eed Consumer Books Limited ,

Mi chelin House , 8 1 Fulham Road ,

London SW3 6RB

and Auckl and , Melbourne,

Singapore

and Toro

nto

1982 R eed

Int

ern

at

ional Books

Limit

ed

Reprinted 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987 (twice), 1990, 99

992,

993 994

All rights r

ese

rved .

Apart

from a ny fair dea ling for the

purpose

of

pri va te stud

y

resea rch, criticism or review,

as

perm itted und er the

Copy

ri

g

ht

D

es

igns

and

P

atent

s

Act , 1988, no part of this

publicat

ion may be

reproduced , sto red in a ret ri eval sys tem,

or tra

nsmitted

in

any form or by any means , electro

ni

c, elect

ri ca

l,

chemical, mecha

ni

ca l,

optica

l,

photocopying

,

recording or otherw ise, witho

ut

the

prior

permi

ss

ion of

the copyrig

ht

ow ner. Enquiries shou ld be add ressed to

the Pu b

shers.

ritish Library Cataloguing in Publication ata


3/47

Rome s

En

em

i

es

Germani sand

Da

cians

Clzronology

See

Glossary

of t e rms

nd

names

on page

38.

3oooB.C.

2ooo

B.C

.

Indo-Europ

ea ns spread into north

west

Europe,

where

th

ey settle

a

mong ea

rlier populations

of

Neo

lithi c farm ers and O ld Stone-Age

hunter

s

Celto-Ligurian

tribes

are in

co

ntro

l

oflarge a reas of centra l and wes te

rn

Europe.

R epresented by the Bell

Bea ker

Fo

lk, th ey begin moving

int

o the British Isles.

Oth

e r Indo

Europeans

move east,

wher

e the

Thracians and Iranians

form

two

la rge groups. Th e Baits and Slavs

occupy most of what is now

Germany. Tll

yrian trib

es

occupy

an

area

of so

uth

ern

Europ

e between

the

Itali

a n pe

ninsula

and Greece.

(Italic

Indo-Europea

ns had

mov

ed

in t

o

their

pe

nin

s

ula

,

and

warlike

Greek tribes int

o th e M e

dit

e

rran ea

n

a r

ea,

from the Danube reg ion. )

The Teu tons of this period are in

possession of most o f th e

Scandin

av ia n peninsula, where a rac ia lly

distinct

Germanic Nordic ha

s de

veloped fro m a

mixtur

e of

inv

ading

Indo-Europea n

Nordics

and

O ld

Stone-Age survivors . Indo

European tribes now possess most

of Europe

at

the expense of th e


4/47

T h e s

kull of

an old m a

n,

1s t

centur

y A.D ., found a t E ck e nn

fo rd

,

Sc

hl

eswig-

Hols t ei n ; t h e reddish blonde

hair

i s c

ombed

and twisted in t o a neat Su eb ian

kno

t. Compare this w i

th

th e

carved h ead of a G

er

m a n chieftain , po

ss

ibly of one of

th

e

Danub

ia

n

t r i

b es, fr

om th

e t omb

of

A.

Juliu

s Pompilius, one

of

Marcu s

Au

reliu s s gen erals, 175 A.D . National Mus

eum

,

Terme)

6oo B.C.

400 B.C.

350 B.C.

The co

ntin

ental Celts

begin

th e

H a l

statt

phase of their magnificent

I ron Age cultur

e;

at about this time

they over- run centra l Spain.

The second

ph

ase of

Celtic

Iron

Age cul

ture

evolves;

known

as

the

La

Tene,

it represents the flowe

ring

of

Celtic

abstract art,

seen , inter alia

in

the decoration

of

weapons.

Hal

stall

Cel ls move

into Britain

.

La

Tene

Celts cross the Alps

and

take co ntro l

of north

ern

It

a ly.

Etruscan coloni

es

in the Po va

ll

ey

are

ob lit

erated,

a

nd Rom

e is sacked

during a protr

acte

d

Celtic raid

down

the pe

nin

sula.

Rome defeats

the

Celts in Ita ly .

Ambrones - a nother

Celtic

tribe

to their ranks, a

nd

destroy five

Rom

a n a

rmi

es sent against them

before turning towards

Italy

.

1

2 B.C.

The

Cimbri,

T euton

es

and Am

brones

are

annihi

l

ate

d by the new

model

R o

man

army, which

h

ad

bee n created ,

tr

ain ed

and

was now

led to

victory by

Marius , a General

of

obscure

background.

100

B.C.

The Goths cross the Baltic from the

Scandinavian

pe

nin

sula to northern

G e

rmany

.

58- 51 B.C. Ju liu s Caesar co

nqu

ers

mo

st of th e

Celtic tribes of

Gau

l a

nd

reportedly

repu lses an attempted invasion

by

trans

-Rh

enian tribes.

27

-

12

B.C. Rom a n forces a

dv

a nce in ce

ntr

a l

and easte

rn

Europe, to

the

D a

nub

e;

th e

river

thus

form

s

for

most

of

its

len

gt

h, th e northe

rn

frontier of the

Empire. Th e ex

pansion

of th e

Frontier to the Elbe in the north is

called off after the disaster in the

T eutoburg Forest. At about this

time Augustus cr

ea

tes a standing

army of 5 l

eg

ions.

A.D. 9 Th e

ga

rrison of northern Germanv,

consisting of th e XVII , XVIIl a nd

XIX

Legions are wiped out in a n

ambush

in the T eutoburg Forest.

These three l

eg

ions never again

appeared

on

th e

army

list.

The

R hine

-Danub

e nexus now marks

th e

north

ern limits of the R oman

Empir

e.

A.

D. 43 Rom a n forces invade Brita in ,

speedi ly overrunning a

third

of th e

country , from the southern coas

t.

A.D. 69- 79.

Th e angle form ed by the

Rhin

e a nd

Danub

e is rounded off. R

oma

n

occupation of th e British low la

nd

s

is ca rried up to

the

highland s. A

furth

er two legions are lost during a

of Rh


5/47

A.D.

101.

A.D.

150.

A.D.

181.

A.

D.

251 .

A.D. 275.

A.D. 28o.

A.D.

358.

The Emperor Traj an begins a

massive invas ion of D

ac

ia; in two

camp

a tgns th e

Rom

ans br

ea

k

D ac ia n r

es

istance .

Th

e c

onqu es

t

crea tes a trans

D

a nubian salient of

th e Empire. R oma n forces on th e

Da

nub

e are re

inf

orced by fo

ur

A.D.

375

legions; Rhin e legions a re re

du

ced

by three.

Eas te

rn

Ge

rm

a n

tribes

beg

in

drift

in so

uth

: some of them e

nt

er

in t

o

perm a nen t federa tion .

A massive ba

rb

arian ass

ault

on

th e

A.

D.

378.

D anube

pro

vin ces led by the M a r-

co ma nni a

nd

Quadi triggers off a A.D.

379

prolonged se ries of savagely fought

ca mpaigns during th e re

ign

of

th e philosopher soldier Marcus

Aureliu

s.

A.D. 380.

Th

e

Go

th s

in

v

ad

e

th

e Balka ns a

nd

An

a to lia; th e Emperor D ecius

(H

os

tili a

nu

s) is killed .

Fra nkish a

nd

Alemannic wa r ba

nd

s

advanc

in

g Go ths

wh

o a re

over

whe

lm

ed by th e nomadi c hordes.

Th

e

Hun

s a re able to

pu

sh into

Europe, wh ere th ey se tt le as th e

ove

rlord

s

of

Sla

voni

c pea

sa

nts a

nd

Ge

pid

s o n the Hunga rian pl a in s.

Th

e

Goth

s

and

As

din

g V a

nd

als

a

pp

ly for

sa

nctu a ry

within

the

Empire. They are se ttled along th e

Danube,

wh

ere th ey s

uff

er man y

indig

niti

es

at

the ha

nd

s of R o ma n

mercha

nt

s and officia l

s.

Th

e

Vi

sig

oth

s a re

in

rev

olt

a

ga

in st

R ome.

Th e Empe

ror of

th e East is killed ,

his a

rm

y a nnihila ted

at Adri

a nople

by

th

e largely

cavalr

y a

rm

y of th e

Goth

s.

Ge

rm

a ns

Sarm

a

ti

a ns and

Hun

s a re

tak

en

int

o

Imp

eria l se rvi

ce;

as a

consequ ence, ba

rb

a ria n l

ea

ders

be

gin

to play a n

in

creas

in

gly ac ti ve

role

in th

e life

of th

e

Empir

e.

ove

rrun

Ga ul a

nd invad

e

Spain

a

nd It

a ly.

R oma n forces a ba

ndon

both th e

R

ec

ons truction o cut o woollen

twil l

tunic

and trousers

from Ange ln Denmark dated to the

1st

ce

ntury

B.C.

D

ac

ia n

sa

lient a

nd

th e Rhin e

Danube angle

in

th e face o f

in-

creas ing press ure along th e northern

frontier ; th e Ge

pids

and Goths

move into D ac ia; th e Alema nni

occ

up

y th e Rhin e

Danub

e angle

a nd

Bur

g

undian

trib

es

th

e

middl

e

Rhin

e area.

Th

e Go ths led

by

th e

ir

king

Erm ana rich , s

prea

d into a la rge

a rea of Eurasia a

nd

north to th e

Baltic.

Ang

lo-S

axon

raid

s

in

crease

o n th e eas t coas t of Brita in a

nd

nor th ern coas t of G a ul.

Th e Alema

nni

a

nd

Franks a re

def

ea

ted by th e

Emp

e

ror

Julia n

in

G a ul ; some Fra nks re

main

in

north-

west Ga ul as a rm ed p

easa

nt ma rch

men (foedera t

es

) , a lli

es

of R o me.

I

\ \

I

I


6/47

German

cloa

k

ooc

h

es

.

A D 402

A D 406

A D 407

A D 409

The

Goths invad

e

Italy

,

where they

suffer d ef

eat at

the

hands of

th e

R oma no-

Vandal Genera

l

Sti

li

cho .

Sti

li

cho

cr

ush

es

a

mixed

army

of

Ostrogoths Quadi and Asding

Vanda

ls

with an

army raised from

the

fronti er forces

of

the

Rhin e,

leav ing this

sector

dangerously

weakened.

A

coa

liti

on

of Asding Vandals

,

Si

lin g

Vanda

l

s Mar

co

manni

,

Quadi

and

a

clan of Sarmatian

Alans cross th e froz en

Rhin

e n

ea

r

Mainz into Gaul.

Britain

is d enud ed of

the

Roman

ga

rri son,

which

crosses th e

Channe

l

in force in a s

ham

effort to pac

if

y

the German

invaders

of Gaul. In

fact th ey de

clar

e

one

of

th e

ir

numbe r to be Emperor and seek

recogm t10n from

the Franks

Bur

g

undian

s

and

Al

emanni

who

have

occupied

the

left

bank of

th e

Rhin e.

The

gr

ea

t barbarian

coa

lition

of

AD 410

A.D 412

A.D

414

A.D 428

A.D 433

A.D 436

A.D 449

A.D.

45

A.D 452

A D 453

A.D.

454

Britain

fragm

e

nt

s

under

th e l

oca

l

co

ntrol of

pe tt y Romano-Celti c

magnates. Th

e Visigoths , led

by

Alaric, sack Rom e.

Th

e Visigoths,

in

Imperial servi ce,

enter Gau

l and d epose

yet

another

Imp

erial

usurp

er.

Th

e Visigoths cross

into Spain

,

wher

e th ey exterminate th e se ttl ed

Siling Vandals and

Sarmatian

Alans

4 6) .

Th

e

Asding Vandal

s

Mar

co manni and Quadi are spared ,

by

R oman

intervention in order

to

prev

e

nt the

in crease

of

Vi s

igothi

c

pow

er. As th e re

ward

for the

ir

exertions

th e

Visigoth

s

are

invit

ed

by

Roman authorities

to

sett

le in a

l

arge area of

south

-west

Gaul.

North

Afri

ca is invad

ed

by

th e

Asding

Vandal

s; th ey

bui

ld a

pirat

e Aee t

and

hold the Rom a n

co

rn

s

upply

to

ran

som .

Attila

th e

Hun

is

born

.

Th

e

Huns driv

e dee p into Germani c

territory

;

many tribe

s beco me

Hunni

sh vassal

s.

Ge

rman

tribes begin th e perman e

nt

settlement of Brita in .

Attila

l

eads

th e Huns and th e ir

German

vassals

into Gaul;

th ey

are

met

a

nd driven ba

ck

by Roman

troops,

Burgundians

,

Sa

l

ian

Frank

s

and

Visigoths

at

th

e

Campu

s

Mauriacus.

The

Huns withdra w to

Hungary.

Atti

la in

vades It

aly,

but

th e

Hun

s

are bribed by R oman a

uthoriti

es to

reti re .

Attiladies.

The

Vanda

ls sack

Rom

e.

German vassals of th e Huns over

throw

th e

ir mast

ers

at the

battl

e

of

Nedao.

A D 469 78. The

Visigoths c

onquer mo

st

of

Spain

.

Th

e

German

ge neral

Odoace r becom

es

king

of It

a ly and


7/47

D 526

A D 528

The Fr

a nks expa

nd

into

a

la r

ge

a r

ea

of

Gaul

led

by

their

king,

Clovis.

Theodoric

dies.

After defeat

ing

the Gepids th e

Lorn bards, help ed

by

Avar

nomads

,

invade

Italy

and

mak

e a permanent

se ttl ement in the north.

ntrou tion

In th e

report

se nt to his kin g from Acre

in

I255 the

Franciscan fri

ar

William ofRubruck, in

reference

to his travels in th e

Crimea,

says:

All

the way from

the Kh erson to th e mouth of th e Tanais

there

are

high

mountain

p

ea

ks

along

th e coast,

and there

a re forty villages between

Kh

erson and

Soldaia,

of

which

a

lmo

st

every

one

ha

s its

own

languag

e.

Dw

elling h

ere were

many Goths, whose

language

is German Three

ce

nturies la t

er , in

about

1554, Augerois de Busbeck, a

Fr

ench

trav

eller,

ca me across a people he desc

ribed

as

Goths

on

the

s

hor

es of

the

Black

Sea

in

the Crimea. After

car

ef

ul analysis of

their

language from examples

surviving at th e tim e of th e

ir

discovery , philol

ogis ts identified

it

as Gothic,

with some alteration

due

to

Slavonic

influence.

This peopl

e is

now no

longer tra

ceab

l

e.

These

chance references to all

that remain

ed

of

the

once num

erous

and powerful

Gothic nation

ca

nnot

now

be verified

by

the

sophisti

ca

ted

anthropologi

ca

l

methods

available to us today.

Thankfully,

however, extensive skeletal evidence,

not only of the

Goths

but of many other

ancient

Germanic

peopl

es

from th e

migration

period ,

does exist.

This fa ct ha

s

allowed anthropologists

to

estab

li

sh th e

ra

cial ide

ntity

of

peopl

es we

would

ot

h

erw

i

se

know by na me

only

- co

lourle

ss wraiths

of the

im

agin ation.

Durin

g th e thousa

nd

years before the

Christian

era

two gr

eat

Indo

-E uropea

n peoples,

the

Celts

a

nd Scythians,

ex pand ed

into

central and

north

ern

Europe

- the Celts to th e w

es

t, th e Scy ths to the

eltic iron s

pearhead

s of the La

~ pe

r

iod

settlement, and,

later

, throughout

th

e planet

especially

the Germans.

Th

e

period ofGermani

c

migration

, th e

Volker

wandurung , does

not begin properly until the grd

century.

However

,

some

see

in

th

e eve

ntually

abortive invasion

of Roman Italy

by

a marauding

Celtic horde the

first southward probe

involving

Germanic

warriors. These

Cimbri and Teuton es

ha d d

es troyed several Roman armies in

a series of

encounters throughout

Gaul between B.C

.

14

and

I02. The series of

migrations did not

end

until

the adoption

of

Christianity by th

e

Norw

eg

ian

s in

th e I I

th

century

A.D.

Germani

c

homeland

s

comprised modern

Denmark ,

southern

and

central

Norway,

the north German

coas

tal strip

from th e

mouth

of

the

Elbe

to

the

Baltic shore,

and th e

islands

of Gotland and Bornho

lm .

It

was from

th

ese

breeding grounds

that

warlike

trib

es,

driv

en

by press ures brought about

by

ove

rpopulation

,

began

their wanderings. Some have

lost

th

eir

na

mes being quickly absorbed into

bigger

Germanic groupings during

th e

ensuing

c

haos.

Po

pulating

the

dank and

gl

oomy

forests of

north

e

rn Europe

,

th

e

German

barbarians

who

overran th

e

western Empire were

desce

ndants

of

p

easa

nts

who had

taken

up arms; at

the

time

Ta

citus

wrot

e his

rm ni

in the

la t

e 1st ce

ntury


8/47

onl y for

the dur

a tion o f a single c

ampaign

, were

becoming

accepted in a pe

rmanent

ca

pacity

as

chieftain

s. Th

e success

of many

l

eaders attracted

other tribal war bands and,

in

an era

of

constant

warfare,

th e transition from tribe to supertribe,

g

roup

ed

und

er cunning

warlords

, was well

under

way.

Th

ese vigo rous northern

barbarians

were

th e

destroyers of th e Wes tern Empire

ofRom

e. It was

they

who deliver

ed

the

up

de

grace

to

the

dy

ing

colossus

in

th e s

outh

, s

ubsequently

c

reating

med ieval Europe, the fe

udal

system and chivalry.

It

was

their di r

ec t desce

ndant

s

who wer

e th e

knights a

nd

men-a t-a rm

s.

In every sense, th ey

were the creato rs of the

mod

ern world ; it is

ironi

c

that most of us know virtually

nothing about them.

h

e Mr

rior

An essential factor in

ea

rly Germanic

and

Celti c

warfare was the

warrior s own

l

arge,

pow

erful

frame. The German proper was a

variant of

th e

ear lier No rdi c type introd uced

by the

Indo-

E

ur

opea n in vasion ; he was, in

general,

l

arger,

due to

racia

l mixture with th e great northern

hunt

ers still surv1vmg in

north

e

rn Europ

e from

the l

ast

I ce Age.

The

body was h

eav

ier

and

th i

cker than th e

pur

e

Nordic

type, with a large

brai ncase. H e was charac teristically

blond or

rufous as see n in his

mod

ern descendants and

noted by numerou s early writers . The two

exceptions

to this

general

pic tur e

were

th e

Ale

manni

and

the Franks who

rese

mbl

ed

the

p

eop

ll l th ey eventu a lly se ttl ed a mong, th e Ce lts.

Di

et was h

ea

vy a

nd

rich

in

protein

,

broadly

including pork

, b

eef and fi

sh (fr

es

h

and

sa

lt ed ),

mu

tton , venison,

game, br

ead ,

be

er

and

da

ir

y

produ

ce .

Everyday

dr

ess

varied

from

group

to group.

Th

e overall cos tum e, however , was the same

throughout

the north

- a s

impl

e

tuni

c,

long

trouse

rs

and

cloak,

which wa

s us

ually of

a blackish

or

dark brown wool. Th e tunic r

eac

hed the kn ees

and

had e

ith

er long

or

s

hort

sleeves. Severa l

tuni

cs could be worn at

once,

supplem ented

with

fur and pel

ts of

different

kind

s

in

cold

weather.

In summer ,

of

co urs e,

upp

er garments

wer

e often

left off alt

oget

her.

Lin

en was

known but wa

s a n

Longbows found a t

Nydam and

dated

to the late

4th

century

A. D

. ;

about 2m

long and

made

of

yew,

they bear a close

affinity to

the grea t

English

warbow

of

the

Middle

Ages

. The

arrows, of

pinewood

and

hazel, rneasure

betwee

n

68cm

and

85 em they were found n bundles . (

No

t to scale)


9/47

expensive

imp

o

rt

from

the south,

a

nd

was, for

that reason , on ly worn by the

wealthier

or far

trave ll ed trib

es

men. Trousers were held up by

rawhid e

thonging;

sometim

es

cross-thonging held

them in to th e l

ower

legs or ankles . Trou se rs

were

made in wool , as we ll as fur and skins. Knee

length br eeches, wh en

worn

, were combined with

a tight leg cove

ring

. Belts

of varied

thic

kn ess wer

e

worn

at

the

wa

ist

or

across th e s

houlder

, so

metim

es

both

. Straps could be used for carry

ing th

e shield .

Th

e cloak was

about

five feet across, rectangular

or circul

ar

, of woven wool , sometimes

ha

v

ing

a fur

lining. Cloaks e

ntir

ely

of

skins

were

also

worn.

T hey were secured

with

fibul e

or

broo

ch

es

of

differ ing kind

s,

some typ

es

be

ing mor

e popul

ar

among

so

me

trib

es

than

o th ers. C

lothin

g

of

th e

lower class

wa

s of th e

roughest kind

- th e simplest

woven tuni

cs

or

dr

essed skin

s.

Shoes were of a

very

simple d

es

ign , in some ways simil

ar

to

the

moccasins

of

th e

Nort

h

American

Indian

,

turned

up over th e foot fro m the sole and tied at

the

ank le.

H a ir was often left long,

being

sometimes plaited ,

gat

hered

in t

o a top

-knot

or twisted into

th

e curious

knot peculi

ar

to th e Suebian

trib

es such as the

Mar

co

manni

a

nd

Qu

ad

i. B

ea rd

s were us

ua

lly

but

not

always

worn. Tribesmen norma

lly

went

bare

h

ea

ded

,

but

a wooll en or fur

ca

p

might

be

worn in cold

weat

her . R azors, co

mbs, sc

issors

and

tw eezers of ea rly

date

h

ave

been

found

in

Germanic territory. Th e rough woollen

cloth

u

se

d by the Germans was woven in plain col

ours

,

of striped

or ot

her

geometr

ic d es

ign

.

Dy

e

ing

was

ca rri ed out with vege t

ab

le sub

sta

nces, a skill

which had existed in th e north s

in

ce th e

Bronz

e

Age , if not before. R ed was obtained from madder

root, yellow

fr

om sa ffron owe rs and the

sta

lks or

leaves of weld , blu e from woad , green

fr

om what is

now know n as

dy

ers gree nweed . M a ny ga rm ents

were a l

so

le

ft

in th eir n

at

ural

hu

e- wool

ha

s a

number of na tura l shades, rangi

ng

from

almost

pure white ,

th r

ough fawn , brown and grey to

bl

ac

k.

Bracelets,

ea

rrings, a rmle ts, necklets, beads and

[]

]

'

c

D

]

E

B

Celtic

swords and hilts : (A) M us

hroom

style pommel, f rom

a la r

ge

Hals ta t t sword (B )

Mexican

h at

style pommel

f rom

an ea

rly Hals ta t t sword, ro8cmlong , dated to the 8th century

B.C. (C ) Late Hals ta t t

i ron

sword

with ant ler

or antennae

hilt, 72cm

long

,

7th

century B. C. (D )

and

(E), La

Tene

i ron

s wo r ds and scabbards, both 5th to

6th

centuries B. C., one

90cm

and

the

other

88cm long

.

c

ultur

e.

Roman

cul

ture play

ed

an

ever

-

in

creas

in

g

part in

northern

Europea

n society

after

th e

Ce

ltic

co

llap

se in Gaul. In

their

ro le as a source of

wea pons and luxury goods, th e Rom ans b

ega

n

th

eir

long involvement

with

the Germans as they

faced

th

em across th e northe

rn

frontiers.

O f

the Warrior

Who th ese people

were

and from wh

at

pa

rt

of

th e

world

th ey had se t

out,

to

fa

ll on

Gaul

and

I

Laly

like a thundercloud ,

no on

e kn e

w;

for th ey

h

ad no

con

ta

c t with

the

so uthern

ra

ces, a

nd

h

ad

a lr

eady

tr

ave

ll ed a

very

gr

ea

t way. Th e likeli

es

t


10/47

La

Te

ne sword hilt

s:

A)

Solid

c

ast

bronze,

from

Cumberland ,

England B) Tinned bronze fitting s on wood

from

Do rs e

t

England C) From a bas-relief at Pergamon , Turkey.

is Ci

mbri

As for

th

e barbarians , they were

so full

of

confid ence in themselves

and of contempt

for their enem i

es

that

they

went

out of

their

way

to give,

quite unn

ecessarily , ex

hibition

s

of

th eir

strength and

daring.

They

went naked

through

snow-storm

s climbed

to the su

mmits

of

the

mountains,

through

the ice and s

now drifts

and,

from there,

came tobogganing down

on their

broad

shield

s

sliding over the s

lippery

slopes and

the

deep

crevasses.' (From the passage on the

Cimbri

and T eutons,

Fall

o t

e Roman Rpublic

by

Plutarch.

)

' The Germans

wear

no breas t plates or

helmets. Even

their

shields

are not

reinforced

with

iron

or

lea th

er

,

but

a re merely

plaited

wickerwork

or pain ted boards. Spears,

of

a sort,

are

l

imited

to

their front rank. The rest have clubs, burnt

at

the

ends

or

with sh

ort metal points. Phy

si

ca ll

y, they

are formid ab le and good for a short rush .

But

they

ca nn ot

tand

being hurt (Part of an eve of

battle speech to

hi

s troops

by

Germanicus, 16

A.D. )

'

In

their

war with

the Emperor

Com

modus,

the Buri , a

sma ll tribe

of Germans of

the middle

Danube, h

ad

to ask th e Emperor on

many

occasions for a truce in

order

to rep lenish

their

ca

nt

y

supp

ly of weapons.

They are

a tall race,

their enemy

so

fa

st that

they

seem to fly faster

than

th

eir

javelins.'

(

Agathius

,

405 A.D., writing

of the

Franks. )

' A

Gothi

c hor

se man

's l

ance

went

right

through a Roman

cava

lryman.

The

Goth slowly

raised the dripping lance, with the armoured

R

oman

kicking

and

vomiting on the end

of

it. '

(

Procop

ius ,

secretary

to

the

great general of th e

Ea

ste rn

Empire,

Be

li

sarius ,

6th

ce

ntury

A.D. )

'

Vanda

l

cava

lry fight

with

spear and

sword.

They have little or no defensive armour,

[and]

are not

good

infantrym

en,

archers or

javelineers.

Th

eir army was

very

s

imilar to

that of the O stro

goths,

though

th e

Goths

had a l

arge

infantry

force .' (

Sidoniu

s

Apo

llinaris.

430- 480

A.D.

)

'

Drinkin

g bout

s

l

asting

a day and

night

,

are

no t considered in

any way

disgraceful

No

one

in Germany

finds vice

amusing,

or ca lls it

'up-to-date' to de

bau

ch and be debauched . . .

If

they

approve,

they

cla

sh s

pear

s.

No

form

of

approval ca

n

ca

rry

more

honour th a n

pr

aise

expressed

by arms

' . On the

fie

ld of battle it is a

disgra

ce to th e

chief

to be surpassed in

va

l

our

by

his

companions

or

to th e co

mp

a

nion

s

not

to come

up

in

valour to

their

chie

f.

As for l

eav

ing th e

batt

le alive after the

chief has

fa

ll

en ,

that

m

ea

ns

li f

el

ong

infam

y and

sham e. To defe

nd

and protec t

him

, to

put down

one's

own acts

of

heroism to his cre

dit

,

that

is

what

th

ey

rea ll

y m

ea

n by a

ll

eg

ian

ce.

The

chiefs ght

for victory, the companions for

their

chief. Many

nob

le

yout

h

s if

th e

ir land

is s

tagnating

in a

protra

cted

peac

e, del

iberate

ly seek

out

other

tribes where some war is afoot.

The

Germans

hav

e

no taste for peace; renown is easier won among

per il

s

a nd you cannot maintain a l

arge body

of

com panions except

by

violence and

war.

' You will find it

harder

to pe

rsuad

e a G erman

to p l

ough th

e land and await its

annua

l produce

with

pa

ti

ence

than

to c

halleng

e a foe

and ea

rn the

prize of

wounds.

H e thinks it spiritle

ss

and slack

to

gain by

sweat what

he

can buy with

blood. '

(Tacitus.

Germania.

T hese

tanta

lizing gl

imps

es of

north Europ

ea

n

barbarians

seen through th e eyes of civilized


11/47

wo uld have seen the

ir

first Germ ans

onl

y if

aux ilia ry troo ps were pos ted nea r th eir

town

or had

app ea red in the arena .

Uiapons

Economica

ll

y the Ge

rm

anic tribes were peasants

living mainl y from stock-re

arin

g cattle, she

ep

and goa ts) and fa rming. As tim e went by , is

olat

ed

fa

rms beca me gro

up

s

of

fa

rm

s

d eve

loping into

hamlets and , eve

ntu

ally, villages.

Th

e skills of

early Germ a n cra

ft

smen showed

unac

countable

limita

ti

ons in so me direc tion

s.

This was always

ev ide

nt

in th e wea ponry of th e early tribes men.

Roman assess ment of the Germanic peoples

wa

s

above a

ll

, as warrior

s.

With

a few

notabl

e

exceptions R oman writers had no personal

co

ntac t with th em, a nd some of their

ob

servations

may be suspec t. Arch

ae

ol ogy, how ever, has

supplied a la rge and deta il ed a mount of Germa n

wea pon history. Because of the relative paucity of

na tive

inn

ova tion th e Germ ans particularly those

in

the w

es

t, were

inA

uenced to a

larg

e d e

gr

ee by

the Ce ltic H alsta tt and La T ene periods ofc

ultur

e.

After the R oman conqu

es

t of Ga ul , Roman

weapons

pl

ayed a n increasin g pa rt in th e arming

of Germ anic wa r band s until , in the

la t

e Empire,

a stead y Row of a rm s no

rthw

a rd

wa

s susta

in

ed by

i

lli

cit a rm s d

ea

l

s

loo t

fr

om

Rom

an

ar

se

nals

and

armies, and eq ui pmen t

br

ought hom e by th e large

num be rs of Germ ans wh o

had

se rved in the

Roman a rm y. A broad approxim a tion ofphases in

wea ponr y a mong th e ancie

nt

Germans based on

recent a rchaeo log ica l evidence, is as follows:

CeLtic: f lalsta

tl

cul ture: 7th cent B C Swords of

br

onze and iron, na

ti

ve

ir

on lances

and ax

es; a

pe

ri

od

durin

g which very large Celti c we

apon

s

were in use - heavy sword s sp

ea

rh ead s reaching

75cm in lengt h.

CeLtic: Late

J /

a s tatt: earLy 5 th

ce

nt B C The import-

ance of the swo rd is ove rta ken by that of the short ,

Wooden

shields

f rom

Hjortspring; the barleycorn bosses

are

also

of

wood.

These shields,

dated

to the

rst

century

B.

C.

,

measure

88cm

X socm, and 66cm X 30Cm

.

Also, two

German iron sax

knives,

both about

46cm

long.

The nor thern l imits

of

the La Tene Culture.


12/47

Diagram

of

an

oval

Celtic

shield made of

oak planks,

covered

with

leather

and backed with felt; it would probably be

finished

with a painted

design. About 1.1m long, it is 1.2cm

thick

at

the ce

ntre and

less

towards the

rim

.

The

spine

of

s

haped

wood is hollowed

out to

receive the

warriors

fist as

he

gra

s

ps the handle normally reinforced with

an

iron

bracing

st

ri p

-

at

the rear

.

The bo

ss itself

has

an iron

reinforcing

s

trip.

Top

to

bottom

)

An Anglo-Saxon sax

6th

century

A.D

.;

a

Frankish sax of the

s

ame

period ;

and

a

rusted

iron

sax

about

5ocm long, found at

Chadlington,

Oxfordshire.

beg

innin

g

of

th e

Ce

lti c La T ene culture sees the

Germ ans in po ssess ion of very few swo

rd

s.

Th

e

impress

ion

ga

in ed is

th

a t in p a

rt

s of Ge

rm

any the

l

ong

sword is v

irtu

a lly

unkn

own . Ordinary

warriors are equipped with local varian ts of sp

ea

r

type shield a

nd

dagger . Spe

arhea

ds meas ure

2cm to 26c m.

Ce/ tir :

S( (o

nd /. a T Pn

l

fI/(/Sf: Jrd to 2nd

ce

nt. B .C.

cha nge

in

a rm a me

nt

evident.

At Hj

o

rt

s

prin

g

a la rge wooden boat was

di

scovered

pr

eserved in

th e p

ea

t. Cla

ss

ifi

ed as a v

ot i

ve de

po

s

it

a

nd

da ted

to around th e la te 3rd ce

ntur

y B.C.

it

was

acco

mpani

ed

by

38

ir

on a

nd

3

bon

e spe

ar

s

50

shields and six s

words. Th

e shi elds were a ll of

Celtic patterns- a long oval type meas

urin

g

88c m x s ocm and th e

mor

e common rec

tan

g

ular

type measuring 66cm x 30cm. Toward s th e end

of this

pe

riod severa l chang

es

seem to have affec ted

Ge

rm an

war

bands.

Th

e sax a

on

e-edged w

ea pon

of v

ar

ying le

ngth

was

int

r

odu

ced ;

it

s origin is

unknown.

A few wa rr iors were equipped

with

La

T ene s

word

s- th ey may have been specia

li

st

sword smen .

Th

ese men were less common in

east

ern

Germ anic territories.

Th

e use of Celti c

spears javelins and shield s is still evide

nt

th e

latt

er w

ith ir

on bosses . All we

ap

ons a re

li

gh t a

nd

spa ring in th e u

se

of iron co

nfirmin

g a n iron p

oor

society.

R

oma

n per

io

d : 1st

ce

nt. A

.

Sword smen numb

er

ab

o

ut

one in ten a

mon

g Ge

rm

a

ni

c

warri

ors of this

p

er

iod .

Th

ere is no evid ence of a

rm

o

ur

or

helmets exce

pt

in th e case of a very few chieftains. with fine thre

ad. Arrows

were about 68cm to


13/47

Shields a re round , rec tangular or sexagonal ,

dished , and with a promine

nt

projecting boss

and

iron

or

bronze edging. Sm all round or oval shields

we re u

se

d by the cava

lr y.

Roman period: 2nd

cent

A D Roman and German

e

quipm

e

nt

begins to

app

e

ar

together

in

a

number

of areas. Ma il garm ents and Roman swords of

the

glad

ius

type, with ring pomm el, and

an

increase in

the use of axes, es pecially the throwing-axe.

Rom

an

period: Jrd

cent

A D

Roman

weapons

continue to find their wa y into northern

lands

,

es

pecia

ll

y in th e more northerly territories.

Swordsmen

prob

a

bly numb

er about one

in every

four wa rrior

s.

Swords of Roman spatha type,

toge ther with

oth

er Rom an types,

increasingly

find their way into German hands .

In

the

peat

bogs a t Ejsbol No

rth

, r6o shields,

rgr

spears , 203

barbed javelins 6o sword s 6o belts and 62 knives

we

re fo

und

. R oman c

avalr

y

helmets

of

parad

e

type were used in a few cases probab ly as

marks

of

rank.

Roman period: 4

th

cent

A D

Shields seem to

be

rarely

ca

rri ed a t this period.

When

found, the

bosses are of the Roman

dom

ed variety. The old

Germ an spiked typ

es ar

e e

vidently

out of fashion.

Owing to wid es pread cremation of the dead

among the no

rth

ern barbarians th e discovered

ce meteries, many of them very large, afford little

inform a tion except for those interested in pottery .

Franki sh wa rri or graves in what was northern

Gaul and the

Rhin

eland , dated from the mid-4th

to the 5th ce

ntur

y A.D. ,

ar

e

furnished with

spears,

throwing-ax

es

and an occasional sword. These

warri ors were proba bly federate soldiers

employed

by the Romans.

On

e

ri

chly furni shed grave of a

Germanic office r found in a la te Rom a n cemete

ry

conta

in

ed a sword , a belt , an oval silver plate and

a shield origina lly covered with purple leather and

gold foil pla tes; th e boss

had

been sheathed in

silver-gilt. Oth er w

ea pon

s

includ

ed were a throw

ing axe, ten spea rs a

nd

a larger spear inlaid with

silver. Oth er Frankish graves in

Belgium

contain

belt fittings a nd buc

kl

es, spea rs

and

throwing-ax e

s.

w

8s cm long .

Ge

rmanic

bows,

dating

from

about

roo A.D . to

350 A.D. ,

were

made of yew and fir wood. They

were recognisable long

bow

s of deep D section.

It is probable that , like

the

English l

ongbow

of

later

ages, th e

se

were

compound

bows a

combination of

the sapwood

,

which

resists

stret

ch

ing , for the back ,

and

heat-wood , resistant to

compression , for the belly or inside of th e bow.

Staves

found at

Vimose , Kragehul and Nydam

meas

ure

from r68cm to rg8cm . Although used

only to a limited degree

by Germanic groups

in th e

British Isles, and even less by those settled in

Gaul,

the bow was used to advantage by

other

Germans.

As

stated above

, self bows

and

a few

composite

bows were used by the Alemanni.

True

longbows

were present in northern

bog

deposits. Dated

from the 2nd to the 4th centuries A.D. , th ese

weapons

were

probably

develop

ed

by

th e

Germans

themselve

s. Som

e arrow piles found seem to be

designed to punc

ture

armour.

(Left

and

r igh t) A

Roman

cavalry s

word

o f

unu

s

ual

s hape ,

and i ts sc bb rd,

f rom

Gotland ; between

them

,

th

e hil t

of

a

Rom a n

gladius

f rom Thors bjerg.


14/47

Rom

a n ca

va

l ry s word ,

length 102cm

o

ve

rall ; and below

it

, a

Rom a n gladius

with th

e la te ' rin

g

pommel, length

6o

cm

overall. Both a r e

dat

ed t o about the o:nd century A.D.

and

were

found

a t Vimose

in Denmark

.

A large partofthe Visigothic

army,

as

mention

ed

elsewhere, were a rchers

and spearmen. Th

e

ir

cava

lry were

composed

of

chieftains

and

th e

ir

compamons.

Bowmen a l

so

formed

an

important element in

Ostrogothic a rmi

es

; as with

ot

her German

bow

men, a very sma

ll

numb

er

of co mposite bows

may

have been used,

but

th e

overwhelming

ma

jority

vvould be self or compou

nd

bows. (Th e

ir

cava lry

were armed with spears a

nd

swo

rd

s d

er

ived from

those

of

the

Sarmatians; Ostrogothic nob

l

es

owned lav ish, gol

d-decorated,

h

eavy

sl

ashing

words,

mounted

with a

lmondin s.

)

Th

e

longbow

s

found

at

Vimose, Krage

hul

and Nydam, dated

to 100- 35

A.D.,

have previou sly been

not

ed.

The

bow used

ex

tensively by a

ll

ste

pp

e

nomad

s,

including the Sarmatians a

nd

Hun s, was the

powerful, reflexed ,

com

p

os

ite bow .

It

s stave is

construc ted

or

la min

ated materials

or different

or

igin , such as wood , sinew a

nd

horn.

Wh

en

unstrung

th e bow fo

rm

s the s

ilhouette

or th e

l

etter

C

,

so

m

et

im

es

with

the

e

nd

s forming a

cross.

Wh

en st

run

g,

the C

was

opened

back

(Top ) A

long

, heavy

Go

t hic ca valry s word

f rom Tamin in

s

outhern

Ru

ss

ia , 5

th

ce

ntur

y A. D.

par t l

y re st

ored

in t his

s ket ch. (

Bottom)

A s word

reco

vered

f rom Kragehul

Bo g,

D e

nmark

; i t ha s bronze s

cabbard mount

s

and

hil t,

and

is

d ate d to the 5th centu ry A.D. (

Not

to s cale.)

against its natura l curve and held that way

by

th e

string - thus, the

bow

coiled for

action.

Early

Swords

Early

Ce

l tic i

ron

swords fo llow the general

patte

rn

or

previo

us

bronze examples,

whi ch were

still in use well

after

th

e

introdu

c

tion

of

iron.

Th

e

first i

ron

swo rds

ma

Qufac tured in

Europe were

l

ong,

slash

ing weapons;

in

the op

i

nion

of most

experts, they

were primari

ly d

es

igned for

us

e by

c

hari

o

t-born

e

warriors.

Som

e of' th e

weapons

be

longing

to th e H al

sta tt

cul

tur

e

were

so la r

ge

th a t th ere is

some

doubt that

they

were mad e f

or

actual

use. Th e hilts are genera

ll

y

very

di stin c

ti

ve,

hav

ing

a pommel simi l

ar

to a M exi

ca

n h

al.

E

xa mp

l

es

i

nclud

e

hilt

s of

horn

or ivory, deco ra ted

with

go ld

or amber,

a few h

ave

a

mu

s

hroom-

like

pr

o

i

e.

L

te

Halstatt swords

introdu

ced about B.C . 6oo,

were

fashion ed

after exa

mp

les

of

Greek

o r

Etru

scan

prov

e

nan ce;

so me

ind

eed

may

be

imports

from th e south. Th ey were sma

ll

e r th a n

th e gr

ea

t

midd

le H alsta

tt swor

d

s, and were

d

es

igned to be used for

both

slashing and sta

bbin

g,

in that they

ca

rried a point. Th eir hi lts

fa ll into

two

ma in patte

rn

s,

antennae

and

anthropomorphic .

Th

e form er fo

llowed

an old la te Bronze Age

p

at

tern ; the la

tt

er took th e sty

li

sed form or a

spreadeag

led

man

.

Th

e bl

ades

of th ese

weapons

were

madeofiron, for

ge

d to hard en

by introdu

cing

ca rbon in

various

ways, finishin g with a ca

rburis

ed


15/47

A

iron

of indiff

ere

nt

quality.

Although

th ere

are

notabl

e exce

ptions

,

most

Celtic

swo

rd

s

were

mad e

in t

hi

s way.

Early La Tene

swords wer

e

introdu

ced

about

B.C.

450.

They

h

ave

poi

nt

ed

blades abo ut

55cm to

65cm long; there

is one kn

ow

n

examp

le

8ocm

long.

La Tfne (

11

) period

swo rd

s

date

fr

om

c. B.C.

250 to 120. T hey

measure

abou

t 75-

8ocm

a

nd

have

rounder

points . Th e final La T ene

phase

swords

da ted from B.C. 120 to

the

def

ea

t of

the

Ga llic

tribes by

R ome, were lon

ger

than those of

the two

pr

evious

periods

.

Th

ey a re

betw

ee n

6ocm

and

gocm l

ong;

a few

wer

e po

in ted but most were

b

lun

t-end ed.

Pattern

WPided

Blades

In

the ea rl

y 1st ce

ntur

y

A.D.

a new process,

which we

ca ll

patte

rn-w

e

ldin

g, was invented by

Europea

n swo

rdsmiths. The pro

cess was co

mpli

cated , but not so l

ong

drawn out as many earli er

tem pering methods.

The

ce

ntr

a l section

of

the

bl

ade

was

prepared by

forgi ng n

ar

r

ow

billets of

high-quality

ca

rburised

ir

on , tw1st mg them

together

in

pair

s, l

ay

in g the twists sid e by side,

weldin g

them

, a

nd

finally

add

in g

furth

er st

rip

s

of

ca rburis

ed iro n to th e sides a

nd

we l

ding

them

to

form th e c

uttin

g edges.

At

this

stage the

blad e was

a l

ong,

flat ,

ob

long

billet

, which h

ad

to be filed

and

ground dow

n to the

desired

fo

rm. It

was th en

burn

ished a nd

etc

hed with a n

acid

such as

tannin,

urine

, sou r

beer or

vin

egar;

when

the

ce

ntra

l

sect ion

and

full er

were

polished , a

pattern

h

av

ing

c

D

Sword

hilt

s of the

Mignationperiod

: A)

From about

150A D .

B) From a

bout

400 A.D C)

From

about 350 A.D .- a

Northern

patt

ern D ) F

rom about

500 A.D.

Sword rings and Lfe-stones

On the pommels of

some of th ese sword s, rings,

mo

stly

decorated

,

are attached.

These

a re

believed to be spec

ial

gifts from a g r

atef

u l

chiefta in .

Some scabb

a

rd

s h

ave

la r

ge beads

attac

hed to

them

, eith

er of pottery

, glass,

meer

scha

um

,

crysta

l o r, r

are

ly,

go

ld

set with

stones,

and

occasiona lly

with go

ld

or

sil

ver

mount

s Th

ese

a re a mule ts- cha

rm

s to

brin

g

goo

d luck- a

nd

wer

e believed to h

ave

th e m

ag

i

ca

l prope

rt

y to h

ea

l

wounds made by

th e swo

rd

to

which

th ey we re

atta

ched.

Sword

s

o

the Heroic Period

Wh

en th e ene

my

h

ad

taken

po

ssess

ion

of two

camps

a

nd

a n

im m

ense

boot

y,

th

ey

de

s

troyed

,

und

er

new

a

nd

s

tr

a

ng

e

oaths

, all

that

h

ad fa

ll

en

int

o th e

ir

ha

nd

s.

Th

e

clothes were torn

a

nd

thrown away, go

ld a nd sil

ver

thr

ow

n

into

the

ri

ver,

th e ring armour of

the

men c

ut

to pieces, the

acco ut r

eme

nt

s

of

th e

hor

ses

destroy

ed ,

the

hor

ses th emselves

thrown into

th e

water,

a

nd

th e

m

en,

with

rop

es

a

round

th e

ir

nec ks, suspe

nd

ed

from th e

tr

ees, so th a t

there

was

no

m

ore booty

f

or

th e vi

ctors than

th ere was m

ercy

for th e co

nq

uer

cd.

This

extract from a histor y

written

a bout B

.C.

1oo, by the Roman his

torian Oro

si us, d

ea

ls

with

the Ce

ltic in vas

ion

by th e

Cimbri

a

nd Teutones.

It

highlights

the religious ob liga tion felt by th e

A

se

lec t i

on ofbarbarian

arm s

and

armour

and otb

e r trophie s,

taken

f rom

Roman coin reverses .

These

coin des

ign

s, illu s


16/47

but a re

pr

ese

nt in

co

mp

ara

ti

vely few graves.

Roma n sword s are represented in the b

og

nds

by the short

gladius

and long cava lry

spa

tlz

a.

One

interesting hiIt, be longing to a R oma n

gladius

was

fo

un d a t

Th

orsbj erg, So

ut

h J

utl

a nd . I t is simi la r

to one in th e British Mu seum a

nd

a noth er fo und

at P

ompe ii

. I ts bronze h

il

t has littl e bosses on

guard a nd pomm el , with a grip covered in fin e

woven

bro

nze thr

ea

d bra iding. An other examp le,

comp

iPte with its sca

bb

a rd , was fo

und

in

Gotla nd.

I t has a swe

lli

ng on either side of the blade, just

t ra t

ing in

s

imple

s tyle s

ample

s of

tbe booty

taken

in

t r iumphantmil i taryexpedit ion

s,

allowten

t at ivea

ss

ociations

to be m a de by comparing

tbe known

date of tbe coin

wi

t h tbe

known contemporary campaigns : probable associations a re

sh o

wn

here bracketed .

A ) From a sestertius of Marcus Aurelius , dated to

18o

A.D .:

ho r n , plaque , monster-headed t rumpet,

p

elta

type shield

,

co rselet, and

shield

s

of

curve-sided oblong , smal l oval,

he

x

agonal

and

narrow

,

curve-sided

shapes

.

Sarmatian

s,

Q.uadi and Marcomanni )

B) From an

aurius

o fMarcus Aurelius, dated to 18o A.D. : horn ,

vexillum , large monster-headed

t rumpet

/s tandard , and

s h ield s of s mal l oval, curve-s ided oblong,

oval

and oblong

s

hape

s. Q.uadi and Marcomanni )

C )

From

a coin

ofDomit ian ,

dated

to

go

A.D.

: a long Celtic

type shield

with

two spears , a vexillum and a long t rumpe t.

Q.uadi)

D )

From a

coin

of Domitian, dated

to

go A.D. : a hexagonal

s

hi

e

ld.

Q.uadi

or

Marcomanni)

E ) F

r om

a coin

ofDomitian,

date

unknown

: three hexagonal

shields

and a

helmet.

Q.uadi, Marcomanni )

F ) From a coin o f Titus, dated

to

81 A.D. : German sh ield s,

tb r

ee h exagonal and one octagonal ; a helmet of

the

old

Romano-Etruscan type, a

muscle cuirass and two

s pears .

H e rmandur i and Marcomanni )

G ) From a sestertius o fT . Decius , dated to 250 A. D.; a hors e

head s tandard.

Gothi

c )

H ) From a solidus

of Cri

s

pu

s,

dated to

319 A.D .: a t rophy of

arm s compr is ing a

mu

scle

cuirass and

conical

helme

t,

probably both Roman

,

two round-ended oblong

s

hields, two

smaller oval s hield

s,

a battleaxe ,

two

s pears, a

cloak

and a

compo s i te bow witb a

ringed

string. Alemanni )

swo rd s of native manuf

ac

ture. A ll a re do

ub

le

edged , wit h bronze- a

nd

sil ver-covered wooden

ha

ndl

es .

Th

e w

oo

den sca

bb

a rd s

bor

e m

eta

l

mount

s.

Also found we n; a thick swo

rd

be l

t;

br

onze a

nd

iron

belt bu

ckles; bow

s

a rrows a nd

shi eld

s.

T hese lat ter we re circula r and Aa t,

measurin g 54cm to Io8c m

in

di a meter, with most

grips a

nd

fas te

nin

gs of

bron

ze

but

some of iro n .

Axes fo

und

in th is de

po

s

it

were

mount

ed on

w

oo

den shafts s gcm to

8s

cm lon

g;

sp

ea

rs w

ere

mo

unt

ed

on

sha

ft

s

81

cm ,

zs

ocm , 273c m a

nd

zgsc m long. Harness for both

dr

iving a

nd

riding

was fo

und

, togeth er

with mu

ch j ewe

ll

ery, t

oo

ls,

a mb e r di ce, bowls spoons, jugs a nd kni ves.

Ga

rm

ents i

nclud

ed m a il shirts, gold-pla ted

br

onze

circula r pec

tor

a l pla tes, a

nd

a co nverted R oma n

cava lry pa rade helmet covered in silve r. Roma n

coi ns found includ ed some

of

Septimu s Seve ru

s

d

ate

d I

94

A. D .

At

Vimo

se

in

D e

nm

a rk 67 s

word

s were fo

und

;

most were

doub

le-edge d , bu t some were single

edged saxes

Of

I

000

spears fiv e were moun ted On

I 50 kniv

es

, bu ckles, fibulae, buttons ha rn ess ,


17/47

BOVE

Dacian

arms

and

standards from

various Roman

bas-reliefs : not to scale. A dagged

banner

on a spear; two

battle-scythes

- fa/xes ; a

quiver, shield and batt leaxe;

and

a

carnyx-sty

le

standard with a ferrule.

scythe blades, keys, scissors needles, nails, a

millstone, an anvil, hammers, chisels,

fil

es,

pin

cers,

combs

, brooches, b

eads

and four amber di ce .

This find is

dat

ed to th e lat e 4th century

A.D.

At Krage

hul

, also in Denma rk ,

were

found ten

pa

tte

rn-weld

ed swo

rd

s,

with

sp

ea

rs

set

in a

circul

ar

fence . Th e find is

dat

ed to th e 4th and 5th

cent

uries

A.D.

The four-ship burial at Nydam

is

of gr

eat

import

ance . It contained two small ships which

were

beyond reconstruc tion , and two l

arger

ones

in a mu ch be tter state of preservation . Among th e

associated find s were

I

o6 double-edged s

word

s

93 of them pattern-welded ;

si

lvered sheaths a

nd

bone and cas t bronze hilts; 552 spears, s

om

e inla id

with

gold, and arrows. All

dat

ed from 200 A.D . to

350 A.D.

Most Germanic swo rds fall into one or

ot

h

er

of

th e classifications

work

ed

out

by th

e Swedish

expert Elis Behmer ; th e hilts

of

four types

occurring fre

qu

ent l y in

our

pe

riod

are illus

tr

ated.

Helmets

f rom

Dacia and Asia.(A)-

E)

: Phrygian type,

f rom

the

pedestal o Trajan s

Column.

F) and

(G):

Phrygian

helmets

.

(H)

Sarmatian

helmet,

f rom Trajan s

Column.

I)

and

J) :

Domed helmets,

f rom

the pedestal

o

Trajan s

Column.

(Not to scale.)

E

b

etter

prese

ntation of

th e re

li

efs th a n

the more


18/47

German iron spearheads, 4th

to 6th

centuries

A.D.

Dacian

Arms and

Armour

The co lumn erec ted in the Forum of Rom e a

nd

dedicated

to th e Emperor Trajan

in

I I3 A.D .

illustra tes in a sp

ir

a l

ribbon

ofreliefs th e phases and

main incide

nt

so fhisco

nqu

es tofDacia . Th e s

quar

e

pedestal a t th e base of the column carried

exampl

es

of

a rm s a nd a rmour in co nfused a

bundan

ce . Th e

monume

nt

, in two halves,

ca

n bes t

be

see n in

England at th e Victoria and Albert Mu seum ,

where exce llent full-sca le plaster casts exist The y

were taken

during

th e

Igth

ce ntury, a

nd

give a

Helmets from the

tomb-carvings

of A. Julius

Pompilius ,

175 A.D., at

the t ime of the Marcomannic Wars.

(A)

Roman

battle helmet (B) Damaged carving of Roman cavalry

spor ts

helmet (C)

Curious helmet

of

indis t inct

type.

These are

thought to depict

helmet

s worn by

the enemy

in

this

campaign.

corroded

original in Rome. On co nfronting the

highly-d eco

rat

ed ,

carved

sid es of th e p

edesta

l, it

becomes o

bviou

s

that

the

formal

abb

reviations of

c

ostume

and weapons used

on

the column are

absent

:

on

th e co

lumn

we

hav

e

narr

a tive,

on the

p

edesta

l we

are

looking

at

graphic exa

mpl

es of

the

masses

of

equipm e

nt captur

ed by

Rom

a n forces

from the

ir opponents

in D

ac

ia,

sculpted from

actual exa

mples

of the trophi

es. In th e

ir

o rigin a l

condition th e bas-reli e

fs

were pa

in t

ed in realistic

colours,

with

deta

il

s ofarmo

ur

a

nd

weapons

added

in

meta

l Periodic renewal

of

th e pa int was carried

out during th e

li f

e

of

th e

Empir

e.

The cl uttere

d ab undance

of

these impressive

tr

o

phies

begs

th

e qu est ion

Whi

ch piece

of

equip

ment belongs to which group

of

b

arba

ri

ans

in

vo lved

in

th e

ca

mpa igns ? Perhaps a more

rel

eva

nt

qu es

tion

is A re

the

ca rvings in fact

r

ep

rese

ntative

of

th e

arms

of

only

one

peo ple,

the

gifted a

nd

proud

Geto-Dacians

,

who

Traja

n h

ad

dest

ro

yed during a d elibe

rat

e campa

ign of

Rom an

expansion

into

centra l Europe?

Ancient

D ac ia,

in

the 2

nd

century , embraced Tra nsylva ni a, Ba na t

and Val

ac hia

proper. Th e tru e D ac

ian

s were a

peopl e

of Thra

cia n

descent.

German ,

Celtic

a

nd

Ir

a ni

an elements

occ

upied territories

in th e n

or

th

western a

nd north-

easte

rn

pa rts o

fD ac

ia.

Cu

ltu

ra

l

elements of H ellenic,

Scythian

, Ce ltic a

nd

R oman

origin were

absorbed

in a rich a ma l

gam.

h

ields

Th

e dominant articles on th e pedestal reliefs are

th e

la r

ge, richly decor

ate

d ,

oval

shield s.

They

arc

th e only

type

ofbody shield show n ; a ll are of uni

form sha pe

and

style of d

ecorat

ion.

Th

e

except

ions

are examples which

a re covered in a scale

pattern.

Anoth

er

exampl

e of a n

unu

sua l D

ac

ia n design is

found

on

an

ova

l shield

ca

rri

ed

by a ma n in

D

ac

ian

cos

tum

e

on

another

Trajani

c re

li

ef

which

was moved to th e

Arch

of

Constantine.

r

has

four

mon

ste

r-hea

d ed

trumpets

radiat

ing fr

om

the

cen tr al boss,

and

two Celtic-type torqu es of

twisted metal which , to

get

her with the monste r

trumpe ts s

hown

in g

roups

all

over

th e

pedestal,

m

ay

illust ra te

Celtic

inAuence.

known

as the

ell

(this

symbo

l

is

used in normal


19/47

(

Left

) A tombstone a t

Dollendorf

near Bonn, shows this

Germanic warrior probably a Frank.

He is

combing his

hair, and his s word

is

clearly shown; both were

considered

virility sy mbols

,

and were prou dly displayed.

(Right) Finely

sculpted

profile

of

a German

chieftain

from the tomb

of

A.

Julius Pompilius, now in the National Museum, Terme.

ELOW Late

Roman

military

belt

fittings. (Top)

This

example

of

ancillary strap

at tachments

and

stiffeners is

from a

grave

at Dorchester,

England

. Probably

general

issue

by

the late

Empire

period,

they

are usually associated

with German

auxiliary

troops

of

the

Roman army. {Bottom} A recon

structed

belt,

with strap at tachments, stiffeners and plates,

from

a

German warrior s grave a t Rhenan, Holland.

and distorted

form ) . These

sh

ields are

very

l

arge

and, i t

would

app

ear

from the carv ings, flat , th e

p

at

terns

being in proud relief

to

facilitat

e

periodic

painting.

Th

e bosses

are

hemisp herica l

with

round

boss

plates ,

both being

d eco rated . I suggest that

th

e

Thracian

lun ate

s

hi

eld motif,

repeat

e

dly

us

ed

on

th ese shields , co

nfirm

s

them

as D

ac

i

an

or

G

eto-Da

cian .

e

lmets

The he

lm

ets on th e reliefs fall

into

two categories:

one

with

a n

eat,

rounded, co ne-shaped she

ll

, th e

othe

r

with it

s apex c

urv

ed

forw

ar

d

int

o th e

cha

racterist ic Phryg

ian

peak.

Both are highly

d ecorated

in the sa

me

f

s

hion

as

the

shields on th e

column ba

se.

It

is th

e d ecor

at

ion

on one of

the

solid cres

ts

runnin g

over

one

of

th ese he

lm

ets,

to

ge ther

with the

close general

resemblanc

e to

var

ious

exampl

es

of

he

lm

ets

worn

by a ncie

nt

Ph

rygia

ns sh

ow

n

in

art,

a

nd

the obvious

con

nec tion

between

th em,

which

l

eads

me to suggest

that

the Ph

yg

ian

-typ

e he

lm

ets may well

be

a

var

i

ety

pec uli a r to

the

D

ac

ians.

The D

ac

ia ns, as stated

above

, were a

Thracian


20/47

Dia gr a m

of

a n An g lo -Saxon shield , t ypical of

th

e

round

s h iel ds c

rr

ied by other

Germani

c

tr ibe

s men. Made

of

lim e

wood

, it is a bou t

sc

m thick a

nd

gocm a c ro

ss

. Thin ,

sh a p ed bo a

rd

s

wer

e cov

ered with

linen

or

le

ather

;

the

c

entral

recess

w i

th

an

off-

c

entre metal handle

,

w a

s

covered

with

a

l

arge

i

ron

boss; and

the r im was

of iron o r bron :


21/47

loo ks very un-R oma n ; it carries t

hr

ee la rge dags

at i

ts

l

ower

edge .

We

apons

Spears a nd jave lins a re of sta

nd

a rd types and give

no

hint

as to th eir provena nce. Ba tt leaxes of a

distin ct type a re pr esen t, as a re th e terr ible

falxes It

is post ul

ate

d th a t th ese scy th e-like

weapons

were

so effec tive

in

ea

rly

ac

tions be

tw

een

R

oma

n a

nd

D

ac

ia n infa

ntr

y th a t specia l R

oman

armo

ur, b

e

d on a

ntiqu

e

patt

e

rn

s was devised ,

and shields we re reinf

orce

d . Bo th c

omp

os

it

e and

se lf bows are pr ese

nt

on th e reliefs th e se lf

bow

being more numerous on

th

e carvin gs but li ttle

show n on th e co lumn , where D

ac

ians and

Sa

rm

a ti ans a re both sh

ow

n usin g reAex

bow

s.

Qui

vers

are

of a l

idd

ed , tubu la r sha pe,

hig

hl y

decora ted .

Trump

et

s

a

ft

er th e fashi on of th e

Celti

c

canryx,

in th e shape of monster serpe

nt

s

ar

e s

hown

in groups. So me

exa

mp les, however , see m to b e

design

ed

as

stand

a rd s for carrying, havin g a la rge

nia l

at

the

bu

t t e

nd.

Recons

t ructed drawings

of two Saxon warr ior s : (left) f rom

Lower

Saxony

, probably an

ex Roman

soldier,

ba

s ed on a

4t h

century

grave t Liebenau ; (

right

) a free Saxon warr ior of

the 5th century

,

ba

s

ed on

grave

no

.

6o

t P e

ter

s

fing

e r ,

Sali

s bury ,

England.

D

ac

ian people, the ta rge t of

Tr

aj an s campaign

s.

Some a ut horities m

ay

see in the presence ofva

ri

ous

pieces associa ted

wit

h c

ultur

es furth er to th e eas t,

es

p

ecia

lly the

coa

t of ba

nd

ed a

rm

our ,

tr

o

ph

i

es

of

erstwhi le

own

ers

hip

by I ra ni an R oxolani . I wo uld

ag

ree th a t this is a reas

on

a ble th eor

y; bu

t would it

no t be possib le for lea

din

g warriors a mong th e

Ge to

Dac

ians to own pi eces ofa

rm

our not m ade in

E

urope?

Mrfore

Prio r to th e co nqu

es

t a

nd

p

ac ifica ti

on

of Ga

ul by

R oma n fo rces,

Ge rm

an t

rib

es pr

op

er bega

n

moving so

uth

wes

t.

By th e early 1st ce

ntur

y A.D .

Wars Tac itus wro te his Germania

1

a s

tud

y

of

th e

Germans written in abo ut g8 A.D . In the passage


22/47

The

general distribution

of

major

Germanic groups in about

IOOA.D.

Ce lti c nor Germa nic, speakin g a

pr

e

-Ind

o

European tongue. Their repl

ace

ment by a m

ore

pug

nac ious peo ple was a lmost ce rt a inly recognized

by R oman

fr

ontier in tellige nce, which m

ay

have

tri ggered th e

Augustan

campa igns. Tribes such as

the C ha tti , C heru sci, C ha mav i,

Chattvarii,

Chama ri ,

Angrivarii

, Ampsivar ii , e tc ., were

followed by th e Alemanni ,

Goths

, Gepids , Fra nks

Vand a ls, Baj u

vara

, Thuringians a nd Saxons.

Probab ly drawing h

eav

ily on th e expe

ri

ences of

me n r

et

urn

ed from

the

German camp

a igns of

Augustu

, and on Pliny th e Elders The German

Two

iron

axeheads, the elevations on

the left f rom a find t

Brandenburg, and those

on

the

r ight f rom

a find a t Weissen

fels.

des c ribing the a rmin g of war rio rs, he says: Only

a few h

ave

swords

or spea

rs.

The

la nces th

at they

carry - Jrameae is the native wo rd - have shor t a nd

sha

rp

h

eads

,

but

a re so na

rro

w a

nd

easy to ha ndle

th

at

th e same w

ea

pon

serves fo r g

htin

g ha

nd

to

hand or

at

a di stance. The horsema n dema nd s no

m

ore

th a n his shi eld a nd spea r ,

but

th e infa ntry

man has a lso j avelins for throwing, seve ra l to each

man , and he can

hurl

th em to a grea t di

sta

nce.

T his desc ription accords we

ll

with archaeolog i-

ca l evidence dated to this time. Whether ji ameae

h

ad

short , na

rrow

h

ea

d s b y choice or s

impl

y

because of th e tribes shortage ofiron is n

ot

made

clear

b y th e histo rian . Bodies found prese rved in

th e pe

at bog

s

of north

ern

Europe

, dated to this

period , a re dressed exac tly th e sa me as the

Germans shown

on

R oman monum enta l rema ins.

Wi th

the

exce

ption

o f a ve ry f

ew

indi

v

idu

a l

s

German body defences - a pa rt from th e shield

were

non-existe

nt

a t th e

time

of

their ea

rly

encounters

with

Impe

ri

a l troops. The usua l

tac tic adopted

at

this

time

was to

at

t

ac

k a t a

h

ead

long rush , in wedge form a tion , so as to close

in q uie

kl y thu

s

nullif

yin g th e

murd

erous vo lleys

of legiona ry pi/a: th e Furore Teutonicus o f

legend

.

In

the ea rly

years

of th e 1st century A.

D.

R om e

d ecid ed to

rationali

se the north e

rn

fro

nti

er by

a nn exin g

Germany

up

to th e

Elb

e.

Th

e closing

move, aga inst th e Marcomanni , was fru str

ated

wh en th e new

provin

ces in

north Germany

Aa red

in t

o revolt.

Th

e three legions sta tion ed in th e area ,

th e XVII , XVIII and XIX , were a

nnihil

a ted in a

series

of

a

mbu

shes

in

th e T eutobur

ge

r W ald in

g

A.D. Th

e German leader , H e

rm

a

nn

(Arminius),

chief of

the

Cherusci, had served in th e Rom a n

army and had used hi s kn

ow

led ge

ofi

ts opera

ti

ona l

limi

ta

tions in

bogg

y, h

eav

ily wood ed a reas.

H er

mann

aspir

ed to more perm anent powe r than

that

afforded to a warl

ea

der , a

nd

w

ass

u bseq ue

ntl

y

destroyed by politi

ca

l enemi es

at hom

e.

Th

e

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