petrographic analysis of pottery for the rio nuevo project, with a

INTRODUCTION

Petrographic modal analysis, or point counting,is a detailed microscopic analytical technique usedto establish the mineralogical composition of a rockor sediment. It has been used extensively to estab-lish composition and provenance of archaeologicalceramics, especially in the Greater Southwest. For theRio Nuevo Archaeology project, 56 sherds from theClearwater site, AZ BB:13:6 (ASM), and the TucsonPresidio, AZ BB:13:13 (ASM), were selected for pet-rographic analysis to establish their provenance andto verify the temper characterizations provided byceramicist James M. Heidke. The sherds are a subsetof the 2,373 sherds chosen for detailed ceramic analy-sis (Chapter 7, this report). They comprise plain andred wares from prehistoric and historic contexts(Table 6.1).

The provenance analysis was conducted using theTucson Basin petrofacies model. The Tucson Basinand Avra Valley have been a focus of petrographicsand temper studies for over 20 years. More than 500sand samples have been collected and point counted,and statistical models have been developed to de-fine petrofacies, or distinct sand composition zones,within the basin (Figure 6.1) (Lombard 1987; Miksa2003, 2006). Many of these petrofacies are very lim-ited in geographic extent, so that compositionalchanges are detailed on scales of kilometers to tensof kilometers. Excavation and subsurface samplinghave shown that the sand composition at the surfacehas remained essentially unchanged for the last sev-eral thousand years. Therefore, the petrofacies modelprovides a way to compare the sand temper in sherdsto the actual locations from which sand of variouscompositions could be procured. Ethnographic datafrom around the world indicate that potters who usesand for temper tend to procure it within 3 km—mostoften from within 1 km—of their pottery production

location (Arnold 1985; Heidke 2006). These data arebased on people who use only human labor to carrytheir materials—boats, beasts of burden, or vehiclesof any sort are not included. Thus, we feel comfort-able in asserting that the provenance of the sandtemper in pottery indicates the provenance of thepottery itself.

METHODS

Temper characterization was conducted under aUnitron ZSM stereozoom microscope with magnifi-cations of 6x to 30x. A three-part temper identifica-tion code was used: (1) temper type (TT) records whattype of material was used (sand, grog, and so forth);(2) generic temper source (TSG) records the generaltemper composition and the likely group of petrofa-cies to which the temper belongs; and (3) specific tem-per source (TSS) records the specific petrofacies towhich the ceramicist thinks the temper should beassigned.

Unfortunately, the temper characterization forRio Nuevo was conducted prior to completion of theformal Tucson Basin petrofacies model. Conse-quently, while Heidke knew the major petrofaciesin the Tucson Basin from extensive previous experi-ence, less well-characterized, rarely encounteredpetrofacies were not fully included in his analysis.The full statistical model and descriptions are avail-able as of this writing, and the petrographic verifi-cation was conducted with the completed mode.However, any errors or omissions must be evaluatedin the light of the incomplete information availableto Heidke at the time of temper characterization.

The most notable additions to the model are bet-ter characterization of the granitic and mixed lithicpetrofacies. These include the basin fill and the ba-jada petrofacies that have volcanic input. In particu-

CHAPTER 6

PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OFPOTTERY FOR THE RIO NUEVO

PROJECT, WITH A CASE STUDY OFTEMPORAL TRENDS IN HISTORIC

ERA NATIVE AMERICAN POTTERY PRODUCTION

Elizabeth J. Miksa, Carlos P. Lavayen, andSergio F. Castro-Reino, Desert Archaeology, Inc.

6.2 Chapter 6

Table 6.1. Inventory of sherd samples from the Rio Nuevo Archaeology project submitted for petrographic analysis.

Sample Number

AZ (ASM) Site Number

Feature Number

Field Number Obs Ceramic Type

RNA2-01 BB:13:6 166 6692 154 Indeterminate red



RNA2-04 BB:13:6 64 6249 121 Unspecified plain ware













RNA2-17 BB:13:6 64 6249 91 Sobaipuri Plain (folded rim)




RNA2-21 BB:13:6 4 5127 4 Papago Plain

RNA2-22 BB:13:6 61 5981 1 Papago Red

RNA2-23 BB:13:6 61 6224 2 Papago Red


RNA-39 BB:13:13 373 2460 2 Sobaipuri Plain (folded rim)

RNA-40 BB:13:13 409 4260 2 Unspecified plain ware




RNA-44 BB:13:13 441 4286 2 Papago Red

RNA-45 BB:13:13 422 4049 1 Papago Plain


RNA-47 BB:13:13 409 4260 7 Indeterminate red











Petrographic Analysis of Pottery for the Rio Nuevo Project 6.3

lar, the petrofacies model of the floor of the TucsonBasin proper—bounded by the Santa Cruz River onthe west, the Rillito River on the north, the PantanoWash on the east, and approximately the town ofSahuarita on the south—has undergone majorchanges. The floor of the Tucson Basin is an agglom-eration of alluvial sediments that have accumulatedover thousands of years. Gradational compositionchanges occur from south to north and from east towest. Determining where to draw petrofacies bound-aries in this very gradational sedimentary environ-ment has been challenging.

In 2003 and 2004, additional samples were col-lected from the southern end of the basin, near Sahua-rita, and at the southeastern corner, near PantanoWash and Cienega Creek. Additionally, samplesfrom the Rincon Petrofacies were reanalyzed. Insome cases, new thin sections were made, becausethe original thin sections were uncovered and un-stained, hampering detailed mineralogical analysis.Finally, we tested our ability to distinguish sandsfrom provisionally assigned petrofacies on the basinfloor from one another in hand-sample. With thisnew information available, we concluded that wecould not reliably distinguish the provisional petro-facies in hand-sample. The gradational compositionsof the basin floor make boundary definitions diffi-cult.

The new samples, the reanalysis, and the hand-sample testing led to several changes. The newpetrofacies map is provided in Figure 6.1. The mostnotable changes are among the petrofacies on thefloor of the Tucson Basin and in the Black Mountainarea. The Black Mountain Petrofacies was previously

characterized based on only three samples. Collec-tion of additional samples has significantly improvedthe definition of the Black Mountain Petrofacies. Thisimproved definition was not available to Heidkewhen he characterized temper in Rio Nuevo projectsherds, so he could not easily identify this area as apotential source. A full description of the changes isprovided in Miksa (2006).

Petrographic Analysis

The 56 sherds selected for petrographic analysiswere sent to Quality Thin Sections of Tucson, Ari-zona, for standard thin-section preparation, includingstaining for calcium and potassium to allow feld-spars to be easily recognized. Detailed petrographicanalysis was done for each thin section using themethods outlined in Miksa and Heidke (2001). TheGazzi-Dickinson method was used to point countall samples for provenance analysis (Dickinson 1970;Miksa and Heidke 2001). This method treats eachsand-sized grain as an individual mineral. It pro-vides detailed mineralogical composition of thesample, and allows for comparisons of sands andsand tempers that may be more mature or less ma-ture—that is, more or less broken down into theirconstituent grains. A standard set of point-count pa-rameters, developed for the Tucson Basin, was usedfor the analysis (Table 6.2) (Miksa 2003, 2006). Thepoint-count data collected for each sherd are pro-vided in Table 6.3, while the qualitative petro-graphic data collected for each sherd are providedin Table 6.4.

Table 6.1. Continued.

Sample Number

AZ (ASM) Site Number

Feature Number

Field Number Obs Ceramic Type


RNA-59 BB:13:13 376 3748 4 Papago Red

RNA-60 BB:13:13 409 4153 14 Papago Red



RNA-63 BB:13:13 376 2577 19 Papago Red


RNA-65 BB:13:13 376 2606 24 Papago Red



RNA-68 BB:13:13 376 2644 24 Papago Red



6.4 Chapter 6

Rincon

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A

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Tanque Verde Creek

Desert Archaeology,

8

Inc.

2005

Santa Cruz River

Brawley Wash

Canada del Oro

Rillito Creek

Pantano Wash

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1

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5

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TUCSON BASIN PETROFACIES

Catalina VolcanicBV

EasternTortolita

Central TortolitaE2E3

Tucson

GreenValley

Trunk Stream

R Not used in statistical model

Used in statistical model for this project

Figure 6.1. Current petrofacies map of the Tucson Basin.


Table 6.2. Point-count parameters and calculated parameters used for the petrographic analysis of Tucson Basin sandsand sherds.

Parameter Description

Totals and Calculated Parameters

Total temper The total number of point-counted sand-sized grains, including crushed rock, clay lumps, fiber tem-per, or grog.

Voids The total number of open voids encountered in the paste.

Paste The total number of points counted in the silt- to clay-sized fraction of the paste.

Paste percent The proportion of points in the silt- to clay-sized fraction of the paste (Paste/[Paste + Total Temper])x 100.

Grog Sherd temper: dark, semiopaque angular-to-subround grains, with discrete margins, including silt-to sand-sized temper grains in a clay matrix, with or without iron oxides and/or micas. The grainsdiffer in color and/or texture from the surrounding matrix of the "host" ceramic. This parameter iscounted only in sherd samples.

Clay lump Discrete "lumps," or grains, of untempered clay. These are generally in the sand-sized range. Theycomprise clay that lacks silt- to sand-sized grains. These grains are often similar in color to the sur-rounding paste, but they have well-defined, abrupt boundaries. Their internal texture is finer thanthe paste and has a different orientation. They are assumed to be clay that was insufficiently mixedwith the surrounding clay body.

Sand total The total number of point-counted sand grains; i.e., total temper minus clay lumps and grog.

Monomineralic Grains

Qtz All sand-sized quartz grains, except those derived from, or contained within, coarse-foliated rocks;unstained.

Kspar Alkali feldspars, except those derived from, or contained within, coarse-foliated rocks; potassiumfeldspar stained yellow, unstained plagioclase feldspar, perthite, antiperthite.

Micr Microcline/Anorthoclase: alkali feldspar, with polysynthetic (cross-hatch) twinning; stained yellowor unstained.

Sanid Sanidine; volcanic alkali feldspar.

Plag Plagioclase feldspar, stained pink, except grains derived from, or contained within, coarse-foliatedrocks. Grains commonly have albite twinning and/or carlsbad twinning. Alteration, sericitizationaffect less than 10 percent of the grain.

Plagal Altered plagioclase, except grains derived from, or contained within, coarse-foliated rocks. Altera-tion affects 10 percent to 90 percent of the grain; alteration products include sericite, clay minerals,carbonate, epidote.

Plaggn Considerably altered plagioclase, except grains derived from, or contained within, coarse-foliatedrocks; alteration affects more than 90 percent of the grain.

Musc Muscovite mica.

Biot Biotite mica.

Chlor Chlorite group minerals.

Px Undifferentiated members of the pyroxene group.

Amph Undifferentiated members of the amphibole group.

Oliv Olivine.

Opaq Undifferentiated opaque minerals, such as magnetite/ilmenite, rutile, and iron oxides.

Epid Undifferentiated members of the epidote family (epidote, zoisite, clinozoisite).

Sphene Sphene.

Gar Undifferentiated members of the garnet group.

6.6 Chapter 6



Monomineralic Grains in Coarse-foliated Rocks

Sqtz All quartz derived from, or contained within, coarse-foliated rocks.

Skspar Potassium feldspar derived from, or contained within, coarse-foliated rocks.

Splag Plagioclase feldspar derived from, or contained within, coarse-foliated rocks.

Smusc Muscovite mica derived from, or contained within, coarse-foliated rocks.

Sbiot Biotite mica derived from, or contained within, coarse-foliated rocks.

Schlor Undifferentiated chlorite group minerals derived from, or contained within, coarse-foliated rocks.

Sopaq Undifferentiated opaque minerals derived from, or contained within, coarse-foliated rocks.

Metamorphic Lithic Fragments

Lmvf Metamorphosed volcanic rock such as rhyolite. Massive-to-foliated aggregates of quartz and feldspargrains with relict phenocrysts of feldspar.

Lmss Metamorphosed sedimentary rock, such as a meta-siltstone. Massive fine-grained aggregates ofquartz and feldspar, with or without relict sedimentary texture.

Lmamph Amphibolite: a high-grade metamorphic rock, composed largely of amphibole.

Lma Quartz-feldspar (mica) aggregate: quartz, feldspars, mica, and opaque oxides in aggregates withhighly sutured grain boundaries but no planar-oriented fabric; some are schists or gneisses viewedon edge; some are metasediments or metavolcanics.

Lmt Quartz-feldspar-mica tectonite (schists or gneisses): quartz, feldspars, micas, and opaque oxides, withstrong planar oriented fabric; often display mineral segregation with alternating quartz-felsic andmica ribbons. Grains are often extremely sutured and/or elongated.

Lmtp Phyllite: like Lmt, but the grains are silt-sized or smaller, with little or no mineral segregation. Alsoargillaceous grains, which exhibit growth of planar-oriented micas, silt-sized or smaller.

Lmm Microgranular quartz aggregate: non-oriented polygonal aggregates of newly grown, strain-freequartz crystallites, with sutured, planar, or curved grain boundaries.

Lmf Foliated quartz aggregate: planar-oriented fabric developed in mostly strained quartz crystals withsutured crystallite boundaries; quartzite.

Volcanic Lithic Fragments

Lvf Felsic volcanic such as rhyolite: microgranular nonfelted mosaics of submicroscopic quartz and feld-spars, often with microphenocrysts of feldspar, quartz, or rarely, ferromagnesian minerals. Ground-mass is fine to glassy, always has well-developed potassium feldspar (yellow) stain, may also haveplagioclase (pink) stain.

Lvfb Biotite-bearing felsic volcanic: microgranular nonfelted mosaics of submicroscopic quartz and feld-spars, often with microphenocrysts of feldspar, quartz, always with phenocrysts of biotite. Ground-mass is fine to glassy, always has well-developed potassium feldspar (yellow) stain.

Lvi Intermediate volcanic rock such as rhyodacite, dacite, latite, and andesite.

Lvm Basic volcanic: visible microlites or laths of feldspar crystals in random-to-parallel fabric, usuallywith glassy or devitrified or otherwise altered dark groundmass; often with phenocrysts of opaqueoxides, occasional quartz, olivine, or pyroxene. Rarely yellow stained, often very well-developedpink stain, representing intermediate-to-basic lavas, such as latite, andesite, quartz-andesite, basalt,or trachyte.

Lvv Glassy volcanics: vitrophyric grains, showing relict shards, pumiceous fabric, welding, or perliticstructures; sometimes with microphenocrysts, representing pyroclastic or glassy volcanic rocks.

Lvh Hypabyssal volcanics (shallow igneous intrusive rocks): equigranular anhedral-to-subhedral feld-spar-rich rocks, with no glassy or devitrified groundmass, coarser-grained than Lvf, most have yel-low and pink stain.




Sedimentary Lithic Fragments

Lss Siltstones: granular aggregates of equant subangular-to-rounded silt-sized grains, with or withoutinterstitial cement. May be well-to-poorly sorted, with or without sand-sized grains. Compositionvaries from quartzose to lithic-arkosic, with some mafic-rich varieties.

Lsa Argillaceous: dark, semiopaque, extremely fine grained without visible foliation, may have massextinction, variable amounts of silt-sized inclusions, representing shales, slates, and mudstones.

Lsch Chert: microcrystalline aggregates of pure silica.

Lsca Carbonate: mosaics of very fine calcite crystals, with or without interstitial clay- to sand-sized grains.Most appear to be fragments of soil carbonate (caliche) and are subround to very round.

Caco Sand-sized calcium carbonate minerals. Technically, these should be listed with the monocrystallinegrains, but they most often co-occur with caliche or other sedimentary rocks.

Unknown and Indeterminate Grains

Unkn Grains that cannot be identified, grains that are indeterminate, and grains such as zircon andtourmaline that occur in extremely low percentages.

Calculated Parameters Used in the Statistical Analyses

TQtz Qtz + Sqtz

TKspar Kspar + Skspar

K Kspar + Skspar + Micr + Sanid

TPlag Plag + Plagal + Plaggn + Splag

F Kspar + Skspar + Micr + Sanid + Plag + Plagal + Plaggn + Splag

TMusc Musc + Smusc

TBiotchlor Biot + Sbiot + Chlor + Schlor

Mica Musc + Smusc + Biot + Sbiot + Chlor + Schlor

Pyr Px + Amph

Plagpyr Tplag + Pyr

TOpaq Opaq + Sopaq

Pyrepid Pyr + Epid

PyrOpaq Pyr + Topaq

Hmin Pyr + Topaq + Tbiotchlor

Lma2 Lma + Lmamph + Lmss + Lmvf + Lmepid

Lmatp Lma2 + Lmt + Lmtp

Lmmftp Lmm + Lmf + Lmt + Lmtp

Lmmf Lmm + Lmf

Lm Lmm + Lmf + Lma + Lmamph + Lmss + Lmvf + Lmepid + Lmt + Lmtp

Lm_Musc Lm + Tmusc

Lvf2 Lvfb + Lvf

Lvm2 Lvi + Lvm

Lvmf2 Lvfb + Lvf + Lvi + Lvm

Lv Lvfb + Lvf + Lvi + Lvm + Lvh + Lvv

Ls Lss + Lsa + Lsch + Lsca + Caco

Lsclas Lss + Lsa + Lsch

Lscaco Lsca + Caco

6.8 Chapter 6

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er i

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tin

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on

g d

iffe

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un

ts o

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e sa

me

thin

sec

tio

n.

On

ly o

ne

po

int

cou

nt

per

th

in s

ecti

on

is

use

d f

or

stat

isti

cal

pu

rpo

ses.

6.10 Chapter 6

Ta

ble

6.3

. P

oin

t-co

un

t d

ata

for

the

thin

-sec

tio

ned

sh

erd

s.

B. M

on

ocr

yst

alli

ne

gra

ins

and

un

kn

ow

n g

rain

s

Mo

no

cry

stal

lin

e G

rain

s

Sam

ple

No

. Q

tzK

spar

Mic

r S

anid

P

P

lag

Pla

gal

Pla

gg

nM

usc

B

iot

Ch

lor

P

yr

P

x

Am

ph

Op

aq

Oli

v

E

pid

S

ph

ene

G

ar

Un

kn

RN

A2-

01

4810

40

377

141

18

24

04

90

00

00

RN

A2-

02

452

70

5321

240

121

185

05

30

30

00

RN

A2-

0348

77

042

2121

00

13

20

24

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00

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051

1831

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00

00

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00

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Ta

ble

6.3

. B

. C

on

tin

ued

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Mo

no

cry

stal

lin

e G

rain

s

Sam

ple

No

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tzK

spar

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rS

anid

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Pla

gP

lag

alP

lag

gn

Mu

sc B

iot

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lor

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r P

x

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ph

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aqO

liv

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ph

ene

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kn

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4

72

115

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11

23

03

100

20

00

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5

4813

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5632

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24

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00

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68

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00

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4350

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33

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00

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6.12 Chapter 6

Ta

ble

6.3

. P

oin

t-co

un

t d

ata

for

the

thin

-sec

tio

ned

sh

erd

s.

C. M

etam

orp

hic

lit

hic

fra

gm

ents

an

d m

on

ocr

yst

alli

ne

gra

ins

fro

m g

nei

ss o

r sc

his

t

Met

amo

rph

ic L

ith

ic F

rag

men

ts

M

on

ocr

yst

alli

ne

Gra

ins

fro

m G

nei

ss o

r S

chis

t

Sam

ple

No

.

L

ma

Lm

vf

Lm

ss

Lm

amp

hL

mt

Lm

tpL

mm

Lm

fS

qtz

Sp

lag

Sk

spar

Sm

usc

Sb

iot

Sch

lor

So

paq

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01

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40

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00

135

157

10

00

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02

03

00

40

10

398

00

10

0

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030

10

03

00

00

00

00

00

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70

07

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12

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Ta

ble

6.3

. C

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on

tin

ued

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M

etam

orp

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Lit

hic

Fra

gm

ents

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no

cry

stal

lin

e G

rain

s fr

om

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eiss

or

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ist

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ple

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ma

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vf

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ss

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amp

hL

mt

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tp

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6.14 Chapter 6

Ta

ble

6.3

. P

oin

t-co

un

t d

ata

for

the

thin

-sec

tio

ned

sh

erd

s.

D. V

olc

anic

an

d s

edim

enta

ry l

ith

ic f

rag

men

ts

V

olc

anic

Lit

hic

Fra

gm

ents

Sed

imen

tary

Lit

hic

Fra

gm

ents

Sam

ple

No

.

Lv

fL

vfb

Lv

iL

vm

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vL

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hL

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a1L

sca2

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Ta

ble

6.3

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on

tin

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olc

anic

Lit

hic

Fra

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ents

Sed

imen

tary

Lit

hic

Fra

gm

ents

Sam

ple

No

.

Lv

fL

vfb

Lv

iL

vm

Lv

vL

vh

Lss

Lsa

Lsc

hL

sca

Lsc

a1L

sca2

Lsc

a3C

aco

RN

A-4

4

115

40

30

00

46

40

00

RN

A-4

5

52

20

10

10

22

63

00

RN

A-4

611

317

14

01

03

41

00

0

RN

A-4

76

13

13

01

04

92

20

2

RN

A-4

85

17

40

120

02

10

30

0

RN

A-4

914

010

35

21

03

42

00

0

RN

A-5

09

47

13

00

02

30

30

0

RN

A-5

118

20

00

30

00

26

00

0

RN

A-5

244

20

00

00

00

34

00

0

RN

A-5

311

86

00

22

00

06

30

00

RN

A-5

491

01

00

00

00

45

00

0

RN

A-5

581

230

00

00

00

37

00

0

RN

A-5

672

200

02

10

00

55

00

0

RN

A-5

734

170

01

20

00

719

00

0

RN

A-5

81

00

01

40

00

536

00

0

RN

A-5

93

00

00

10

00

191

00

0

RN

A-6

019

12

05

30

02

367

00

0

RN

A-6

12

00

00

10

00

13

00

0

RN

A-6

24

00

00

20

00

71

00

0

RN

A-6

32

00

00

10

00

310

00

0

RN

A-6

40

00

00

00

00

145

00

0

RN

A-6

52

10

00

20

00

13

00

0

RN

A-6

62

00

00

50

01

102

00

0

RN

A-6

71

01

00

40

00

53

00

0

RN

A-6

80

00

00

20

01

31

00

1

RN

A-6

90

01

00

30

02

21

00

0

RN

A-7

00

00

00

40

00

33

00

0

RN

A-3

575

00

00

00

00

01

00

00

RN

A-3

642

00

00

00

00

01

20

00

RN

A-6

100

01

10

03

0

00

314

00

0

6.16 Chapter 6

Tab

le 6

.4.

Qu

alit

ativ

e d

ata

for

the

thin

-sec

tio

ned

sh

erd

s fr

om

th

e R

io N

uev

o A

rch

aeo

log

y p

roje

ct.

A. F

ine

frac

tio

n c

har

acte

rist

ics

Sam

ple

No

. M

atri

x

Op

acit

ya

Sil

t F

ract

ion

1

Sil

t F

ract

ion

2

Sil

t F

ract

ion

3

Cla

y F

ract

ion

1

Cla

y F

ract

ion

2

Lu

mp

s in

Mat

rix

?

RN

A2-

01

2

Qu

artz

Bio

tite

Pla

gio

clas

e fe

ldsp

ar

Qu

artz

an

d/

or

feld

spar

s B

ioti

teS

ever

al

RN

A2-

02

2Q

uar

tzP

lag

iocl

ase

feld

spar

O

paq

ue

ox

ides

Q

uar

tz a

nd

/o

r fe

ldsp

ars

Bio

tite

Few

RN

A2-

03

3

Qu

artz

Fel

dsp

arM

icas

Qu

artz

Op

aqu

e o

xid

esS

ever

al

RN

A2-

042

Qu

artz

Bio

tite

Op

aqu

e o

xid

es

Qu

artz

an

d/

or

feld

spar

s B

ioti

teN

on

e

RN

A2-

053

Qu

artz

Pla

gio

clas

e fe

ldsp

arB

ioti

teQ

uar

tz a

nd

/o

rfe

ldsp

ars

Mic

asF

ew

RN

A2-

06

3 Q

uar

tz

Pla

gio

clas

e fe

ldsp

ar

Po

tass

ium

fel

dsp

ar

Qu

artz

an

d/

or

feld

spar

s F

eld

spar

No

ne

RN

A2-

073

Qu

artz

Pla

gio

clas

e fe

ldsp

ar

Op

aqu

e o

xid

es

Qu

artz

an

d/

or

feld

spar

s B

ioti

teN

on

e

RN

A2-

083

Qu

artz

Pla

gio

clas

e fe

ldsp

ar

Op

aqu

e o

xid

es

Qu

artz

an

d/

or

feld

spar

s B

ioti

teF

ew

RN

A2-

092

Qu

artz

Pla

gio

clas

e fe

ldsp

ar

Op

aqu

e o

xid

es

Qu

artz

an

d/

or

feld

spar

s B

ioti

teF

ew

RN

A2-

10

3

Qu

artz

Pla

gio

clas

e fe

ldsp

arO

paq

ue

ox

ides

Q

uar

tz

Fel

dsp

ar

Few

RN

A2-

11

3 Q

uar

tz

Pla

gio

clas

e fe

ldsp

ar

Po

tass

ium

fel

dsp

ar

Qu

artz

an

d/

or

feld

spar

s B

ioti

teN

on

e

RN

A2-

12

3 Q

uar

tz

Pla

gio

clas

e fe

ldsp

ar

Ch

lori

te

Qu

artz

an

d/

or

feld

spar

s M

icas

Few

RN

A2-

133

Qu

artz

Pla

gio

clas

e fe

ldsp

ar

Op

aqu

e o

xid

es

Qu

artz

an

d/

or

feld

spar

s M

icas

Sev

eral

RN

A2-

143

Qu

artz

Pla

gio

clas

e fe

ldsp

ar

Op

aqu

e o

xid

es

Qu

artz

an

d/

or

feld

spar

s M

icas

Sev

eral

RN

A2-

15

1 Q

uar

tz

Mic

as

Qu

artz

an

d/

or

feld

spar

s Q

uar

tz a

nd

/o

r fe

ldsp

ars

Mic

as

Zo

ned

an

d m

ott

led

RN

A2-

163

Qu

artz

Pla

gio

clas

e fe

ldsp

ar

Op

aqu

e o

xid

es

Qu

artz

an

d/

or

feld

spar

s M

icas

Few

RN

A2-

183

Qu

artz

Pla

gio

clas

e fe

ldsp

arB

ioti

teQ

uar

tz a

nd

/o

rfe

ldsp

ars

Mic

asF

ew


Ta

ble

6.4

. A

. C

on

tin

ued

. S

amp

le N

o.

Mat

rix

O

pac

ity

a S

ilt

Fra

ctio

n 1

S

ilt

Fra

ctio

n 2

S

ilt

Fra

ctio

n 3

C

lay

Fra

ctio

n 1

C

lay

Fra

ctio

n 2

L

um

ps

in M

atri

x?

RN

A2-

19

2Q

uar

tzP

lag

iocl

ase

feld

spar

O

paq

ue

ox

ides

Q

uar

tz a

nd

/o

r fe

ldsp

ars

Mic

asN

on

e

RN

A2-

20

2Q

uar

tzB

ioti

teP

lag

iocl

ase

feld

spar

Q

uar

tz a

nd

/o

r fe

ldsp

ars

Mic

as

Zo

ned

, mo

ttle

d, l

um

py

, an

d

oth

erw

ise

hig

hly

het

ero

gen

eou

s

R

NA

2-21

3Q

uar

tzB

ioti

teP

lag

iocl

ase

feld

spar

Q

uar

tz a

nd

/o

r fe

ldsp

ars

Mic

asF

ew

RN

A2-

22

3

Qu

artz

Mic

rocl

ine

Op

aqu

e o

xid

esQ

uar

tzF

eld

spar

Few

RN

A2-

231

Qu

artz

Fel

dsp

arO

paq

ue

ox

ides

Q

uar

tz a

nd

/o

r fe

ldsp

ars

Op

aqu

e o

xid

es

Sev

eral

RN

A2-

24

3

Qu

artz

Fel

dsp

arO

paq

ue

ox

ides

Fel

dsp

arM

icas

Few

RN

A-3

93

Qu

artz

an

d/

or

feld

spar

s

Bio

tite

O

paq

ue

ox

ides

Q

uar

tz a

nd

/o

r fe

ldsp

ars

Mic

asF

ew

RN

A-4

03

Qu

artz

Pla

gio

clas

e fe

ldsp

arP

ota

ssiu

m f

eld

spar

Q

uar

tz

Qu

artz

an

d/

or

feld

spar

s N

on

e

RN

A-4

13

Qu

artz

Pla

gio

clas

e fe

ldsp

arP

ota

ssiu

m f

eld

spar

Q

uar

tz

Qu

artz

an

d/

or

feld

spar

s F

ew

RN

A-4

2

3Q

uar

tzP

lag

iocl

ase

feld

spar

Op

aqu

e o

xid

es

Qu

artz

F

eld

spar

F

ew

RN

A-4

32

Qu

artz

Pla

gio

clas

e fe

ldsp

ar

Op

aqu

e o

xid

es

Qu

artz

an

d/

or

feld

spar

s M

icas

No

ne

RN

A-4

4 2

Qu

artz

B

ioti

te

Op

aqu

e o

xid

es

Qu

artz

an

d/

or

feld

spar

s M

icas

Few

RN

A-4

53

Qu

artz

Pla

gio

clas

e fe

ldsp

ar

Op

aqu

e o

xid

es

Qu

artz

an

d/

or

feld

spar

s O

paq

ue

ox

ides

F

ew

RN

A-4

63

Pla

gio

clas

efe

ldsp

ar

Qu

artz

O

paq

ue

ox

ides

Q

uar

tz

Qu

artz

an

d/

or

feld

spar

s F

ew

RN

A-4

7 3

Qu

artz

P

lag

iocl

ase

feld

spar

P

ota

ssiu

m f

eld

spar

Q

uar

tz a

nd

/o

r fe

ldsp

ars

Mic

asF

ew

RN

A-4

83

Qu

artz

Pla

gio

clas

e fe

ldsp

ar

Op

aqu

e o

xid

es

Qu

artz

an

d/

or

feld

spar

s O

paq

ue

ox

ides

F

ew

RN

A-4

92

Qu

artz

Pla

gio

clas

e fe

ldsp

arO

paq

ue

ox

ides

M

icas

Q

uar

tz a

nd

/o

r fe

ldsp

ars

No

ne

RN

A-5

03

Pla

gio

clas

efe

ldsp

ar

Qu

artz

Bio

tite

Qu

artz

and

/o

rfe

ldsp

ars

B

ioti

teN

on

e

RN

A-5

12

Qu

artz

Pla

gio

clas

e fe

ldsp

ar

Op

aqu

e o

xid

es

Qu

artz

an

d/

or

feld

spar

s M

icas

No

ne

6.18 Chapter 6

Ta

ble

6.4

. A

. C

on

tin

ued

. S

amp

le N

o.

Mat

rix

O

pac

ity

a S

ilt

Fra

ctio

n 1

S

ilt

Fra

ctio

n 2

S

ilt

Fra

ctio

n 3

C

lay

Fra

ctio

n 1

C

lay

Fra

ctio

n 2

L

um

ps

in M

atri

x?

RN

A-5

2

2

Qu

artz

Pla

gio

clas

e fe

ldsp

ar

Op

aqu

e o

xid

es

Qu

artz

an

d/

or

feld

spar

s M

icas

No

ne

RN

A-5

3

1Q

uar

tzP

lag

iocl

ase

feld

spar

O

paq

ue

ox

ides

Q

uar

tz a

nd

/o

r fe

ldsp

ars

Mic

asF

ew

RN

A-5

4 2

Qu

artz

P

lag

iocl

ase

feld

spar

P

ota

ssiu

m f

eld

spar

Q

uar

tz a

nd

/o

r fe

ldsp

ars

Mic

asN

on

e

RN

A-5

52

Pla

gio

clas

efe

ldsp

ar

Qu

artz

Ch

lori

teQ

uar

tzP

lag

iocl

ase

feld

spar

Few

RN

A-5

62

Qu

artz

Pla

gio

clas

e fe

ldsp

ar

Op

aqu

e o

xid

es

Qu

artz

an

d/

or

feld

spar

s M

icas

No

ne

RN

A-5

72

Qu

artz

Pla

gio

clas

e fe

ldsp

ar

Op

aqu

e o

xid

es

Qu

artz

an

d/

or

feld

spar

s M

icas

No

ne

RN

A-5

81

Pla

gio

clas

efe

ldsp

ar

Qu

artz

Po

tass

ium

feld

spar

Q

uar

tzF

eld

spar

Few

RN

A-5

91

Pla

gio

clas

efe

ldsp

ar

Qu

artz

O

paq

ue

ox

ides

Q

uar

tz a

nd

/o

r fe

ldsp

ars

Op

aqu

e o

xid

es

No

ne

RN

A-6

0 2

Qu

artz

P

lag

iocl

ase

feld

spar

M

icas

Q

uar

tz a

nd

/o

r fe

ldsp

ars

Op

aqu

e o

xid

es

No

ne

RN

A-6

11

Pla

gio

clas

efe

ldsp

ar

Qu

artz

P

yro

xen

e o

r am

ph

ibo

le

Qu

artz

an

d/

or

feld

spar

s O

paq

ue

ox

ides

N

on

e

RN

A-6

21

Pla

gio

clas

efe

ldsp

ar

Qu

artz

P

ota

ssiu

m f

eld

spar

Q

uar

tz a

nd

/o

r fe

ldsp

ars

Op

aqu

e o

xid

es

No

ne

RN

A-6

31

Pla

gio

clas

efe

ldsp

ar

Qu

artz

Po

tass

ium

feld

spar

Q

uar

tzF

eld

spar

Few

RN

A-6

4 1

Qu

artz

P

lag

iocl

ase

feld

spar

F

eld

spar

Q

uar

tz a

nd

/o

r fe

ldsp

ars

Op

aqu

e o

xid

es

Sev

eral

RN

A-6

5

1Q

uar

tzP

lag

iocl

ase

feld

spar

Op

aqu

e o

xid

es

Qu

artz

F

eld

spar

N

on

e

RN

A-6

6

1 Q

uar

tz

Pla

gio

clas

e fe

ldsp

ar

Po

tass

ium

fel

dsp

ar

Fel

dsp

ar

Mic

as

Few

RN

A-6

7

1Q

uar

tzP

lag

iocl

ase

feld

spar

Mic

asF

eld

spar

Mic

asF

ew

RN

A-6

8 1

Qu

artz

P

lag

iocl

ase

feld

spar

P

ota

ssiu

m f

eld

spar

Q

uar

tz a

nd

/o

r fe

ldsp

ars

Mic

asF

ew

RN

A-6

9

2Q

uar

tzP

lag

iocl

ase

feld

spar

Po

tass

ium

fel

dsp

arF

eld

spar

Op

aqu

e o

xid

esF

ew

RN

A-7

0 1

Qu

artz

P

lag

iocl

ase

feld

spar

P

ota

ssiu

m f

eld

spar

F

eld

spar

M

icas

F

ew

a Mat

rix

op

acit

y i

s ex

pre

ssed

as

an i

nte

ger

fro

m 0

= o

paq

ue

to 9

= t

ran

spar

ent.


Tab

le 6

.4. Q

ual

itat

ive

dat

a fo

r th

e th

in-s

ecti

on

ed s

her

ds

fro

m t

he

Rio

Nu

evo

Arc

hae

olo

gy

pro

ject

. B

. San

d f

ract

ion

ch

arac

teri

stic

s S

amp

le N

o.

Fin

est

(mm

) C

oar

sest

(m

m)

Mo

de

(mm

) S

ort

ing

D

om

inan

t

Co

arse

Gra

in

Acc

esso

ry

Min

eral

1

Acc

esso

ry

Min

eral

2

Acc

esso

ry

Min

eral

3

RN

A2-

01

Sil

t (<

0.06

25)

Ver

y c

oar

se s

and

(1

.0-2

.0)

Bim

od

al

B

imo

dal

Qu

artz

Op

aqu

e o

xid

esP

lag

iocl

ase

feld

spar

Bio

tite

RN

A2-

02

S

ilt

(<0.

0625

) G

ran

ule

(>

2.0)

B

imo

dal

Bim

od

alQ

uar

tzO

paq

ue

ox

ides

B

ioti

te a

nd

ch

lori

te

Pla

gio

clas

e fe

ldsp

ar

RN

A2-

03

S

ilt

(<0.

0625

) G

ran

ule

(>

2.0)

B

imo

dal

Bim

od

alQ

uar

tzO

paq

ue

ox

ides

P

lag

iocl

ase

feld

spar

B

ioti

te a

nd

ch

lori

te

RN

A2-

04

Sil

t (<

0.06

25)

Gra

nu

le (

>2.

0)

Bim

od

al

Bim

od

al

Tu

ff o

f B

eeh

ive

Pea

k

Tu

ff o

f B

eeh

ive

Pea

k

Qu

artz

Pla

gio

clas

e fe

ldsp

ar

RN

A2-

05

S

ilt

(<0.

0625

) G

ran

ule

(>

2.0)

B

imo

dal

B

imo

dal

Q

uar

tz

Mic

rocl

ine

Op

aqu

e o

xid

es

Pla

gio

clas

e fe

ldsp

ar

RN

A2-

06

Sil

t (<

0.06

25)

Gra

nu

le (

>2.

0)B

imo

dal

Bim

od

alQ

uar

tzP

lag

iocl

ase

feld

spar

F

eld

spar

T

uff

of

Bee

hiv

e P

eak

RN

A2-

07

Sil

t (<

0.06

25)

Gra

nu

le (

>2.

0)B

imo

dal

Bim

od

alQ

uar

tzP

lag

iocl

ase

feld

spar

O

paq

ue

ox

ides

P

ota

ssiu

m f

eld

spar

RN

A2-

08

Sil

t (<

0.06

25)

Gra

nu

le (

>2.

0)B

imo

dal

Bim

od

alQ

uar

tzP

lag

iocl

ase

feld

spar

B

ioti

teM

icro

clin

e

RN

A2-

09

Sil

t (<

0.06

25)

Gra

nu

le (

>2.

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6.20 Chapter 6

Ta

ble

6.4

. B

. C

on

tin

ued

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amp

le N

o.

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est

(mm

) C

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m)

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Ta

ble

6.4

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tin

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le N

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est

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de

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t

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6.22 Chapter 6

Temper Type Analysis

The diverse assortment of temper types in thisset of sherds requires additional explanation (seeTable 6.4). In addition to sand temper, sherds withsand plus grog and sand plus fiber temper were en-countered. In all but one of the 56 thin sections, theceramicist’s assessment of temper type concurs withthat seen under the petrographic microscope (Table6.5). The single exception is RNA-44, a very fine-grained sherd with a dark paste. In this sherd, fibertemper is clearly visible in the thin section, but thefibers are small and the paste is very dark, making itimpossible to see the fiber voids under the low-pow-ered binocular stereomicroscope. Additionally, thepetrographers characterized some tempers as “sandyclay” or “sandy clay plus fiber” instead of theceramicist’s characterization of “sand” and “sand plusfiber.” These more detailed characterizations underthe petrographic microscope reflect the presence ofcrushing features on the sand grains—features thatare only visible in thin section. Thus, the ceramicist’s“sand” is equivalent to the petrographers’ “sandyclay.” A more complete discussion of the anthropo-logical and statistical implications of the use of sandversus sandy clay is found later in this chapter.

Statistical Implications of Temper Type Variations

With sand-tempered sherds, the sand temper dataare simply submitted for analysis. With more com-plex mixtures—for example, sand plus grog—thenon-sand phase must be excluded from considerationduring the statistical analysis process. For the RioNuevo sherds, the following statistical adaptationswere used.

The sand-tempered sherds in the Tucson Basinare straightforward; therefore, all sand-sized grainsare counted. A record of the number of matrix andvoids encountered while counting is kept, making afull volumetric composition of the paste available.Figure 6.2 is a photomicrograph of a Beehive Petro-facies sand-tempered sherd, illustrating commongrain sizes and shapes for sand-tempered sherds.

The sand plus grog-tempered sherds in the Tuc-son Basin commonly have sand temper in the grog(Figure 6.3). Thus, anything that may be encounteredwithin the grog grain was counted as “grog,” al-though a separate list of grog composition was col-lected. The grog is not included in the compositionalanalysis of the sand temper for provenance analysis.

The fiber-tempered sherds in the Tucson Basincommonly have large, elongated voids, frequentlywith charred remains of plant material (Figures 6.4-6.6). The plant structure is sometimes retained, andthe voids may also have dark, carbonized margins.

When counting, the characteristic fiber voids are tal-lied separately from the “bubble” voids commonlyseen in ceramics. Voids are not included in the sta-tistical provenance analyses of sand. Ethnographicevidence indicates the source of the fiber in theseceramics is manure, presumably horse manure (Fon-tana et al. 1962).

In addition to the fiber, all the fiber-temperedpottery also contains sand. This sand could be addedintentionally, although it is more likely a componentof the clay selected for pottery production. Ethno-graphic research conducted in the mid-twentieth cen-tury indicates pedologically derived clays formingon alluvial parent material were a common sourcefor local historic Native American potters (Fontanaet al. 1962:Figure 41). These materials are rich in sand-sized grains. The clays were ground up (Fontana etal. 1963:Figure 42), then horse manure was addedto make the clay paste. We have noted crushing fea-tures on the sand grains in the fiber-tempered pottery,which supports the ethnographic reports. Composi-tionally, the sands naturally included in these claysare directly related to their provenance. However,their composition may differ slightly from our refer-ence sands, which have experienced less chemicalweathering than sediments subjected to soil forma-tion. Behaviorally, the sand is not “temper;” that is,it was not added to the clay to change the propertiesof the material (Shepard 1995).

Finally, Whittlesey (1997) has suggested that someamount of sand may be introduced into the clay bodyfrom the horse manure. Although we have collectedhorse manure to test this hypothesis, we are still de-bating a suitable method for extracting and quantify-ing sand fraction that may be included in the manure.Visually, sparse grains of sand can be seen in themanure, but the quantity introduced into the claybody would be volumetrically very low.

For comparison, three ethnographic samples ofraw and prepared clay were obtained from the Ari-zona State Museum (ASM). One of the samples isfrom the San Xavier area; the remaining samples arefrom farther west on the Tohono O’odham Reserva-tion. All three samples were collected and preparedby O’odham potters (Fontana et al. 1962: 142-143).Test briquettes were made from the samples; thesewere subsequently thin sectioned and point counted(Figures 6.7-6.8). The raw clay sample contains 33percent sand, while the prepared clay samples, whichhave added manure, have 35-36 percent sand. Allthree samples are at the high end of sand contentcompared with the fiber-tempered archaeologicalpottery, which ranges from 20-38 percent sand, witha mean of 27 percent (Figure 6.9). Visual examina-tion of horse manure and the point-count data fromethnographic samples suggest a small amount of


Table 6.5. Comparison of temper type assessments made by the ceramicist (low magnification) and the petrographers (high magnification) for sherds from the Rio Nuevo Archaeology project.

Sample Number Ceramic Type Ceramicist's Temper Type

Petrographer's Temper Type Results

RNA2-01 Indeterminate red Sand Sandy clay Agree

RNA2-02 Indeterminate red Sand Sand Agree


RNA2-04 Unspecified plain ware Sand Sand Agree



RNA2-07 Unspecified plain ware Sand Sand Agree





RNA2-12 Indeterminate red Sand Sandy clay Agree

RNA2-13 Indeterminate red Sand plus grog Sand plus grog Agree


RNA2-15 Indeterminate red Sand plus grog Sandy clay plus grog Agree


RNA2-17 Sobaipuri Plain (folded rim) Sand plus grog Sand plus grog Agree

RNA2-18 Unspecified plain ware Sand plus grog Sand plus grog Agree

RNA2-19 Unspecified plain ware Sand plus grog Sand Agree

RNA2-20 Unspecified plain ware Sand plus grog Sandy clay plus grog Agree

RNA2-21 Papago Plain Sand plus manure/fiber Sand plus manure/fiber Agree

RNA2-22 Papago Red Sand plus manure/fiber Sand plus manure/fiber Agree

RNA2-23 Papago Red Sand plus manure/fiber Sand plus manure/fiber Agree


RNA-39 Sobaipuri Plain (folded rim) Sand Sand Agree

RNA-40 Unspecified plain ware Sand Sand Agree

RNA-41 Sobaipuri Plain (folded rim) Sand Sand Agree

RNA-42 Unspecified plain ware Sand Sand Agree

RNA-43 Unspecified plain ware Sand plus grog Sand plus grog Agree

RNA-44 Papago Red Sand Sand plus manure/fiber Disagree

RNA-45 Papago Plain Sand Sand Agree

RNA-46 Unspecified plain ware Sand Sandy clay Agree

RNA-47 Indeterminate red Sand Sand Agree


RNA-49 Sobaipuri Plain (folded rim) Sand Sandy clay Agree


RNA-51 Sobaipuri Plain (folded rim) Sand plus grog Sand plus grog Agree

RNA-52 Sobaipuri Plain (folded rim) Sand plus grog Sandy clay plus grog Agree


RNA-54 Indeterminate red Sand plus grog Sandy clay plus grog Agree

RNA-55 Sobaipuri Plain (folded rim) Sand plus grog Sand plus grog Agree


RNA-57 Indeterminate red Sand plus grog Sand plus grog Agree

6.24 Chapter 6


Sample Number Ceramic Type Ceramicist's Temper Type

Petrographer's Temper Type Results

RNA-58 Papago Plain Sand plus manure/fiber Sand plus manure/fiber Agree

RNA-59 Papago Red Sand plus manure/fiber Sand plus manure/fiber Agree












Figure 6.2. Photomicrograph of a Beehive Petrofacies sand-tempered sherd.

Figure 6.3. Photomicrograph of sherd RNA-52, temperedwith Beehive Petrofacies sand plus grog. (Photograph wastaken at 13.2x magnification under crossed nicols; note thesand temper in the dark grog fragment.)

sand could have been introduced into the paste frommanure temper, although the bulk of the sand-sizedgrains in the temper were probably a natural com-ponent of the clay.

Behavioral Implications of the Material Types

After full consideration of the data, we includedall sand-sized grains from fiber-tempered potteryin our statistical analysis, on the assumption thatthe sand is predominantly derived from the clay it-self, and that it reflects the provenance of that ma-terial. We recognize that our sand samples may notbe the perfect source material from which to matchsandy clays derived from soils, but we assert thatthey are similar enough to compare statistically.Therefore, the sand in fiber-tempered pottery istreated as if it were sand temper for statistical pur-poses. However, the collection of sandy clays fromsoils is a different behavior than the collection ofsand to temper clay.

Ethnographic examples collected from around theworld show that potters sometimes collect clay re-sources from farther away than sand resources(Arnold 1985; Heidke 2006; Heidke et al. 2002;Heidke et al. 2006; Miksa and Heidke 1995). Mostclays are collected within 4 km of the pottery pro-duction locations (Figure 6.10). An examination of abox-and-whiskers plot of 150 distance-to-clay re-source measurements shows the median distance toclay as 2 km, with the upper hinge (75 percent) at 4km. There are 16 outliers between 8 km and 50 km.Of these 16 outliers, only one is specified as foot trans-port of the material. The remaining distance-to-re-source data do not list the specific mode of transport,


so some non-foot transport distances may be in-cluded (Heidke et al. 2006). Examination of the eth-nographic and historic literature for O’odham andSobaipuri potters of southern and western Arizonasuggest their distance-to-clay resource measure-ments would have been within the 4 km estimate, atleast while human labor was the primary mode oftransportation. We use this distance in calculatingclay procurement by historic Native American pot-ters.

Temper Composition Analysis

Temper composition of the Rio Nuevo sherds wascharacterized by Heidke. Because only 56 of 2,373characterized sherds were selected for thin-section

Figure 6.4. Photomicrograph of sherd RNA2-22, showingprismatic fiber voids, carbon rim, and some remnant fiberstructure. (Photograph was taken at 13.2x magnificationunder plane polarized light.)

Figure 6.6. Photomicrograph of sherd RNA2-23, showingdetail of a fiber void with remnant plant structure. (Photo-graph was taken at 33x magnification under crossed nicols.)

Figure 6.5. Photomicrograph of sherd RNA-44, showingelongated fiber voids, one of which is bent around a sandgrain. (Photograph was taken at 13.2x magnification un-der plane polarized light.)

Figure 6.7. Photomicrograph of an unfired briquet madefrom an ethnographic collection of prepared clay (ASMnumber E6100) collected by Fontana et al. (1962). (Notethe abundant fiber in the paste; photograph was taken at13.2x magnification under plane polarized light.)

Figure 6.8. Photomicrograph of an unfired briquet madefrom an ethnographic collection of prepared clay (ASMnumber E6100) collected by Fontana et al. (1962). (Close-up of structural detail; photograph was taken at 33x mag-nification under cross polarized light.)

6.26 Chapter 6

analysis, the overall thin-section proportion for thisdata set is 2.4 percent (Table 6.6). This is approxi-mately half the usual proportion of thin sections se-lected for verification purposes (Miksa and Heidke2001). The low proportion is due to a number of cir-cumstances. First, sherds assigned to the unspeci-fied generic and specific temper composition groupwere not sampled due to their low informationvalue. The high number of fine-grained or fiber-tem-pered historic sherds in this data set led to a highnumber of unspecified temper designations, becausetemper could not be distinguished at low, reflectedlight magnification. This group includes 666 of the

20 25 30 35 40

Percent Sand

Fiber-tempered sherd

Ethnographic clay

Sample Type

Figure 6.9. Dot density graph showing the proportion of sandin the sand plus fiber-tempered sherds versus the fiber-temperedethnographically collected prepared clays.

Clay

Sand

Ash/Tuff

Gneiss

Other

Rock

0 10 20 30 40 50

Distance (km)

Figure 6.10. Ethnographic distance-to-resource measurements, byresource type.

2,373 sherds, or 28 percent of the data set. This groupwas sampled at a deliberately low rate for thisproject, due to its low information value and thelikelihood that the sherds belonged to multiple com-positions.

Sherds belonging to the “Fine Paste” genericgroup were not thin sectioned due to their lack ofsand-sized grains. Sherds assigned to the “Santan orGila Butte Schist Plus Sand” and “MetamorphicCore Complex” generic groups, and the Catalinaand Tortolita petrofacies, were not sampled becausethey represent a very low proportion of the completedata set.

The Twin Hills Petrofacies was sampled ata lower rate because Heidke has shown his abil-ity to recognize these petrofacies on previousprojects (Heidke 2000, 2003a, 2003b, 2006;Heidke et al. 1998). Although Heidke has dem-onstrated a similar success rate with the Bee-hive Petrofacies sand-tempered sherds, thisgroup is still being sampled at a higher rate toexplore the limits of this composition, espe-cially at its southern edge where it meets theBlack Mountain Petrofacies. Sherds assignedto the volcanic generic group with an unspeci-fied petrofacies were sampled at a low rate, dueto their lower information value and the like-lihood that they would represent several petro-facies. In the remaining composition groups,sampling rates of approximately 4-10 percentwere used to test the temper characterizations.

This sampling rate is adequate to test the di-versity of the sample and the accuracy of theceramicist’s temper characterizations withinthe sampled groups.

After the petrographic analysis was com-plete, sherds were submitted as unknownsfor classification by the current Tucson Basindiscriminant analysis model (Miksa 2006),following standard statistical analysis meth-ods for point-counted sherds (Heidke andMiksa 2000; Miksa and Heidke 2001). Thediscriminant model used for this project con-siders only the 18 petrofacies in the TucsonBasin proper. It includes 243 sands, of which214 are classified correctly by the model, foran accuracy of 88 percent. The model com-prises nine nested discriminant analysis mod-els. The output at each modeling level is usedas the input for the next level, as detailed inHeidke and Miksa (2000). The point-countparameters and calculated parameters usedin each level of the model are shown in Table6.7, and a schematic view of how the nestedmodels relate to each another is provided inFigure 6.11.


Results

Discriminant analysis results for the composi-tional analysis are shown in Table 6.8. Fifty-three ofthe 56 thin-sectioned sherds were given final petro-facies assignments. It is informative to examine thesherds in terms of the generic and specific tempergroups assigned during the detailed analysis. Dis-criminant analysis assigns all submitted samples tothe closest group in multidimensional space, eventhough the samples may be far from the closestgroup. Thus, discriminant assignments are checkedfor accuracy before a final petrofacies assignment ismade.

The six sherds with both generic and specific tem-per source unspecified were difficult to classify evenwith quantitative petrographic data. One wasthought to belong to the Rincon Petrofacies by thepetrographer. The discriminant analysis also classi-fied the sherd as Rincon Petrofacies, so the final as-signment is accepted as Rincon Petrofacies. Two ofthe sherds have a final classification as indetermi-nate. The petrographer’s temper assignment did not

match that of the discriminant analysis, and aftermuch additional inspection and comparison of com-position proportions, none of the assignments couldbe affirmed as correct. Consequently, these sherdshave “Indeterminate” temper classifications. One ofthe sherds was thought to be extrabasinal by the pe-trographers. It was assigned to the Airport Petrofa-cies in the discriminant analysis, but does not haveany volcanic grain types in common with that petro-facies. The temper in this sherd bears some similar-ity to rocks located west of Avra Valley and shouldbe compared with source materials from the AltarValley should they become available. Finally, two ofthe unspecified sherds were thought to belong to theBlack Mountain Petrofacies by the petrographer. Bothwere assigned to Black Mountain Petrofacies by thediscriminant analysis. Their final assignment is BlackMountain Petrofacies.

Seventeen of the thin-sectioned sherds were as-signed to the “Granitic Sand, Unspecified Petrofacies”group. These sherds come from historic NativeAmerican pots with fiber temper. The petrographerscharacterized them as coming from either the Black

Table 6.6. Proportion of thin sections by concatenated generic temper source and specific temper source groups, RioNuevo Archaeology project.

Number of Sherds (number of thin sections) in the Detailed Ceramic Analysis Set, by Siteb

Generic Temper Sourcea

Specific Temper Sourcea BB:13:13 BB:13:481 BB:13:6

Total Sherds

Total Thin Sections

Thin Section Proportion

Unspecified Unspecified 82 (2) 13 (0) 571 (4) 666 6 0.9

Fine paste Unspecified 0 (0) 4 (0) 91 (0) 95 0 0.0

Santan or Gila Butte schist plus sand

Unspecified 0 (0) 0 (0) 5 (0) 5 0 0.0

Metamorphic core complex

Catalina 0 (0) 0 (0) 11 (0) 11 0 0.0

Metamorphic core complex

Unspecified 0 (0) 0 (0) 15 (0) 15 0 0.0

Granitic Unspecified 171 (15) 0 (0) 117 (2) 288 17 5.9

Granitic Tortolita 0 (0) 0 (0) 3 (0) 3 0 0.0

Mixed volcanic and granitic

Unspecified 39 (4) 0 (0) 3 (0) 42 4 9.5

Granitic and mixed lithic

Santa Cruz River 0 (0) 0 (0) 239 (9) 239 9 3.8


Unspecified 25 (2) 0 (0) 1 (0) 26 2 7.7

Volcanic Unspecified 17 (2) 0 (0) 390 (4) 407 6 1.5

Volcanic Beehive 50 (5) 0 (0) 218 (5) 268 10 3.7

Volcanic Twin Hills 12 (0) 0 (0) 296 (2) 308 2 0.6

Column totals 396 (30) 17 (0) 1,960 (26) 2,373 56 2.4

aFrom ceramicist's temper characterization. bAll sites are AZ # (ASM).

6.28 Chapter 6

Ta

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Northern and

western Tucson

Mountains:

L, M, Mw

Eastern Tucson

Mountains:

J1, J2, J3

Granitic sands

rich in heavy

minerals:

B, E1, E2, E3, S

Granitic sands

rich in

microcline:

A, G, K, O, P

Volcanic sands

rich in feldspars:

Bv, I

Volcanic sands

(abundant volcanic

lithic fragments, no

other grain types

of note)

Granitic-Metamorphic petrofacies Volcanic rock-bearing petrofacies

"Family" level model—all petrofacies

Figure 6.11. Schematic diagram illustrating the relationships among the nested discriminant models in the Tucson BasinPetrofacies model.

Mountain or Sierrita petrofacies. The discriminantanalysis also assigned 16 of the sherds to one of thesetwo petrofacies, although the petrographer’s assign-ment does not necessarily match the discriminantanalysis assignment in any given case. These sherdshave been assigned to the final group “Black Moun-tain or Sierrita petrofacies.” There is considerablecompositional gradation in this group between thetwo petrofacies, and it is difficult to assign them toone petrofacies or another. This may be a case inwhich the application of sand point-count data to theprovenance characterization of sandy pedogenic clayis less exact than preferred. It may also reflect use ofthe resources in a gradational boundary zone be-tween the two petrofacies (see the case study discus-sion below). To further complicate the situation, theBlack Mountain Petrofacies was not adequatelysampled and described at the time of the sherd char-acterization, so Heidke was unable to identify thesherds to specific petrofacies. Since that time, Heidkehas learned to recognize the specific grain combina-tion that characterizes the Black Mountain Petrofaciesand to distinguish it from the Sierrita Petrofacies(Heidke and Miksa 2006).

The sherd that was not assigned to either the BlackMountain or Sierrita petrofacies by the discriminant

analysis model merits a specific note. Sample RNA-45 was assigned to the Twin Hills Petrofacies by thediscriminant analysis model. This sample has ahigher than usual proportion of a microgranite thatis generally found in the Black Mountain Petrofacies.The microgranite is counted on the LVH parameter(see Table 6.2), but is not the same as the spherulitichypabyssal volcanic found in the Twin Hills Petro-facies, which is also counted on the LVH parameter.Although this type of overlap rarely causes problems,in this case, it led to a faulty discriminant analysischaracterization.

Four sherds characterized by the ceramicist asbelonging to the “Mixed Volcanic and Granitic” ge-neric group with an unspecified petrofacies werecharacterized as belonging to the Black MountainPetrofacies by the petrographers. Three of the fourwere classified as Black Mountain Petrofacies by thediscriminant analysis; the fourth was assigned to theAirport Petrofacies. The volcanic grains in the foursamples are consistent with the mixture of volcaniclithic fragments seen on the western side of the SantaCruz River near the Black Mountain Petrofacies, notwith those seen on the eastern side of the Santa CruzRiver in the Airport Petrofacies. The final assignmentfor the four sherds is the Black Mountain Petrofacies.

6.30 Chapter 6

Table 6.8. Discriminant analysis results and petrofacies characterizations for the point-counted sherds.

Sample Number Ceramic Type

Ceramicist's Generic Temper Source

Ceramicist's Petrofacies

Petrographer's Petrofacies

Discriminant Analysis Predicted Petrofacies

Final Petrofacies Assignment

RNA2-01 Indeterminate red

Unspecified Unspecified Rincon Rincon Rincon


Unspecified Unspecified Beehive Catalina Volcanic Indeterminate


Unspecified Unspecified Extrabasinal Airport Extrabasinal

RNA2-04 Unspecified plain ware

Volcanic Beehive Beehive Golden Gate Beehive



Santa Cruz River

Black Hills Santa Rita Airport



Santa Cruz River

Beehive Airport Airport



Santa Cruz River




Santa Cruz River

Beehive Santa Rita Airport



Santa Cruz River




Santa Cruz River

Black Hills Airport Airport



Santa Cruz River




Santa Cruz River



Volcanic Unspecified Beehive Golden Gate Beehive


Volcanic Unspecified Beehive Beehive Beehive





RNA2-17 Sobaipuri Plain (folded rim)

Volcanic Beehive Beehive Beehive Beehive




Volcanic Beehive Beehive Golden Gate Beehive



RNA2-21 Papago Plain Unspecified Unspecified Granitic Airport Indeterminate

RNA2-22 Papago Red Granitic Unspecified Black Hills Sierrita Black Hills or Sierrita

RNA2-23 Papago Red Granitic Unspecified Black Hills Twin Hills Black Hills or Sierrita



Santa Cruz River

Beehive Beehive Airport

RNA-39 Sobaipuri Plain (folded rim)

Unspecified Unspecified Black Hills Black Hills Black Hills

RNA-40 Unspecified plain ware



Volcanic Beehive Black Hills Black Hills Beehive


Volcanic Twin Hills Twin Hills Twin Hills Twin Hills



Sample Number Ceramic Type

Ceramicist's Generic Temper Source

Ceramicist's Petrofacies

Petrographer's Petrofacies

Discriminant Analysis Predicted Petrofacies

Final Petrofacies Assignment


Volcanic Twin Hills Twin Hills Twin Hills Twin Hills

RNA-44 Papago Red Granitic Unspecified Black Hills Black Hills Black Hills or Sierrita

RNA-45 Papago Plain Granitic Unspecified Black Hills Black Hills Black Hills or Sierrita



Unspecified Black Hills Airport Black Hills

RNA-47 Indeterminate red


Unspecified Black Hills Black Hills Black Hills






Unspecified Sierrita Airport Airport



Unspecified Santa Rita Santa Rita Airport


Unspecified Unspecified Black Hills Black Hills Black Hills














RNA-58 Papago Plain Granitic Unspecified Sierrita Sierrita Black Hills or Sierrita

RNA-59 Papago Red Granitic Unspecified Sierrita Black Hills Black Hills or Sierrita



RNA-62 Papago Plain Granitic Unspecified Sierrita Black Hills Black Hills or Sierrita



RNA-65 Papago Red Granitic Unspecified Sierrita Sierrita Black Hills or Sierrita



RNA-68 Papago Red Granitic Unspecified Sierrita Sierrita Black Hills or Sierrita



6.32 Chapter 6

Two sherds were characterizedby the ceramicist as belonging tothe “Granitic Plus Mixed Lithic”generic group with an unspecifiedpetrofacies. One was characterizedas the Sierrita Petrofacies by the pe-trographers, while the other wascharacterized as belonging to theSanta Rita Petrofacies. In the dis-criminant analysis model, the firstwas characterized as belonging tothe Airport Petrofacies, while thesecond was characterized as be-longing to the Santa Rita Petrofa-cies. On petrographic review, bothsamples were assigned to the Air-port Petrofacies; however, this is aprovisional assignment. Addi-tional information is necessary toassess the compositional range ofboth petrofacies, especially the dis-tal ends near the Santa Cruz River.

Nine samples were character-ized by the ceramicist as belongingto the “Granitic Plus Mixed Lithic”generic group and the Santa CruzRiver Petrofacies. These sampleswere characterized by the petrographers as belong-ing to the Beehive and Black Mountain petrofacies.The discriminant analysis classification for six of thesamples is the Airport Petrofacies. Two samples areclassified as members of the Santa Rita Petrofacies.One sample was classified as a member of the Bee-hive Petrofacies, although it lacks the distinctive vol-canic grains of that petrofacies. Extensive petrographicreview shows that the initial characterization by boththe ceramicist and the petrographers was incorrect.1

A QmFLt ternary plot of the composition shows thatthe temper composition of the sherds overlaps withthe composition of Airport Petrofacies sands, but notwith those of the Santa Rita Petrofacies (Figure 6.12).Volcanic lithic fragments in the sherds are consistentwith those of Airport Petrofacies sands. Therefore, thefinal assignment of these sherds is to the Airport Petro-facies. With recent improvements in the descriptionof the Airport Petrofacies, and improved character-izations to help distinguish between Airport and SantaCruz River petrofacies sands in hand-sample, it shouldbe possible to make this distinction more easily in thefuture.

Six samples were assigned by the ceramicist tothe volcanic generic group, with petrofacies unspeci-fied. These samples were characterized by the pe-

trographers as Beehive Petrofacies. The discriminantanalysis classification for five of the samples is theBeehive Petrofacies, while the sixth is to the GoldenGate Petrofacies. Petrographic review of the samplessuggests all six belong to the Beehive Petrofacies.

Ten samples were assigned by the ceramicist tothe volcanic generic group and the Beehive Petro-facies. Nine of the 10 sherds were characterized asBeehive Petrofacies by the petrographers and thediscriminant analysis model; the tenth was charac-terized as Black Mountain Petrofacies by the pe-trographers and the discriminant analysis model.After petrographic review, all 10 samples were as-signed to the Beehive Petrofacies.

Two samples were assigned by the ceramicist tothe volcanic generic group and the Twin Hills Petro-facies. Both samples were also assigned to the TwinHills Petrofacies by the petrographers and the dis-criminant analysis model. The final assignment ofTwin Hills Petrofacies is accepted for these samples.

Discussion

The data presented above show that sands orsandy clays from four petrofacies were used to manu-facture the Native American ceramics recovered fromthe sites investigated during the Rio Nuevo Archae-ology project. These four petrofacies include the fol-lowing.

1The Airport Petrofacies composition had not been de-fined at the time Heidke characterized the temper prov-enance of these sherds.

Figure 6.12. QmFLt ternary plot showing sherds assigned to the Airport Petro-facies, along with sand from the Airport, Beehive, Black Mountain, Santa Rita,and Sierrita petrofacies.

8040 60

20

1000

40

100

80

60

0 20

80

40

20

0 100

60

LtF

Qm

Santa Rita

Airport

Beehive

Black Mountain

Sierrita

Sherd


• The Beehive Petrofacies, which is south-south-west of the Rio Nuevo sites. It is known as apottery production area since at least A.D. 350.The Beehive Petrofacies is approximately 4 kmfrom the project area sites, so it is not consid-ered a local production source for the sites.

• The Airport Petrofacies, which covers muchof the Tucson Basin floor. The Clearwater siteis situated just across the Santa Cruz Riverfrom the northwestern tip of the Airport Petro-facies; therefore, it is a local source of sand forthe site. The Tucson Presidio is located withinthe Airport Petrofacies.

• The Black Mountain Petrofacies is located ap-proximately 11 km south of the project areasites; it is not a local production source.

• The Sierrita Petrofacies, located approxi-mately 13 km south of the project area sites isnot a local production source.

Combining the final characterization data givenabove and in Table 6.8 with the proportion of theceramics represented by the thin-sectioned sherds,49 percent of the sherds are in a petrographicallyverified group assigned to a petrofacies. Forty-fivepercent of the study set remains in petrographicallyverified groups not assigned to a petrofacies. Ap-proximately 5 percent of the sherds in the detailedstudy set were not included in the petrographic veri-fication study.

Examination of Table 6.9 shows that source areasare not distributed equally between the sites. For in-stance, the San Agustín Mission locus has a muchlarger proportion of sherds identified as originatingin the Beehive or Twin Hills petrofacies than the Tuc-son Presidio, while the Tucson Presidio has a slightmajority of the sherds originating in the Black Moun-tain or Sierrita petrofacies, although the difference isnot as pronounced as that for the volcanic petrofa-cies. The time differences between these two sites mayplay a role in this difference: The San Agustín Mis-sion locus dates to the Spanish period, A.D. 1694 to1821, with most of the excavated features dating be-tween 1771 and 1821. The Tucson Presidio datesslightly later, to both the Spanish and Mexican peri-ods, circa A.D. 1775 to 1856. Without additional dataand time periods, it is difficult to assess the nature ofthis pattern. Fortunately, several other sites in thedowntown Tucson area have been excavated in re-cent years and petrographically verified data setsspanning the historic time periods from the Spanishto American Statehood periods are available. A smallcase study using selected, well-dated features fromthe Rio Nuevo project sites and other nearby siteshas been used to evaluate the relationship amongpottery production location, pottery technology,and time in the historic Tucson Basin.

CASE STUDY: THE EFFECTS OFHISTORIC EVENTS ON O’ODHAMPOTTERY PRODUCTION IN HISTORICTUCSON, ARIZONA

In the Historic era, Native Americans in the Tuc-son area produced ceramic vessels for their own use,as well as for sale or trade to the growing Euro-Ameri-can community. As noted above, historic ceramicswere commonly tempered with sand, sand plus grog,or manure. The pottery production locations andtechnology of manufacture changed through time.This study explores these changes.

Native American pottery from eight sites and sitecomponents in the Tucson area, excavated by DesertArchaeology, Inc., over the last 10 years (Figures6.13-6.14; Table 6.10) was examined. The sites wereoccupied throughout the Historic era, from approxi-mately A.D. 1771 to 1929; that is, from the time ofSpanish occupation, through the Mexican period, andinto the American Territorial and American State-hood periods. The sites are located along the easternand southern flanks of the Tucson Mountains.

To explore changes in production technology andprovenance over time, a collection of 1,097 decoratedsherds and plain ware rim sherds from well-datedcontexts spanning 12 distinct time intervals at theeight sites was selected for detailed ceramic analysis(Figure 6.15; Table 6.11). The contexts are dated byhistoric artifact content, and it is these dates that havebeen applied to the ceramics.

As noted above, information such as ceramicform, style, vessel size, and detailed notes on deco-rative elements was recorded for each sherd. Addi-tionally, temper attributes were identified by theproject ceramicist, so that the sherds could be com-pared with known sand temper sources available inTucson. A random sample stratified by ware and tem-per characterization was used to select 67 of thesherds for thin sectioning so that detailed petro-graphic analyses could be completed. Overall, a 6.1percent sample was thin sectioned, although thissample is not distributed evenly through all sampledtime intervals (see Figure 6.15). The sherds were pointcounted and submitted for discriminant analysis, asdetailed above.

Results

Results of the discriminant analysis were verystrong. Most of the pottery can be assigned to petro-facies found near the central and southern TucsonMountains. Much of it was produced in the BeehivePetrofacies, a known production area since prehis-toric times. Limited numbers of sherds with TwinHills Petrofacies sands were recovered. This is also a

6.34 Chapter 6

Tab

le 6

.9.

Nu

mb

er o

f sh

erd

s an

d p

rop

ort

ion

of

thin

sec

tio

ns

in e

ach

fin

al p

rov

enan

ce g

rou

p.

N

um

ber

of

Sh

erd

s (p

rop

ort

ion

of

sher

ds)

in

th

e D

etai

led

Cer

amic

An

aly

sis

Set

, by

Sit

eb

Gen

eric

Tem

per

S

ou

rcea

S

pec

ific

Tem

per

S

ou

rcea

F

inal

Tem

per

C

har

acte

riza

tio

n

To

tal

Sh

erd

s N

ot

Ch

arac

teri

zed

to

Pet

rofa

cies

To

tal

Sh

erd

s C

har

acte

rize

d

to P

etro

faci

es

BB

:13:

13

BB

:13:

481

B

B:1

3:6

Un

spec

ifie

d

Un

spec

ifie

dU

nsp

ecif

ied

666

82

(0.

03)

13 (

0.01

) 57

1 (0

.024

)

Gra

nit

ic

Un

spec

ifie

d

Bla

ck M

ou

nta

in o

r S

ierr

ita

pet

rofa

cies

–

288

171

(0.0

7)

0 (0

.00)

11

7 (0

.005

)

Mix

ed v

olc

anic

an

d

gra

nit

ic

Un

spec

ifie

d

Bla

ck M

ou

nta

inP

etro

faci

es

– 42

39

(0.

02)

0 (0

.00)

3

(0.0

01)

Gra

nit

ic a

nd

mix

ed

lith

ic

San

ta C

ruz

Riv

er

Air

po

rt P

etro

faci

es

– 23

9 0

(0.0

0)

0 (0

.00)

23

9 (0

.001

)

Gra

nit

ic a

nd

mix

ed

lith

ic

Un

spec

ifie

d

Air

po

rt P

etro

faci

es

- 26

25

(0.

01)

0 (0

.00)

1

(0.0

00)

Vo

lcan

ic

Un

spec

ifie

d

Un

spec

ifie

d

407

– 17

(0.

01)

0 (0

.00)

39

0 (0

.016

)

Vo

lcan

icB

eeh

ive

Bee

hiv

e P

etro

faci

es

– 26

8 50

(0.

02)

0 (0

.00)

21

8 (0

.009

)

Vo

lcan

ic

Tw

in H

ills

T

win

Hil

ls P

etro

faci

es

–

308

12 (

0.01

) 0

(0.0

0)

296

(0.0

12)

Co

lum

n t

ota

ls

1,07

3 1,

171

396

(0.1

7)

13 (

0.01

) 1,

835

(0.0

77)

No

tes:

To

tal

sher

ds

in t

he

stu

dy

set

: 2,

373

To

tal

sher

ds

in a

pet

rog

rap

hic

ally

ver

ifie

d g

rou

p:

2,24

4

Per

cen

tage

of

tota

l st

udy

set

in

a p

etro

grap

hica

lly

veri

fied

pe

trof

acie

s:

49.3

Per

cen

tage

of

tota

l st

udy

set

not

in

a p

etro

grap

hica

lly

veri

fied

pe

trof

acie

s:

45.2

Per

cen

tage

of

tota

l st

udy

set

not

pet

rogr

aphi

call

y ve

rifi

ed:

5.4

a Fro

m c

eram

icis

t's

tem

per

ch

arac

teri

zati

on

. bA

ll s

ite

nu

mb

ers

are

AZ

# (

AS

M).


known prehistoric production area. Interest-ingly, a large number of pots produced in theAirport Petrofacies were recovered. Finally, amajority of the pottery recovered from thesesites was manufactured in the Black MountainPetrofacies, or in either the Black Mountain orSierrita petrofacies. This latter group is a set ofceramics that grades in composition from onepetrofacies to the other. The two petrofacies areadjacent and closely related, and their bound-ary is a diffuse geomorphic transition zone onthe bajada of the Sierrita Mountains, with allu-vial tributaries moving freely back and forthacross the landscape. Much of the pottery waslikely produced along the boundary zone be-tween the two petrofacies, near San Xavier delBac Mission. Two historic villages are noted ina late nineteenth century map of the San Xavierarea; they straddle this boundary zone (Chill-son 1888). The potters may have lived in or nearthese villages.

The temper type analysis confirms long-heldnotions about the change from sand or sand plusgrog temper to fiber temper over time (Figure6.16). Almost all the ceramics recovered from theSan Agustín Mission locus, from features dat-ing between 1771 and 1821, are tempered withsand or sand plus grog, as are the ceramics re-covered from features at the Tucson Presidiodating from 1810 to 1820. In the ceramics recov-

ered from units dating to the 1820sand 1830s at the Tucson Presidio, fi-ber temper begins to appear, but othertemper types are also used. In the nexttime interval, 1840-1869, fiber temperjumps to more than 50 percent of thetotal pottery recovered from the Leónfarmstead, AZ BB:13:505 (ASM). Bythe 1870s, fiber-tempered potterycomprises the majority of that recov-ered from all of the sites. By 1890, it isthe only temper being used in NativeAmerican pottery.

The trends in temper compositionreflect those seen in temper type (Fig-ure 6.17). In the earliest San AgustínMission deposits, the pottery wasbeing produced primarily in the Bee-hive and Airport petrofacies. The Air-port Petrofacies source is local to thosesites and to Tucson at the time. TheBeehive Petrofacies source is 4 km tothe south. There is a very smallamount of pottery from the Twin HillsPetrofacies, which is local to the sites.Starting in the early 1820s, the BlackMountain and Sierrita petrofacies

Figure 6.14. Close-up of archaeological sites in the case study, showing sitenames and locations in downtown Tucson.

León

Farmstead

Figure 6.13. Overview of archaeological sites in the case study,showing nearby petrofacies.

6.36 Chapter 6

ever, as the century progressed. Inthe 1840 to 1869 time interval,there was a dramatic increase inpottery produced in the BlackMountain/Sierrita petrofacies,concomitant with the change to fi-ber temper. By the 1870s, the BlackMountain/Sierrita petrofaciescomposition dominates the as-semblage, and its proportion in-creases through time.

These changes in ceramic tech-nology and provenance coincidewith the major political events ofthe Historic era. The Spanishclaimed Arizona soon after theirentrada into the “New World,” al-though there was not a strongSpanish presence near Tucson un-til Father Kino founded missionsat Guevavi (1692) and San Xavierdel Bac (1699). The San AgustínMission, a visita of San Xavier, wasfounded in 1757 at the NativeAmerican village of “Schook-shon,”followed by the Tucson Presidioin 1776. Throughout this time, theSpanish exercised political controlover the Tucson area, until Mexico

established independence in 1821. Interestingly, al-though the San Xavier Mission was well establishedprior to 1800, it is not until the second decade of thenineteenth century that Black Mountain/Sierrita

begin to be used, and apparent production falls offat the Beehive Petrofacies. Clearly, the Native Ameri-can population was still free to use materials locatedin a wide area around Tucson. This changed, how-

Figure 6.15. Distribution of ceramic sample, by ware, site, and analytical group.

0

100

200

300

400

500

San

Agustí

n

Pre

sid

io

Le

ón

Farm

Carr

illo

Blo

ck

181

Blo

ck

139

Blo

ck

172

Blo

ck

136

Site

Num

ber

of

Sam

ple

s

Historic types

Plain brown ware

Red ware

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

San

Agustí

n

Pre

sid

io

Le

ón

Farm

Carr

illo

Blo

ck

181

Blo

ck

139

Blo

ck

172

Blo

ck

136

Site

Num

ber

of

Sam

ple

s

Petrographic

Binocular

Table 6.10. Sites and site components used in the case study.

Site Number Site Name Feature Date Range Historic Period

AZ BB:13:6 (ASM) San Agustín Mission 64, 161, 166, 177, 178, 193, 203

1771-1821 Spanish

AZ BB:13:13 (ASM) Tucson Presidio 373 1810s-1820s Spanish to Mexican

AZ BB:13:13 (ASM) Tucson Presidio 409, 441 1820s-1830s Mexican

AZ BB:13:505 (ASM) León Farmstead 4 (Stratum 50.03), 14, 25, 28

1840-1869 Mexican and American Territorial

AZ BB:13:6 (ASM) Carrillo Household 61 1860-1880 American Territorial

AZ BB:13:505 (ASM) León Farmstead 4 (Stratum 50.02) 1870-1880 American Territorial

AZ BB:13:13 (ASM) Block 181 376 Late 1870s-early 1890s

American Territorial

AZ BB:13:505 (ASM) León Farmstead 4 (Stratum 50.01) 1880-1890 American Territorial

AZ BB:13:644 (ASM) Block 139 19 1890-1895 American Territorial

AZ BB:13:668 (ASM) Block 172 46, 54 1891/1892-1900 American Territorial

AZ BB:13:513 (ASM) Block 136 60 1898-1911 American Territorial and American Statehood

AZ BB:13:513 (ASM) Block 136 7, 41 1916-1929 American Territorial and American Statehood


Table 6.11. Number of sherds in the case study, by ware, site, time interval, and type of analysis.

Time Interval

Sitea 1771

-182

1

1810

s-18

20s

1820

s-18

30s

1840

-186

9

1860

-188

0

1870

-188

0

Lat

e 18

70s-

Ear

ly 1

890s

1880

-189

0

1890

-189

5

1891

/18

92-

1900

1898

-191

1

1916

-192

9

Row Total

Total Sherds Analyzed

Red Ware

BB:13:006 315 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 327

BB:13:013 0 18 24 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 43

BB:13:505 0 0 0 13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13

BB:13:513 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

BB:13:644 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

BB:13:668 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Column total 315 18 24 13 12 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 383

Plain Brown Ware

BB:13:006 80 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 83

BB:13:013 0 9 25 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 0 45

BB:13:505 0 0 0 16 0 1 0 7 0 0 0 0 24

BB:13:513 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

BB:13:644 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

BB:13:668 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Column total 80 9 25 16 3 1 11 7 0 0 0 0 152

Historic Types

BB:13:006 29 0 0 0 17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 46

BB:13:013 0 10 44 0 0 0 151 0 0 0 0 0 205

BB:13:505 0 0 0 66 0 14 0 131 0 0 0 0 211

BB:13:513 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 5 20

BB:13:644 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 44 0 0 0 44

BB:13:668 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 36 0 0 36

Column total 29 10 44 66 17 14 151 131 44 36 15 5 562

Thin-sectioned Sherds

Red Ware

BB:13:006 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14

BB:13:013 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3

BB:13:505 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

BB:13:644 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

BB:13:668 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Column total 14 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17

Plain Brown Ware

BB:13:006 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4

BB:13:013 0 1 4 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 6

BB:13:505 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3

BB:13:644 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

BB:13:668 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Column total 4 1 4 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 13

Historic Types

BB:13:006 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2

BB:13:013 0 4 5 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 0 20

BB:13:505 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 4 0 0 0 0 7

BB:13:644 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 5

BB:13:668 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 4

Column total 1 4 5 2 1 1 11 4 5 4 0 0 38

aAll sites are AZ # (ASM).

6.38 Chapter 6

petrofacies temper begins to appear in the archaeo-logical record. Many factors contributed to this pat-tern: an influx of non-Native American peoples,Apache raiding, disease among the O’odham, andhuge regional economic changes all occurred at thesame time. Without evidence from contemporarysites located near the San Xavier Mission, it is diffi-cult to know if pottery production had occurred inthat area and was simply not traded to Tucson, or ifpottery was not produced in the area prior to the mid-nineteenth century.

The most significant changes in pottery produc-tion occur in the decades following Mexican inde-pendence. In the period between 1840 and 1870, theshift to fiber-tempered pottery from the Black Moun-tain/Sierrita petrofacies occurs rapidly, as this pot-tery begins to represent 50 percent of the assemblage

or more. The influx of Euro-Americans and Mexi-cans to the Tucson area may have limited the avail-ability of source materials in central Tucson, while theO’odham were simultaneously being “encouraged”to live near the San Xavier Mission. This populationshift was intensified after the Gadsden Purchase of1853, making Tucson and southern Arizona a part ofthe United States and bringing American politicalcontrol to the region. The United States governmentestablished the San Xavier Reservation for the To-hono O’odham in 1874. At that time, over 80 percentof the pottery recovered from the archaeological de-posits discussed here came from the Black Mountain/Sierrita petrofacies, near the reservation boundaryand San Xavier Mission.

While interpretation of the temper provenancerecord is straightforward with respect to the historic

Figure 6.16. Bar chart showing results of the temper type analysis through time.

Figure 6.17. Bar chart showing results of the temper composition analysis through time.

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

1771-1

821

1810s-

1820s

1820s-

1830s

1840-1

869

1860-1

880

1870-1

880

1870s-

1890s

1880-1

890

1890-1

895

1891-1

900

1898-1

911

1916-1

929

Tem

per

Type

Other

Sand+Fiber

Sand+Grog

Sand

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

1771-1

821

1810s-

1820s

1820s-

1830s

1840-1

869

1860-1

880

1870-1

880

1870s-

1890s

1880-1

890

1890-1

895

1891-1

900

1898-1

911

1916-1

929

Pro

port

ion b

y P

etr

ofa

cie

s

Other/Unid

K or O

K

J2

J1

I


detailed ceramic analysis. Temper type assessmentsmade by the ceramicist and the petrographers werefound to be in agreement in all but one case. Tempercomposition and provenance assessments were inagreement on previously known and well-definedpetrofacies. This project has helped refine currentunderstanding of temper composition and prov-enance for two major sources that were previouslyinadequately defined. A group of sherds with gra-nitic and mixed lithic sand was shown to have prob-ably originated in the Airport Petrofacies, a large areaoccupying much of the floor of the Tucson Basin. Agroup of sherds with granitic sands, a distinctive al-tered granite or granodiorite, and distinctive TucsonMountain volcanics was shown to have originatedin the Black Mountain or Sierrita petrofacies, nearthe San Xavier Mission.

The second subject addressed in this study is thatof placing the Rio Nuevo data in a wider regionaland temporal context by combining data from RioNuevo sherds with that from several recently exca-vated nearby sites. The combined data set allowedus to study pottery production and distribution inthe Tucson-San Xavier Mission area from circa A.D.1771 to 1936. The data from the case study show achange in O’odham pottery production over time.In the earlier part of the study interval, pottery wassand tempered, or sand plus grog tempered, and wasproduced in the Beehive or Airport petrofacies. Bythe middle of the study interval, pottery productionbegan shifting southward, near San Xavier Mission,and grog temper was replaced by fiber temper. Bythe end of the study interval, nearly all pottery wastempered with fiber and was produced in the BlackMountain or Sierrita petrofacies, probably near theSan Xavier Mission. In this context, data gained fromthe Rio Nuevo excavations are integral in develop-ing an understanding of the broad patterns ofTucson’s history.

record in this case, interpretation of the temper typerecord is more difficult. What brought about the shiftfrom sand or grog temper to fiber temper? The ideaof using manure as temper may have been importedwith the influx of people into the area in the nine-teenth century. The O’odham potters probably lostpolitical control of land in the Beehive Petrofacies,formerly a preferred pottery production area. Thematerial properties of the pedologic clays in the BlackMountain/Sierrita petrofacies could have required amore plastic temper than sand or grog. Alternatively,it could be that the O’odham potters needed a tem-per that was less expensive in terms of labor. Ashorses and cattle increased in the region, so did areadily available, free, preprocessed temper source.Fontana (personal communication 2005) reports thatit was just “easier” to make pots with manure tem-per rather than sand, and ease of production mayhave become an increasingly important factor as theO’odham supplied not only themselves, but a grow-ing Euro-American population with water storagejars and everyday cookware (Naranjo 2002). The fi-ber-tempered pottery may have also been lighter andeasier to transport.

In summary, the historic pattern of pottery pro-duction and distribution in the Tucson area is clear. Inthe approximately 200 or so years that saw the com-ing of the Spanish, Mexicans, and Americans to theregion, pottery production shifted from a pattern muchlike the prehistoric, to one that was governed by thenew political and economic realities of the times.

CONCLUSIONS

This technical study addresses two areas of inter-est. The first is the composition and provenance analy-sis of 56 thin sections for the Rio Nuevo Archaeologyproject, representing 2,373 sherds examined for the

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petrographic analysis of pottery for the rio nuevo project, with a

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