PGDM SS 2ND Semester 2014-15

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

Topic 1 – Meaning of research

Topic 2 – Types of research and approaches

Topic 3 - Meaning of method and methodology

Topic 4 - Scientific method

Topic 5 - Research process, Identification and defining of research problem

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

• Research is undertaken within most professions.

• More than a set of skills, it is a way of thinking: examining critically

the various aspects of your professional work.

• It is a habit of questioning what you do, and a systematic

examination of the observed information to find answers with a view

to instituting appropriate changes for a more effective professional

service.

• As a supervisor, administrator or manager of an agency, again different

questions relating to effectiveness and efficiency of a service may

come to your mind. For example:

How many people are coming to my agency?

What are the socioeconomic–demographic characteristics of my clients?

How many cases in a day can a worker effectively handle?

Why do some people use the service while others do not?

What are the most common needs of clients who come to this agency?

What are the strengths and weaknesses of the service?

How satisfied are the clients with the service and how can I Improve it?

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

• The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search.

• The dictionary defines the former as a prefix meaning again, anew or

over again and the latter as a verb meaning to examine closely and

carefully, to test and try, or to probe.

• Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient

study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to

establish facts or principles.

When you say that you are undertaking a research study to find answers

to a question, you are implying that the process;

1. is being undertaken within a framework of a set of philosophies

(approaches);

2. uses procedures, methods and techniques that have been tested for

their validity and reliability;

3. is designed to be unbiased and objective.

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

Philosophies means approaches e.g. qualitative, quantitative and the

academic discipline in which you have been trained.

Validity means that correct procedures have been applied to find

answers to a question.

Reliability refers to the quality of a measurement procedure that

provides repeatability and accuracy.

Unbiased and objective means that you have taken each step in an

unbiased manner and drawn each conclusion to the best of your ability

and without introducing your own vested interest.

(Bias is a deliberate attempt to either conceal or highlight something).

• Adherence to the three criteria mentioned above enables the process

to be called ‘research’.

• However, the degree to which these criteria are expected to be

fulfilled varies from discipline to discipline and so the meaning of

‘research’ differs from one academic discipline to another.

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

Research is a structured enquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific

methodology to solve problems and create new knowledge that is

generally applicable.

Scientific methods consist of systematic observation, classification

and interpretation of data.

Although we engage in such process in our daily life, the difference

between our casual day-to-day generalization and the conclusions

usually recognized as scientific method lies in the degree of

formality, rigorousness, verifiability and general validity of latter.

“Forward-thinking executives recognize that analytics may be the only

true source of sustainable advantage since it empowers employees at

all levels of an organization with information to help them make

smarter decisions.”

Wayne Eckerson,

Director of research, business applications and architecture group,

TechTarget

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

Research can be classified from three perspectives:

1. Application of research study

2. Objectives in undertaking the research

3. Inquiry mode employed

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

Research can be classified from three perspectives:

1. Application of research study

From the point of view of application, there are two broad categories of

research: pure research and applied research

• Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses

that are intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or may not

have practical application at the present time or in the future. The

knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add to the

existing body of research methods.

• Applied research is done to solve specific, practical questions; for policy

formulation, administration and understanding of a phenomenon. It can be

exploratory, but is usually descriptive. It is almost always done on the

basis of basic research. Applied research can be carried out by academic or

industrial institutions. Often, an academic institution such as a university

will have a specific applied research program funded by an industrial

partner interested in that program.

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

Research can be classified from three perspectives:

2. Objectives in undertaking the research

From the viewpoint of objectives, a research can be classified as

i. Descriptive research attempts to describe systematically a situation,

problem, phenomenon, service or programme, or provides information

about , say, living condition of a community, or describes attitudes

towards an issue.

ii. Correlational research attempts to discover or establish the existence of

a relationship/ interdependence between two or more aspects of a

situation.

iii. Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a

relationship between two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon.

iv. Exploratory research is undertaken to explore an area where little is

known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular

research study (feasibility study / pilot study).

In practice most studies are a combination of the first three categories.

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

Research can be classified from three perspectives:

3. Inquiry mode employed

From the process adopted to find answer to research questions – the two

approaches are:

i. Structured approach: The structured approach to inquiry is usually classified as

quantitative research. Here everything that forms the research process- objectives,

design, sample, and the questions that you plan to ask of respondents- is

predetermined. It is more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue or

phenomenon by quantifying the variation. e.g. how many people have a particular

problem? How many people hold a particular attitude?

ii. Unstructured approach: The unstructured approach to inquiry is usually

classified as qualitative research. This approach allows flexibility in all aspects of the

research process. It is more appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or

phenomenon without quantifying it. Main objective is to describe the variation in a

phenomenon, situation or attitude. e,g, description of an observed situation, the

historical enumeration of events, an account of different opinions different people

have about an issue, description of working condition in a particular industry.

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

Some more points:

In many studies you have to combine both qualitative and quantitative

approaches.

For example, suppose you have to find the types of cuisine /

accommodation available in a city and the extent of their popularity.

Types of cuisine is the qualitative aspect of the study as finding out about

them entails description of the culture and cuisine

The extent of their popularity is the quantitative aspect as it involves

estimating the number of people who visit restaurant serving such cuisine

and calculating the other indicators that reflect the extent of popularity.

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

• Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques

that are used for conduction of research.

• Research methods or techniques or methodology, thus, refer to the

methods the researchers use in performing research operations.

• In other words, all those methods which are used by the researcher during

the course of studying his research problem are termed as research

methods.

• Since the objective of research, particularly the applied research, it to

arrive at a solution for a given problem, the available data and the

unknown aspects of the problem have to be related to each other to make

a solution possible.

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

Keeping this in view, research methods can be put into the following three

groups:

1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the

collection of data. These methods will be used where the data already

available are not sufficient to arrive at the required solution

2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used

for establishing relationships between the data and the unknowns

3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the

accuracy of the results obtained

Research methods falling in the above stated last two groups are generally

taken as the analytical tools of research.

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

• Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem.

• It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done

scientifically.

• In it, we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in

studying his research problem along with the logic behind them.

• It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research methods /

techniques but also the methodology.

• Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how

to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-

square, how to apply particular research techniques, but they also need to know

which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not, and

what would they mean and indicate and why.

• For example an architect, who designs a building, has to consciously evaluate

the basis of his decisions, i.e., he has to evaluate why and on what basis he

selects particular size, number and location of doors, windows and ventilators,

uses particular materials and not others and the like.

Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the research

methods but also consider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of

our research study and explain why we are using a particular method or technique

and why we are not using others so that research results are capable of being

evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others.

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

• The philosophy common to all research methods and techniques, although

they may vary considerably from one science to another, is usually given the

name of scientific method.

• “The scientific method is one and same in the branches (of science) and that

method is the method of all logically trained minds, the unity of all sciences

consists alone in its methods, not its material; the man who classifies facts of

any kind whatever, who sees their mutual relation and describes their

sequences, is applying the Scientific Method and is a man of science”(Karl

Pearson).

Experimentation is done to test hypotheses and to discover new

relationships, if any, among variables.

But the conclusions drawn on the basis of experimental data are generally

criticized for either faulty assumptions, poorly designed experiments, badly

executed experiments or faulty interpretations.

As such the researcher must pay all possible attention while developing the

experimental design and must state only probable inferences.

The purpose of survey investigations may also be to provide scientifically

gathered information to work as a basis for the researchers for their

conclusions.

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates which can be

stated as under:

1. It relies on empirical evidence

2. It utilizes relevant concepts

3. It is committed to only objective considerations

4. It pre-supposes ethical neutrality i.e., it aims at nothing but making only

adequate and correct statements about population objects

5. It results into probabilistic predictions

6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for

use in testing the conclusions through replication

7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as

scientific theories

Scientific method implies an objective, logical and systematic method

A method free from personal bias or prejudice, a method to ascertain

demonstrable qualities of a phenomenon capable of being verified

A method wherein the researcher is guided by the rules of logical reasoning

A method wherein the investigation proceeds in an orderly manner and a

method that implies internal consistency

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

• The research process is similar to undertaking a journey.

• For a research journey there are two important decisions to make:

1. What you want to find out about or what research questions (problems) you

want to find answers to

2. How to go about finding their answers

• There are practical steps through which you must pass in your research

journey in order to find answers to your research questions.

• The path to finding answers to your research questions constitutes research

methodology.

• At each operational step in the research process you are required to

choose from a multiplicity of methods, procedures and models of research

methodology which will help you to best achieve your objectives.

• This is where your knowledge base of research methodology plays a crucial

role.

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

STEP 1

STEP 2

STEP 3

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

Steps in Research Process:

1. Formulating the Research Problem

2. Extensive Literature Review

3. Developing the objectives

4. Preparing the Research Design including Sample Design

5. Collecting the Data

6. Analysis of Data

7. Generalization and Interpretation

8. Preparation of the Report or Presentation of Results-Formal write ups of

conclusions reached.

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

Steps in Research Process:

1. Formulating the Research Problem

• It is the first and most crucial step in the research process

• Main function is to decide what you want to find out about.

• The way you formulate a problem determines almost every step that

follows.

Sources of research problems

Research in social sciences revolves around four Ps:

i. People: a group of individuals

ii. Problems: examine the existence of certain issues or problems relating to

their lives; to ascertain attitude of a group of people towards an issue

iii. Programs: to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention

iv. Phenomena: to establish the existence of a regularity.

In practice most research studies are based upon at least a combination of two Ps.

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

Steps in Research Process:

1. Formulating the Research Problem

Every research study has two aspects:

i. Study population:

• People: individuals, organizations, groups, communities (they provide you with the information or you collect information about them)

ii. Subject area:

• Problems: issues, situations, associations, needs, profiles

• Program : content, structure, outcomes, attributes, satisfactions, consumers,

Service providers, etc.

• Phenomenon: cause-and-effect relationships, the study of a phenomenon

itself (Information that you need to collect to find answers to your research questions)

You can examine the professional field of your choice in the context of the four Ps in

order to identify anything that looks interesting.

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

Steps in Research Process:

1. Formulating the Research Problem

Considerations in selecting a research problem:

i. Interest: a research endeavour is usually time consuming, and involves hard work

and possibly unforeseen problems. One should select topic of great interest to

sustain the required motivation.

ii. Magnitude: It is extremely important to select a topic that you can manage within

the time and resources at your disposal. Narrow the topic down to something

manageable, specific and clear.

iii. Measurement of concepts: Make sure that you are clear about the indicators and

measurement of concepts (if used) in your study.

iv. Level of expertise: Make sure that you have adequate level of expertise for the

task you are proposing since you need to do the work yourself.

v. Relevance: Ensure that your study adds to the existing body of knowledge, bridges

current gaps and is useful in policy formulation. This will help you to sustain

interest in the study.

vi. Availability of data: Before finalizing the topic, make sure that data are available.

vii. Ethical issues: How ethical issues can affect the study population and how ethical

problems can be overcome should be thoroughly examined at the problem

formulating stage.

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

Steps in Research Process:

1. Formulating the Research Problem

Steps in formulation of a research problem :

• Working through these steps pre-supposes a reasonable level of knowledge in

the broad subject area within which the study is to be undertaken.

• Without such knowledge it is difficult to clearly and adequately ‘dissect’ a

subject area.

Step 1 Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you

Step 2 Dissect the broad area into sub areas

Step 3 Select what is of most interest to you

Step 4 Raise research questions

Step 5 Formulate objectives

Step 6 Assess your objectives

Step 7 Double check

So far we have focused on the research problem. But every study in social sciences has

a second element, the study population from whom the required information to find

answers to your research questions is obtained. As you narrow the research problem,

similarly you need to decide very specifically who constitutes your study population,

in order to select the appropriate respondents.

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

2. Extensive Literature Review

• Literature review is integral part of entire research process and makes

valuable contribution to every operational step.

• Reviewing literature can be time-consuming, daunting and frustrating, but

is also rewarding.

• Its functions are

i. Bring clarity and focus to your research problem

ii. Improve your methodology

iii. Broaden your knowledge

iv. Contextualize your findings

• Procedure for reviewing the literature

i. search for existing literature in your area of study

ii. review the literature selected

iii. develop a theoretical framework

iv. develop a conceptual framework

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

3. Developing the objectives

• Objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your study.

• They inform a reader what you want to attain through the study.

• It is extremely important to word them clearly and specifically.

• Objectives should be listed under two headings:

i. Main objectives: It is an overall statement of the thrust of your study.

ii. Sub-objectives: The sub-objectives are the specific aspects of the topic

that you want to investigate within the main framework of your study.

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

Steps in Research Process:

4. Preparing the Research Design including Sample Design

• Research design is the conceptual structure within which research would

be conducted.

• The function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant

information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.

• The preparation of research design, appropriate for a particular research

problem, involves the consideration of the following:

i. Objectives of the research study.

ii. Method of Data Collection to be adopted

iii. Source of information—Sample Design

iv. Tool for Data collection

v. Data Analysis - qualitative and quantitative

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

Steps in Research Process:

5. Collecting the Data

• Having formulated the research problem,, developed a study design,

constructed a research instrument and selected a sample, you then collect

the data from which you will draw inferences and conclusions for your

study.

• Depending upon your plans, you might commence interviews, mail out a

questionnaire, conduct experiments and / or make observations.

• Collecting data through any of the methods may involve some ethical

issues in relation to the participants and the researcher like to avoid

personal bias, using inappropriate research methodology, incorrect

reporting, inappropriate use of information etc.

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

Steps in Research Process:

6. Analysis of Data

• Processing and analyzing data involves a number of closely related

operations which are performed with the purpose of summarizing the

collected data and organizing these in a manner that they answer the

research questions (objectives).

• The various steps includes are:

i. Classification and tabulation of data

ii. Qualitative / Quantitative data analysis

iii. Use of Data Analysis Softwares, if any.

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

Steps in Research Process:

7. Generalization and Interpretation

• If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for

the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory.

• As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at

certain generalizations.

• If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain

his findings on the basis of some theory.

• It is known as interpretation.

• The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions

which in turn may lead to further researches.

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

Steps in Research Process:

8. Preparation of the Report or Presentation of Results-Formal write ups of

conclusions reached

• Writing the report is the last, and for many, the most difficult step of the

research process.

• The report informs the world what you have done, what you have

discovered and what conclusions you have drawn from your findings.

• The report should be written in an academic style.

• Language should be formal and not journalistic.

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

© Dr. Jeet Dogra

Compiled and Edited by:

Dr. Jeet Dogra Assistant Professor

Indian Institute of Tourism & Travel Management, Gwalior, India

(An Organization of Ministry of Tourism, Govt. of India)

E-mail: jeetdogra@live.com

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