pharmaceutical processing and manufacturing...
TRANSCRIPT
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MIXING TECNOLOGIES
PAAN PHARMATECH ENGINEERS
PVT. LTD.
Mr.S. D. Botre
(Managing Director)
CELL-+919820103114
Together thinking engineering
out of the box
ChE702 1
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Introduction to Mixing Equipment and Processes in Pharmaceutical Operations
Special Topics - Modules in Pharmaceutical EngineeringChE 702
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3
Objectives
Become familiar with the principles of single and multiphase mixing in pharmaceutical processes
Analyze pharmaceutical processes or in which mixing is important
Provide basic tools to conduct process design analysis and scale-up of processes or in which mixing is important
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ChE702 4
Relevant Topics
Classification of Mixing Processes and Applications
Mixing Equipment
Liquid Mixing Fundamentals
Mixing and Blending in Low Viscosity Liquids
High Viscosity Mixing in Stirred Tanks
Mass Transfer and Mixing
Solid-Liquid Mixing
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ChE702 5
Relevant Topics (continued)
Liquid-Liquid Mixing
Gas-Liquid Mixing
Mixing and Chemical Reactions
Heat Transfer
Jet Mixing
In-Line Mixing
Mechanical Aspects of Mixing Systems
Special Topics and Applications
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Classification of Mixing Processes and Applications
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ChE702 7
Instructional Objectives of This Section
By the end of this section you will be able to:
Identify basic mixing classes
Develop an appreciation for the importance of mixing in industry
Provide examples of common pharmaceutical mixing processes
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ChE702 8
Definition of Mixing
Textbook definition:
The term “mixing” refers to all those operations that tend to reduce non-uniformity in one or more of the properties of a material in bulk (e.g., concentration, temperature)
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ChE702 9
Example of Mixing Tanks/Reactors
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ChE702 10
Definition of Fluid Mixing
“Fluid mixing” refers to mixing operations in which the continuous phase is a fluid
Although a gas can be used as a fluid (e.g., fluidization) a liquid is typically the continuous phase in fluid mixing processes
In the rest of this course a liquid phase will always be the continuous phase
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ChE702 11
Single-Phase vs. Multiphase Mixing
Single-phase mixing refers to mixing of miscible fluids. This operations is typically called “blending”
Multiphase mixing refers to mixing immiscible phases, i.e.:
solid-liquid mixing
liquid-liquid mixing
gas-liquid mixing
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ChE702 12
Importance of Mixing in the Pharmaceutical Industry
Mixing of a fluid with other media (solids, liquids) is an extremely common operation encountered in countless applications in the pharmaceutical industry
Many pharmaceutical processes require or are greatly enhanced by:
rapid homogenization of miscible components (in single phase systems)
intimate contact between two or more distinct phases (in multiphase systems)
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ChE702 13
Examples of Typical Pharmaceutical Mixing Applications
Blending
Precipitation and Crystallization
Chemical reaction
Fermentation
Solid-liquid suspension
Liquid-liquid emulsification
Gas sparging
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ChE702 14
Economic Impact of Mixing-Related Problems
The impact of poor mixing on industrial applications has been estimated to be at 1-10 billion $/year (1989)
The additional economic impact associated with scale-up and start up problems, waste material and by-products generation has not been estimated yet
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ChE702 15
Mixing as an Objective or a Means to an End
There are operations where mixing itself is the objective of the process
These operations are required to produce homogenization of a system or a product
Examples:
Blending of gasoline in large storage tanks
Dispersion of pigments in paint
Uniform and stable suspension of API particles in an oral liquid dosage form
Formation of stable liquid-liquid emulsions
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ChE702 16
However, in most pharmaceutical processes involving mixing, mixing is just a means to achieve a process objective
In this case mixing is typically required to effectively conduct a primary process (NOT to be limited by mixing)
Mixing as an Objective or a Means to an End
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ChE702 17
Examples of processes possibly affected by mixing:Dissolution of an intermediate in a stirred vessel
prior to reaction (mass transfer) Precipitation of API or intermediate (crystallization)Minimization of impurity formation during
synthesis of a drug product (parallel/consecutive homogeneous reaction)
Suspension of a catalyst during heterogeneous catalysis (mass transfer + heterogeneous reaction)
Preparation of nano/micro-particles or droplets of desired particle size distribution (particle size control)
Achievement of a uniform temperature in a crystallizer and temperature control (heat transfer)
Mixing as an Objective or a Means to an End
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ChE702 18
Mixing as an Objective or a Means to an End
Mixing operation may involve:
single phase liquids (e.g., blending of miscible solutions, fast chemical parallel reactions and impurity formation)
multiphase systems (e.g., solid dispersion/suspension, emulsification)
Mixing can improve both single-phase and mulpiphase processes
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ChE702 19
Example: interfacial mass transfer
CVakCCAkm LvLbulkinterfaceL
Mixing as a Means to an End
Cinterface
Cbulk
A
kL
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ChE702 20
Example: interfacial mass transfer
Mixing affects: state of dispersion or suspension of the
dispersed phase, i.e., degree of macroscopic homogeneity of the dispersed phase throughout the continuous phase ( VL, C)
specific interfacial area (av), and overall interfacial area (A)
mass transfer coefficient at the interface (kL)
CVakCCAkm LvLbulkinterfaceL
Mixing as a Means to an End
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ChE702 21
Mass Transfer Operations in Mixing Processes
All mass transfer processes are enhanced by:
high mass transfer coefficients
large interfacial area
Mixing can contribute to achieve both
However, most mixing operations are associated with the generation of interfacial (contact) area
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ChE702 22
Classification of Mixing Processes
System Operation
Homogeneous liquid
Pumping, recirculation, heat transfer
Miscible liquids Blending
Solid-liquid Suspension
Liquid-liquid (immiscible liquids)
Dispersion
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ChE702 23
Mass Transfer Operations in Mixing Processes
System Mass Transfer Operation
Homogeneous liquid
-
Miscible liquids Turbulent and molecular diffusion
Solid-liquid Adsorption, ion exchange leaching, dissolution
Liquid-liquid (immiscible liquids)
Extraction
Gas-liquid Absorption, stripping
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ChE702 24
Reactions in Mixing Processes
System Reaction
Homogeneous liquid
-
Miscible liquids Homogeneous reaction
Solid-liquid Heterogeneous reaction, catalysis, precipitation,
crystallization Liquid-liquid
(immiscible liquids) Heterogeneous reaction
Gas-liquid Gas-liquid reaction
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ChE702 25
Single vs. Multiple Mixing Requirements
Mixing problems can involve:a single mixing requirement (e.g.,
suspend solids)
multiple simultaneous mixing requirements (e.g., suspend solids, homogenize liquid phase, promote solid-liquid mass transfer, transfer heat)
Even multiple requirements are typically satisfied by the use of a single impeller
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ChE702 26
Example of Multiple Mixing Requirements: Crystallizers
In crystallizers a successful process depends on:
heat transfer (for supersaturation)
bulk blending (for homogenization)
solids suspension (for crystal growth)
effective mass transfer (for crystal growth)
possible gas removal (boiling systems)
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ChE702 27
Critical Mixing Process
Whenever a process involving a mixing operation is analyzed one should ask:
is mixing a critical component of the process?
if multiple, simultaneous mixing requirements are present which one is the most critical?
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Mixing Equipment
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ChE702 29
By the end of this section you will be able to:
Identify basic types of mixing equipment
Describe main components of mixing equipment
Describe main features and characteristics of mixing equipment
Instructional Objective of This Section
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ChE702 30
Classification of Mixing Equipment
Mixing is typically conducted with:
mechanically stirred tanks
jet mixed tanks
in-line dynamic mixers
in-line static mixers
high-shear mixing equipment
mixing equipment for highly viscous materials (e.g., polymers)
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ChE702 31
Mechanically Stirred Tanks and Reactors
Baffle
Motor
Gearbox
Shaft
Impeller
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ChE702 32
Drive (Motor-Gearbox) Assembly
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ChE702 33
Mechanically Stirred Tanks and Reactors: Symbols
D
T
H
Cb
B
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ChE702 34
Mechanically Stirred Tanks and Reactors: Symbols
T
H
Cb
S23
S12
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ChE702 35
Tank shape = cylindrical (occasionally square cross section)
T = Internal diameter of tank
HT = Internal height of tank
H = Z = Liquid height
B = Baffle width
Mechanically Stirred Tanks: Nomenclature
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ChE702 36
Shape of tank bottom (flat, dished, conical, hemispherical)
Baffle length (full, half)
Number of baffles
Baffle position
Gap between baffles and tank (B)
Gap between baffles and tank bottom
Mechanically Stirred Tanks : Other Geometric Characteristics
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ChE702 37
Baffles
Baffles are typically introduced to prevent vortex formation and convert tangential (rotational) flow into axial (vertical) flow
Baffles are always used in turbulent flow systems (low viscosity fluids)
Baffles are not used in laminar flow (high viscosity fluids)
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ChE702 38
Baffles
Typically four baffles are used (occasionally three) in fully baffled tanks
In glass-lined tanks a single baffle placed midway between the tank wall and the impeller may be used
A gap between the baffles and the wall is introduced to prevent stagnation behind the baffles and accumulation of material (e.g., solids)
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ChE702 39
Typical Baffle Arrangement in a Stirred Tank
Baffle
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ChE702 40
Typical Baffle Arrangement in a Glass-Lined Tank
Single
Baffle
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ChE702 41
Baffles and Vortexing
Baffled tank:
No vortex
Unbaffled tank:
Vortex
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ChE702 42
The “Standard” Tank
H/T = 1
D/T = 1/3
C/D = 1
B/T = 1/10 (academic) or 1/12 (industry)
Number of baffles = 4
Baffle length = full
B/T =1/72 or 1/100
Bottom shape = flat
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ChE702 43
Impellers
After Oldshue, 1984
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ChE702 44
Impeller Types
Impeller can be classified as follows:
radial impellers (e.g, Rushton turbines, paddles, flat-blade turbines, Smith impellers)
axial impellers (e.g., marine propellers, pitched-blade turbines, fluidfoil impellers such as HE-3s, A-310s)
close-clearance impeller (e.g., anchors, helical ribbons, gates)
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ChE702 45
Radial Impellers
Radial impellers pump radially.
They are used primarily with low-viscosity liquids in baffled tanks.
Disk turbines can be used for gas dispersion.
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ChE702 46
Radial Impellers
Common types include:
Rushton turbine (6-blade disk turbine)
paddle
flat-blade turbines
curve-blade turbine
retreat-blade turbine
Smith impeller
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ChE702 47
Examples of Radial Flow Impellers
After Tatterson, 1991
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ChE702 48
Examples of Radial Flow Impellers
Disk Turbine (Rushton Turbine)
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ChE702 49
Examples of Radial Flow Impellers
Flat-blade turbine (Source: Chemineer)
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Piero M. Armenante ChE702 50
Example of Radial Flow Impeller for High Shear Applications
R500 Sawtooth Impeller (Source: Lightnin)
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Piero M. Armenante ChE702 51
Example of Radial Flow Impeller for Gas Dispersion
Concave-Blade Turbine (Smith Turbine)
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ChE702 52
Example of Radial Flow Impeller for Gas Dispersion
Concave-Blade Turbine (Smith Turbine)
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ChE702 53
Flow Generated by Radial Impellers
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ChE702 54
Flow Generated by a Radial Impeller in a Stirred Tank
After Tatterson, 1991
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ChE702 55
Axial Impellers
Axial impellers pump primarily (but not exclusively) vertically, either upwards or downwards.
They are used mainly with low-viscosity liquids in baffled tanks.
They are typically used in a downpumping mode.
High-solidity impellers are used with gas.
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ChE702 56
Pitch Ratio in Axial Impellers
The pitch-to-diameter ratio (or “pitch ratio”) is the ratio of the distance the impeller would advance per rotation to the impeller diameter
In constant pitch impellers (e.g., propellers) the angle of attach changes along the blade; in variable pitch impellers (e.g, 45° pitched-blade turbine) the angle is constant
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ChE702 57
Constant vs. Variable Pitch
Constant Pitch
(Variable angle
of attack)
Variable Pitch
(Constant angle
of attack)
After Oldshue, 1984
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ChE702 58
Axial Impellers
Common types include:
marine propeller
pitched-blade turbine
fluidfoil impeller (e.g., Chemineer HE3, Lightning A-310)
high-solidity ratio impellers (e.g., Prochem)
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ChE702 59
Examples of Axial Flow Impellers
After Tatterson, 1991
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ChE702 60
Examples of Axial Flow Impellers
Pitched-Blade Turbine
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ChE702 61
Example of Axial Flow (Hydrofoil) Impeller
Chemineer SC-3 Impeller
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ChE702 62
Example of Axial Flow (Hydrofoil) Impeller
Chemineer HE-3 Impeller
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ChE702 63
Example of Axial Flow (Hydrofoil) Impeller
Chemineer HE-3 Impeller
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ChE702 64
Example of Axial Flow (Hydrofoil) Impeller
Maxflow W Impeller
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ChE702 65
Example of Glassed Impellers
De Dietrich
GlasLock System
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ChE702 66
Flow Generated by Axial Impellers
Flow generated by
true axial impellers
(~propeller, A-310, HE-3)
Flow generated by
mixed-flow impellers
(e.g., 45° pitched-
blade turbine)
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ChE702 67
Flow Generated by an Axial Impeller in a Stirred Tank
After Tatterson, 1991
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ChE702 68
Close-Clearance Impellers
Close-clearance impellers are primarily used with high-viscosityfluids in unbaffled tanks.
Close-clearance impellers scrape fluid off the tank wall and off the impeller.
They generate a complex flow pattern and have a pumping action similar to that of a displacement pump.
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ChE702 69
Close-Clearance Impellers
Common close-clearance impeller types include:
anchors
helical ribbons
gates
kneaders
Z- and sigma-blade impellers
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ChE702 70
Examples of Close Clearance Impellers
Anchor Impeller
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ChE702 71
Examples of Close Clearance Impellers
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ChE702 72
Examples of Close Clearance Impellers
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ChE702 73
Examples of Close Clearance Impellers
Double Helical Ribbon Impeller
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ChE702 74
Examples of Close Clearance Impellers
Auger Impeller
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ChE702 75
Examples of Close Clearance Impellers
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ChE702 76
Examples of Close Clearance Agitation System
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ChE702 77
Blending Capabilities of Different Impellers
Impeller Viscosity Range
Open Impellers < 100,000 cP
- Propellers < 200 cP
- Turbines < 5000 cP
- Paddles < 100,000 cP
Anchors < 50,000
Helical Ribbons > 30,000
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ChE702 78
Characteristics of Common Radial Impellers
Rushton turbines (Disk turbine, R-100). Strong radial flow, high power consumption, significant shear, good for gas dispersion
Smith impeller. Similar in performance to Rushton turbine, but particularly well suited for gas dispersion
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ChE702 79
Characteristics of Common Radial Impellers
Paddles. Simple and inexpensive, medium-to-strong radial flow and shear, intermediate power consumption, good for simple applications at small-to-medium scales
Flat-blade turbines. Similar to paddles but with stronger radial flow power, consumption, and shear. Used in transition flow.
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ChE702 80
Characteristics of Common Radial Impellers
Curve-blade turbine. Similar to flat-blade turbines
Retreat-blade impeller (Pfaudler, De Dietrich types). Simpler construction suitable for glass-lined vessels; reduced power and flow
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ChE702 81
Characteristics of Common Axial Impellers
Marine propeller (A-100). Oldest constant-pitched impeller, usually cast (cannot be easily inserted in a manhole), expensive, low power consumption, high pumping rate
Pitched-blade turbine (A-200).Very common, simple, usually 45°, effective for solid suspension; mixed flow; medium power consumption, good pumping rate
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ChE702 82
Characteristics of Common Axial Impellers
Fluidfoil impellers. Many types exist (Chemineer HE-3, Lightning A-310); expensive, near constant pitch for improved axial flow, low power consumption, high pumping rate
High-solidity ratio impellers.Many types exist (e.g., Maxchem); low-to-medium power consumption, high pumping rate, “streamlined”
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ChE702 83
Characteristics of Common Close-Clearance Impellers
Anchor impellers (A-400). Good for blending and heat transfer for liquids with 5000 cP < < 50,000 cP
Helical ribbon. Good for blending high viscosity liquids (up to 25·106
cP)
Gates. Used in large “squat” tanks.
Kneaders, Z- and sigma-blade impellers. Used to mix pastes
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ChE702 84
D = Impeller diameter
C = Impeller clearance off the tank bottom measured from the impeller center
Cb = Impeller clearance off the tank bottom measured from the bottom of the impeller
Sij = distance between i and jimpellers
Impellers: Nomenclature
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ChE702 85
L = Impeller blade length
w = Impeller blade width
wb = Impeller blade width projected along the vertical axis
Sij = distance between impellers i and j
= Blade angle of attack (if constant)
Pitch
Impellers: Nomenclature
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ChE702 86
Rushton Turbine
L/D=1/4
w/D=1/5
Disk diameter=
3/4·D or 2/3 ·D
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ChE702 87
45° Pitched-Blade Turbine
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ChE702 88
Typical Ranges for Geometric Variables
T = 0.1 m to 10 m (0.3’-33’)
H/T = 0.3 to 1.2 for single impeller systems
D/T = 1/5 to 2/3
C/D 1
B/T = 1/10 to 1/12
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ChE702 89
Jet Mixers
Jet mixers rely on the use of a jet, i.e., a stream of liquid injected at high velocity in the bulk of another miscible liquid.
This is typically achieved with an external recirculation pump
Jet mixers are used in:
tanks
tubes and pipes
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ChE702 90
Jet Mixer
External recirculation line
Pump
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ChE702 91
Jet Mixers in Tanks
Jet mixers are typically used in large tanks.
Jet mixers are used for blending purposes (e.g., gasoline) or to suspend solids in unusual processes (e.g., radioactive material slurry).
Typically one or more jets are placed at an angle to provide good recirculation.
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ChE702 92
Axial Jets in Mixing Tanks
Poorly mixed zone
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ChE702 93
Angled Jets in Mixing Tanks
Poorly mixed zone
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ChE702 94
In-Line Mixers
In-line mixers are small mixing devices placed in the same line where the materials to be mixed are flowing.
Two types of in-line mixers exist:
dynamic mixers, where the mixing energy is provided from the outside
static (motionless) mixers where the fluid itself provides the mixing energy
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ChE702 95
In-Line Dynamic Mixers
In-line dynamic mixers consist of small high-speed mixers placed inside a casing fed with a continuous stream of the materials to be mixed.
The residence time of in-line mixers is usually of the order of seconds.
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ChE702 96
Example of a Dynamic In-Line Mixer
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ChE702 97
Example of In-Line, High Shear, Homogenizing Mixer
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ChE702 98
Example of a Two-Stage Rotor Stator for In-Line High Shear Mixer
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ChE702 99
Applications of Dynamic In-Line Mixers
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ChE702 100
In-Line Static Mixers
Static mixers consist of mirror image inserts (elements) placed inside a pipe, capable of altering the fluid flow, and rearranging the distribution of fluid elements across the pipe cross section.
Static mixers are only capable of homogenizing the content of the pipe across its cross section but not along its length.
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ChE702 101
Static Mixers
Source: Chemineer
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ChE702 102
Classification of Static Mixers
Static mixers are classified according to the flow regime under which they operate.
Static mixers are available for:
laminar flow
transitional flow
turbulent flow
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ChE702 103
Static Mixers for Laminar Flow
In laminar flow the only mechanism for radial mixing is molecular diffusion.
Each element in a laminar static mixers typically produces spit and a rotation (90°or 180°) of the flow, which is then fed to the next element.
Such actions result in further sub-divisions of the flow and the generation of striations leading to mixing.
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ChE702 104
Static Helical Mixer for Laminar Flow
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ChE702 105
Static Helical Mixer for Laminar Flow
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ChE702 106
Static Helical Mixer for Laminar Flow
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ChE702 107
Static Mixers forTurbulent Flow
In turbulent flow, turbulent eddies are responsible for radial mixing
Flow in open pipes produces radial mixing if enough pipe length is provided (at least 100 pipe diameters)
Static mixers for turbulent flow rely on vortex generation to produce mixing
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ChE702 108
Static Vortex Mixer forTurbulent Flow
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ChE702 109
Static Vortex Mixer forTurbulent Flow
Source: Chemineer
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ChE702 110
Static Vortex Mixer forTurbulent Flow
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ChE702 111
High-Shear Mixing Equipment
High-shear mixers are devices used to generate high velocity gradients across small distances (resulting in high shear stress and shear rates) in order to disperse, break up, or homogenize a second immiscible phase.
Different devices base on different physical mechanisms are used to produce high shear.
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ChE702 112
High-Shear Equipment
High shear equipment include:
(high speed) rotor-stator devices
valve homogeneizers, such as:
valve homogeneizers
ultrasonic homogenizers
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ChE702 113
High-Speed, High-Shear Rotor-Stator Mixer
High-speed rotor-stator mixers are devices in which a rotor rotates at high speed inside a casing provided with slots. A small gap exists between the rotor and the stator.
As the liquid (and its dispersed phase) move through the rotor-stator assembly they are subjected to high shear, resulting in break up effects.
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ChE702 114
High-Speed, High-Shear Rotor-Stator Mixer
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ChE702 115
Example of High-Speed, High-Shear Rotor-Stator Mixer
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ChE702 116
Example of High-Speed, High-Shear Rotor-Stator Mixer
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ChE702 117
Example of High-Speed, High-Shear Rotor-Stator Mixer
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ChE702 118
Colloid Mills
Colloid mills are in-line machines designed to finely homogenize, disperse solids, and emulsify immiscible liquids
Mixing head consist of a rotor and a stator separated by an extremely small gap (0.001-0.03 in.)
Stirring speed are usually extremely high (2000-14,000 rpm)
Flow rates are usually small (as a result of the small rotor-stator gap)
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ChE702 119
Colloid Mill
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ChE702 120
Colloid Mill
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ChE702 121
Colloid Mill
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ChE702 122
Colloid Mill
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ChE702 123
Valve Homogenizers
Valve homogenizers pump material at high pressure (30-500 bar) through small orifices.
The high velocity in the orifices produces high shear.
The equipment operates in line and can be used to produce emulsions, dispersion, and suspensions.
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ChE702 124
Valve Homogenizer
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ChE702 125
Example of Valve Homogenizer
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ChE702 126
Ultrasonic Homogenizers
Ultrasonic homogenizers pump material at high pressure (up to 150 bar) through a small orifice placed in front of a vibrating ultrasonic blade.
The high velocity in the orifice produces high shear, and the blade produces microcavitation that results in emulsions, dispersion, and suspensions of the dispersed phase.
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ChE702 127
Ultrasonic Homogenizer
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ChE702 128
Basic Mechanisms in Laminar Flow Mixing
Laminar shear
Elongation and extensional flow
Distributive mixing
Molecular diffusion
Stresses in laminar flow
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ChE702 129
Mixing Equipment for Highly Viscous Materials
Equipment for highly viscous material (such as pastes, dough, plastics) include:
kneaders
single-screw extruders
twin-screw extruders
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ChE702 130
Double-Arm Kneader
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ChE702 131
Single-Screw Extruder
Feed
Hopper
Die
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ChE702 132
Twin-Screw Extruder
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ChE702 133
Single-Screw Extruder
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ChE702 134
Screw Design to Enhance Mixing/Compounding Capability in Single Screw Extruders
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ChE702 135
Twin-Screw Extruder with Clam-Shell Barrel Design
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ChE702 136
Gear Mixing Elements in a Twin-Screw Extruder
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ChE702 137
Kneading Paddles in a Twin-Screw Extruder
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ChE702 138
Final Remarks About Impellers
No universal “optimal” impeller design exists
Each process needs to be analyzed to determine what are the controlling mechanisms
Impellers can be designed to optimize the process