phd-net: methodology programme - circle … · web viewit is a style of research which also...

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Leeds Metropolitan University

University of Applied Sciences Vorarlberg

Graduate School of Business & Economics Zagreb

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY PROGRAMME (RMP)

MRES / MPHIL / PHD

V 1.4 Wednesday, 18 January 2006

Research Methodology Programme PhD-Net

Contents

MONDAY.....................................................................................................................6

1. Ethics..................................................................................................................71.1 Overview................................................................................................71.2 Positivism.............................................................................................101.3 Phenomenology....................................................................................121.4 Ethnography.........................................................................................121.5 Techniques or Philosophy?..................................................................131.6 Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research..................................................141.7 Does it matter which approach is adopted?.........................................161.8 Research Philosophies – Reading List.................................................181.9 Approaches to Research - Academic vs. Journalistic Studies..............201.10 Abstract................................................................................................21

2. Philosophy........................................................................................................223. Proposals..........................................................................................................22

3.1 Research process.................................................................................223.2 Structure of the research proposal.......................................................23

3.2.1 Working title.........................................................................233.2.2 Aim.......................................................................................233.2.3 Objectives............................................................................233.2.4 Background (Selection and justification of the topic)............243.2.5 Proposed method.................................................................243.2.6 Potential outcomes...............................................................243.2.7 Key references and bibliography..........................................24

3.3 Supervisors..........................................................................................243.3.1 Allocation of supervisors......................................................243.3.2 Responsibilities....................................................................25

4. Staying the course / motivation......................................................................254.1 Types of Needs....................................................................................26

4.1.1 Innate needs........................................................................264.1.2 Acquired needs....................................................................26

4.2 Goals....................................................................................................264.2.1 Generic Goals......................................................................264.2.2 Product-Specific Goals.........................................................26

4.3 The Selection of Goals.........................................................................274.3.1 Substitute Goal.....................................................................274.3.2 Positive Motivation...............................................................274.3.3 Negative Motivation..............................................................274.3.4 Approach Goal.....................................................................274.3.5 Avoidance Goals..................................................................27

4.4 Rational Versus Emotional Motives......................................................284.5 The Dynamic Nature of Motivation.......................................................284.6 Arousal of Motives................................................................................294.7 Types and Systems of Needs...............................................................29

4.7.1 Hierarchy of Needs..............................................................304.7.2 An Evaluation of the Need Hierarchy...................................31

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4.7.3 A Trio of Needs....................................................................314.8 Motivational Research..........................................................................32

5. Forms................................................................................................................335.1 University Research Degree Forms.....................................................335.2 Form R1 Application for Registration for Research Diploma, MSc by

Research, MPhil, MPhil/PhD, PhD.......................................................345.3 Form R2T (A) Application to Transfer Registration from MPhil to PhD,

etc.........................................................................................................455.4 References...........................................................................................525.5 Procedures for the Ethical clearance of research involving Human

Participants...........................................................................................535.6 Research ethics release form: staff......................................................545.7 Research ethics release form: student.................................................565.8 Policy, procedures and guidance notes for research ethics.................585.9 Request for ethical approval.................................................................73

TUESDAY..................................................................................................................816. Thinking about research.................................................................................83

6.1 What is research?.................................................................................836.2 Why research?.....................................................................................846.3 What is original?...................................................................................84

6.3.1 Verifiability of methods.........................................................846.3.2 Objectivity.............................................................................846.3.3 Disclosement of the sources................................................846.3.4 Understandable argumentation............................................846.3.5 Free accessible results........................................................846.3.6 Accuracy, reliability..............................................................846.3.7 Consistency..........................................................................85

7. Criteria for identifying an original topic.........................................................857.1 Questioning the research idea..............................................................857.2 What are you planning to do?...............................................................867.3 Research questions..............................................................................86

8. Planning the research project........................................................................868.1 Topic Selection.....................................................................................868.2 What is a dissertation?.........................................................................878.3 Types of dissertations...........................................................................888.4 Structure of the dissertation..................................................................888.5 Keeping a research diary......................................................................918.6 Time Management................................................................................918.7 Mapping the project..............................................................................93

9. Basic reading strategies.................................................................................949.1 Reading process...................................................................................949.2 Techniques of creative reading............................................................959.3 Taking notes.........................................................................................96

9.3.1 Photo copy...........................................................................969.3.2 Excerpt.................................................................................969.3.3 File card...............................................................................96

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9.3.4 Data bank.............................................................................979.3.5 Concordance book mark......................................................979.3.6 Tray......................................................................................979.3.7 Textual structure..................................................................97

10. Planning the literature search........................................................................9710.1 Searching information sources.............................................................97

10.1.1 Scientific journals.................................................................9710.1.2 Anthology.............................................................................9810.1.3 Text book, initiation..............................................................9810.1.4 Hand book............................................................................9810.1.5 Monograph...........................................................................9810.1.6 Pamphlets............................................................................98

10.2 Search techniques................................................................................9810.2.1 Snowball system..................................................................9810.2.2 Hand books and subject dictionary......................................9910.2.3 Bibliographic classification (systematic)...............................9910.2.4 Bibliographies.......................................................................9910.2.5 Book trading catalogs...........................................................9910.2.6 Online recherche..................................................................99

10.3 Critical review of the literature............................................................100

11. Recommended literature & links..................................................................100

WEDNESDAY.........................................................................................................10212. Data collection...............................................................................................103

12.1 Sampling issues & sampling methods................................................104

13. Data collection techniques...........................................................................10713.1 Qualitative techniques........................................................................10713.2 Quantitative techniques & Experiments..............................................109

13.2.1 Questionnaire.....................................................................10913.2.2 Structured Interview...........................................................11013.2.3 Survey................................................................................11013.2.4 Telephone Survey..............................................................11013.2.5 Mail Survey........................................................................11113.2.6 Email Surveys....................................................................11113.2.7 Web Page Surveys............................................................11213.2.8 Interview.............................................................................11213.2.9 Depth Interview..................................................................11313.2.10 Thematic Interview.............................................................11313.2.11 Computer Direct Interviews................................................11413.2.12 Narrative Record................................................................11413.2.13 Observation........................................................................11413.2.14 Naturalistic Observation.....................................................11613.2.15 Systematic Observation.....................................................11613.2.16 Focus group.......................................................................11613.2.17 Case Study.........................................................................11713.2.18 Content Analysis................................................................11713.2.19 Objective Test....................................................................11813.2.20 Projective Test...................................................................118

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13.2.21 Psycho-physiological Measurement...................................11913.3 Experiments.......................................................................................120

13.3.1 Experimental method.........................................................12013.3.2 Correlational method..........................................................120

THURSDAY.............................................................................................................12314. Data analysis..................................................................................................124

14.1 Quantitative data analysis..................................................................12414.1.1 Steps..................................................................................12414.1.2 Coding & Error checking....................................................12414.1.3 Index building & scaling.....................................................12514.1.4 Statistical analysis..............................................................128

14.2 Qualitative data analysis.....................................................................13814.2.1 Steps..................................................................................13814.2.2 Preparation methods..........................................................13814.2.3 Analysis methods...............................................................139

15. Data interpretation.........................................................................................141

FRIDAY...................................................................................................................14216. Writing for publications.................................................................................14317. Publication strategy.......................................................................................14418. Assessment....................................................................................................14419. Plagiarism........................................................................................................144

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MONDAY

Topic: Introductory elements

Leader: Alex KenyonMembers: Frederic Fredersdorf, Jürgen Polke, Regine Bolter, Wolfgang Kremser

Agenda:

Time Contents9.00 – 9.30 Introduction

9.30 – 10.30 Ethics Leeds Met liability With participants With self Morale Data capture/confidentiality Show forms + ask students to complete

11.00 – 12.00 Philosophy Approach Stance across paradigm

01.00 – 03.00 Proposal Differences R1 & R2 transfer report What happens at the committee + feedback? Case study + group work

03.30 – 04.30 Feedback by students + discussions Areas missing? Structure

04.30 – 05.30 Staying the course/motivation Semester feedback, conference, facing rejection

Question/Answers

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1. Ethics

<Alex>

1.1 OverviewProf. (FH) Dr. Frederic Fredersdorf, University of Applied Sciences Vorarlberg (2004), [email protected]

i) The conventional sequence of events in the organisation of a research programme is illustrated in Figure 1. An early task is to make a decision on the research methodology to be employed – in everyday language the method of study through which the research outcomes are to be achieved – the “Design Study” box. In order to make this decision the alternative research method, philosophies and techniques available to the researcher have to be evaluated so as to select the most appropriate approach to the questions being asked in the research programme. Choices have to be made between, for example, qualitative or quantitative techniques; between experimental, survey based or ethnographic approaches and so on. All research techniques have both strengths and weaknesses. In some areas of study the choice will be severely constrained by conventional wisdom e.g. in the natural sciences there will be great pressure on the researcher to use the positivist approach expressed in experimentation and based on a objective, quantitative philosophy. The correct choice of research method is important because it will, among other things, affect the view others will take of the validity of the results obtained.

ii) Any serious discussion of research philosophy, technique and methodology is going to encounter a considerable vocabulary of specialist terms and definitions. It will be useful, therefore, to have available a list of such terms for reference e.g.

a. Research Philosophy: this refers to general methodology. The word “philosophy” is of itself quite hard to define in a way which would be universally accepted, but a working definition might be a reflection upon experience or a rational consideration of topics. It is a type of mental operation which can take any subject (e.g. research) as its theme. The philosophy of research design relates to issues about the relationships between theory and data. Science and philosophy have, in effect, a common theme – to achieve a greater understanding of the world. The philosophy of science tries to elucidate those elements involved in the process of scientific inquiry and to evaluate them from the point of view of logic and methodology. According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica (1982) various philosophical interpretations have implied different testing procedures for assessing the relative merits of alternative hypotheses. Thus no clear line can be drawn between the philosophical standpoint upon theories and the use of various procedures (see section 3.5 below).

b. Theory: a theory is a systematic structure emerging from imagination; it is a systematic explanatory scheme; theories generally incorporate a set of

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mailto:[email protected]


empirical laws regarding observed regularities in events und represents a structure suggested by these laws which is able to explain them in a rational manner EB (1982) i.e. a theory is able to make sense of regularities observed in events or give a generally accepted explanation of them. Therefore, empirical laws and theories need not always amount to the same thing because while both empirical laws and theories can usually be tested by observation it is at least conceivable that some theories may contain concepts or ideas which cannot be observed.

c. Paradigm: a paradigm is a basic orientation to theory and research; it is a system of thinking which constrains the way in which researchers look for evidence; a paradigm is according to Bryman (1988; P4) “a cluster of beliefs and dictates which for scientists in a particular discipline influence what should be studied, how research should bed done”. Accordingly, it can be quite risky for a researcher – particularly a new one – to employ a paradigm which is different from the one generally accepted in their particular discipline – see section 3.7.

d. Scientific Method: refers to a set of intellectual procedures that investigators employ; it is not one single thing; it refers to rules and techniques approved the scientific community; derived from the approach used in the natural sciences; often equated with positivism, in fact, to many scientists the positivist approach is the only genuine scientific method (see Section 3.2 below).

e. Quantitative Method : research based on objective, numerical measurement of facts; statistical and often experimental; again often associated with the positivist approach.

f. Qualitative Method: research based on non-numerical or even non-measurable evidence; based on the researcher’s judgement of situations; descriptive approach.

g. Phenomenalism (not to be confused with phemenomenology (see 3.3 below): a doctrine which contends that phenomena are the only true objects of knowledge and that underlying realities can never be known.

h. Analytic Propositions: statements which must be true by virtue of the meanings given to terms they contain e.g. 2 + 3 = 5.

i. Positivism: holds that all knowledge is based on the positive (objective) data of experience and evidence. This approach is described in more detail in Section 3.2 below. Many commentators would equate positivism with a scientific approach.

j. Ethnography: originally meant the description of the institutions and customs of people; today is used to refer to writings about a way of life or a field study. This approach is described in more detail in section 3.4 below.

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k. „Critical Theory” (German representatives as Thodor W. Adorno or Jürgen Habermas founded the so called „Frankfurt School”): In dependence on a dialectical approach (it is) a scientific tradition of interpreting reality, following the figure “thesis / antithesis / synthesis”. Critical Theory often argues with (social, political, economical, pedagogical e.g.) contradictions directed towards discovering improvable circumstances.

l. Deductive: an approach which starts with an abstract idea and proceeds to the evidence.

m. Inductive: an approach which starts with observation and data collection out of which a theory is constructed. Theoretical generalisation, which is generated by an inductive approach, is sometimes called grounded theory.

n. Metaphysics : an inquiry into what exists in reality; it is the science of what is ultimately real as opposed to what just appears to be; tends to be highly speculative and deals with untestable ideas. In effect it is the opposite of positivism.

o. Phenomenology (not to be confused with penomenalism): this is an approach to inquiry which holds that objects do not exist as external facts but are shaped by people – this is discussed in more detail in Section 3.3 below.

p. Epistemology: is the science which deals with the origins and method of knowledge. Methodological end epistemology issues are, therefore, concerned with the general manner of approach to issues adapted by the investigators – related to the philosophy adopted. The epistemic status of a theory accordingly refers to the status of a theory from the point of view of the investigatory approach adopted – is it considered sound?

q. Ontology: is the branch of metaphysics which deals with the ideas of pure reality or being – the pure essence of things in abstract. Therefore, the ontological implications of theories relate to how they in turn relate to the natural essence of things.

r. Research strategy/research methodology: the way in which a specific task is carried out and the general principles guiding an investigation respectively.

s. Research technique: the mechanics of an investigation as opposed to the epistemological stance.

t. Objective/objectivity: external to the mind; independent of inner feelings; the tendency to treat subjects of study as apart from one’s own personality; the doctrine that knowledge of objects is superior to that of the ego; related to positivism. Adherents to the positivist approach would see objectivity as being desirable or even essential in a science.

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u. Subjective: the opposite of objective; introspective; derived from one’s own consciousness; the doctrine that all human knowledge is relative und bound by experience.

v. “Truth”: In the field of social sciences there are different interpretations of truth. In a qualitative-hermeneutical tradition “truth” is a subjective phenomenon, depending on life’s in a world of “one’s” own (as a rule it is the truth of peer-group members which social researchers are investigating). In a quantitative-positivism tradition “truth” is the model social researchers have deduced.

1.2 PositivismPositivism first developed its distinctive features in the works of Auguste Comte. It has evolved to be known by a variety of titles all of which express a fixed set of beliefs e.g. empiriocriticism; logical positivism; logical empiricism; analytical and linguistic philosophy. The basic tenets of positivism include:

a. The belief that all knowledge regarding matters of fact are based upon “positive” data, observation an experience.

b. Key words in positivist thought include – data; observability; validation; evaluation; testing; falsification; repudiation; replication.

c. The belief that the growth of knowledge proceeds through the elimination of incorrect ideas.

d. The belief that incorrect ideas can be defined as those which are either logically inconsistent or, most importantly, can be shown to have empirically refutable consequences.

e. That to be called a scientific fact it must be conceivable that evidence can be cited which would refute that fact.

f. The “facts” do exist apart from the personality of the observer.

It followed form the above that positivist researcher prefer precise quantitative data; prefer to carry out controlled experiments or to conduct statistical tests, prefer objective, rigorous and exact measurements; and prefer to test ideas using research techniques using numbers.

According to Popper (1969) all scientific hypotheses must be testable and the only correct way to test an idea is to look for circumstances which the idea does not hold (an opposed to simply collective facts in support of an idea). The scientist must, it is argued, search for unfavourable evidence. It follows therefore, that tests must be set up which can conceivably throw up negative answers. In addition it should always be possible, in a scientific theory, to specify in advance what will count as unfavourable evidence. Therefore, an essential tenet of logical positivism is the so-called verifiability criteria of factual meaningfulness i.e. for a proposition to have any real scientific value it must be possible for it to be shown to be false. This has come to be expressed as the idea of testability or confirmability. Hence the expression “All swans are white” or “All cats have claws” cannot be proven simply by counting swans or cats because you could never be sure you had actually counted the all. The statements should, according to this point of view, be recast into statements which

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would make it possible that a test could be devised to refute them. It is true, nevertheless, that in practice we do accept statements on the basis of partial verification.

In the words of the EB (1982) the “growth of knowledge proceeds through the elimination of error; i.e. through the refutation of hypotheses which are either logically inconsistent or entail empirically refutable consequences”. An extreme positivist view would hold that only studies designed in this way can count as science. Other approaches may be admissible but they cannot be classified as scientific. As Miller (1987) puts it “Positivism is the most common philosophical outlook on science”; or as Bryman (1988, p 13) expressed it “positivism …… is invariable credited with pending the outline of the …… understanding of what science entails”.

It will be anticipated from the proceeding discussion of the essence positivism that there must be some (probably close) link between positivism and quantitative analysis. Not infrequently the two words are used as if they were interchangeable. Again, as Bryman (1988, p 40) expressed it, positivism “reveals itself in quantitative research in particular in the emphasis on facts which are the products of observation …...”

The stress on devising valid and reliable measurement procedures is especially redolent of positivism, particularly in the tenet of phenomenolism, and that “Quantitative research can be seen as linked partly to positivism and partly to a diffuse and general commitment to the practices of the natural scientist”.

The positivist model also is associated with idea of causality – that certain events we caused by changes in various factors – and with a specific research technique called regression analysis which attempts to identify associations between events expressed in statistics. Such a casual model is illustrated in Figure 2 which was used in the well-known study into the UK education system known as the Plowden report (1967).

It follows from the above that researchers who accept the positivist approach do not regard normative statements or value judgements as part of science. In other words, the words “should” or “ought” are not part of a scientific vocabulary. Obviously, it is permissible to express moral imperatives (some might argue that it’s desirable to do so) because such expressions often have a factual content in the sense that outcomes follow action. Positivists, however, argue that the normative element expressed in such value-laden words as “ought” or “should” are not scientifically meaningful. In other words they believe that you can engage in normative discussions or investigations but that you cannot put the label of scientific inquiry upon such activities. The conclusion to which this line of argument leads is, in the words of Keat and Urry (1975) that “there is only one logic of science to which any intellectual activity aspiring to the title of ‘science’ must confirm” – that is positivism.

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1.3 PhenomenologyThe phenomenological tradition is diagrammatically opposed to the positivist philosophy. It holds that the world does not exist as an objective and external fact but is, in contrast, only given meaning by people. This tradition is also entitled interpretative sociology or a qualitative methodology. It gives expression to one of the main critiques of the positivist approach viz. that there are no such things as objective facts. It can be argued that what we accept as “facts” are in reality conditioned by our beliefs. In Neuman’s words (1997, p 46) the argument would be that “We cannot test theories against hard, objective facts because all facts are shaped by our beliefs”; that “Facts we observe are always an imperfect, indirect and distorted representation of what actually exists”. The positivist approach was pioneered in the physical sciences and on the basic questions in extending it to other areas of inquiry, especially social science, is whether or not it make sense to treat people in the same way (in the context of research objects) as you would rocks or chemicals. The contrast between the two approaches can be summed up in the following chart – Figure 3.

Some of the basic tenets of phenomenology are:

a. That the subject matter of social science is different from that of the natural sciences, such as physics or chemistry.

b. That any attempt to understand social realities must be locked in people’s experiences of that reality.

c. That events must be studied in context (this leads towards ethnography – (see Section 3.4)).

d. That insight into phenomena can be obtained by a careful study of collected examples. Therefore, it does not reject universals such as “All swans are white”.

e. Respects the role of intuition and imagination.

This approach does share features with positivism such as a respect for the positive data of experience.

1.4 EthnographyIt is a style of research which also contracts sharply with the positivist approach. Originally the word meant the description of the institutions and customs of people. Today it is used, as an approach to research, primarily by sociologists studying small groups. Its defining characteristics are that it is observational and descriptive; researchers normally participates in the life of the group; it involves watching and recording events in ordinary life; it contains strong subjective and qualitative elements; it requires those being observed to accept the report “as a true account of their way of life” and that the researcher should “provide a description tat is faithful to the world view of the participants in the social context being described”; it may be value laden especially if the observer becomes too involved in the events.

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Some commentators argue that, in practice, the distinction between the ethnographic and the positivist approaches becomes blurred because the former is often not divorced from empiricism due to:

i. Reluctance of researchers to develop theories which implies, to some people, that they are afraid to leave the empirical world of “facts”.

ii. Ethnographic researchers see the subject of their research “a fact” or a vehicle to generate data. Bryman (1988, p 122) comments that there “is” nothing intrinsic to participant observation which renders it inappropriate to testing hypotheses”. Personally, I doubt that these arguments would ever outweigh the objection (to a positivist) that the ethnographic style was too subjective.

1.5 Techniques or Philosophy?The debate about the merits of various approaches can be carried out at (at least) two levels viz. at an epistemological level or a technical level. Can it be assumed that there is always a unique and fixed correlation between the epistemological position and the technical issue of the research techniques? For example, if one considers the debate between the relative merits of quantitative vs. qualitative techniques this can be carried out on a purely pragmatic level (which works best) but can also be indicative of , as Bryman (1988) puts it “a general commitment to the procedures of the natural scientist”. If we consider the list of research techniques in Figure 4, it is clear that they do not all fall neatly into one camp or the other.

Furthermore, it is quite possible for a piece of research to be cast within an entirely appropriate philosophy but utilise inadequate technique (such as a biased sample to too small a sample) and, as a result, produce invalid conclusions. Simply getting the philosophy and general approach correct will not guarantee the validity of results.

The positivist philosophy holds that all proper scientific research should involve the testing of propositions against observations within a test framework which allows for the proposition to be falsified. The approach tends to utilise quantitative data. However, the data may be obtained in a variety of ways and the test maybe carried out in variety of ways. Therefore, the test may take the form of a controlled experiment in a laboratory (especially in the natural sciences) or it maybe a statistical test, such as a multiple regression test (this would be commonly the case in economics, for example). The data or numbers to be utilised in the test might be generated by the experiment itself, or might take the form of secondary data collected by various agencies, or may be collected via surveys or be observation. Some of the techniques of research – such as sue more qualitative data, such as opinions.

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1.6 Qualitative vs. Quantitative ResearchThis issue is closely related to the broad question of the desirability of applying the (positivist) approach of natural science to the social sciences. In the words of Rist (1997, p 62) “When we speak of ‘qualitative’ or ‘quantitative’ methodologies we are in the final analysis speaking of an unrelated set of assumption about the …….. world which are philosophical, ideological and epistemological. They encompass more that simply data gathering techniques”. The main characteristics of qualitative research are:

That the researcher views the world through the eyes of those being studied.That actions must be seen in context – context alters meanings.It is flexible and descriptive.It is longitudinal – takes place over time.It is not wedded to preconceived theories; it is descriptive and lacks a rigid structure.It is grounded in a belief hat the subject matter of social sciences is different from that of the natural sciences (phenomenological viewpoint).

In the words of Hanersley and Atkinson (1995, p 10) “In most of the physical sciences the generalisability of findings ....... presents few problems. However, this seems to be a serious problem in the study of human behaviour ….. People do behave differently according to context”. Some differences between quantitative and qualitative work are shown in the below figures:

Some differences between Quantitative an Qualitative Research Source: Bryman (1988, p 94)

Quantitative Qualitative1 Role of qualitative research preparatory means to

exploration of actors’ interpretation

2 Relationship between researcher an subject

distant close

3 Researcher’s stance in relation to subject

outsider insider

4 Relationship between theory/concepts and research

confirmation emergent

5 Research strategy structured unstructured6 Scope of findings nomothetic ideographic7 Image of social reality static and external

to actorprocessual and socially constructed by actor

8 Nature of data hard, reliable rich, deep

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Quantitative Style versus Qualitative Style Source: Newman (1997, p 14)Quantitative QualitativeMeasure objective facts Construct social reality, cultural meaningFocus on variables Focus on interactive processes, eventsReliability is key Authenticity is keyValue free Values are present and explicitIndependent of context Situational constrainedMany cases, subjects Few cases, subjectsStatistical analysis Thematic analysisResearcher is detached Researcher is involved

New methodological discussions mention the quasi-paradigmatically relationship between qualitative and quantitative approaches. In theory building, data collection and data analysis there are several mutual influences and there is a “grey area” between both scientific kinds of discovering reality. 1 Therefore a social researcher must find and give reasons for selecting his individual approach.

W. Wolf collected arguments in which case it could be better to take a qualitative or a quantitative approach2

a) Qualitative approach:We do not have enough knowledge on the object.Elements of the object cannot be combined structurally.The study generates hypothesises.The study investigates subjective aspects (for example non-verbal behaviour or subjective theories).Data can only be collected by direct observation.

b) Quantitative approach:Because of scientific pre-knowledge the object is sufficiently structured.The study test hypothesises.The study makes statements on collectives and/or populations.We are able to define object areas/dimensions.We are able to operationalize object areas/dimensions.Data can be presented in forms of frequencies, countings and so on.We are able to identify causal factors.

1 For example read: v. Saldern, M.: Zum Verhältnis von qualitativen und quantitativen Methoden, in: König. E. & Zedler, P. [Hg.]: Bilanz qualitativer Forschung, Band I, Weinheim 1995, p.331-372 / Kelle, U. & Erzberger, C.: Qualitative und quantitative Methoden: kein Gegensatz. In: Flick, U., v. Kardorff, E. & Steinke, I. (Hg.): Qualitative Forschung – ein Handbuch. Reinbek 2003, p. 299-308)

2 Wolf, W.: Qualitative versus quantitative Forschung, in: König. E. & Zedler, P. [Hg.]: Bilanz qualitativer Forschung, Band I, Weinheim 1995 / See also: Bortz, J. & Döring, N.: Forschungsmethoden und Evaluation, Berlin 1997, esp. chapter 2.3.3 and chapter 5.

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c) Triangulation approach:1. Triangulation can be used as a validation strategy for to compare results from different points of view3

2. Triangulation can be used in order to complete points of view.

On a meta level – and independent of one of the two strategies as well as of the decision for a qualitative or a quantitative approach – Triangulation can be used regarding theory basis, methods, observer and data4

But concluding the discussion Wolf mentions that a decision for one of the approaches or a mixture of them depends always on the research question and the research subject. We cannot speak about a “right” or “wrong” paradigm.

1.7 Does it matter which approach is adopted?Adopting a valid research philosophy is important for at least two reasons:

1. Different approaches may give different answers not all of which maybe correct i.e. using an inappropriate technique may give false results.

2. On a pragmatic level most researchers invest a lot of time, money and effort in their work and desire that the results of their research be accepted as valid e.g. to pass examination; to obtain a postgraduate award or to have their work accepted for publication or judged a valid by their peer group.

In the words of the ER (1982) “A Scholar may choose to study whatever objects, systems of processes he my please, but only certain of the questions that he asks abut them will be answerable in the general, theoretical terms characteristic of science”. So you can study whatever you like; utilise which ever philosophical approach (e.g. positivism); you like an employ a variety of investigator techniques you like and, in a sense, it does not matter what labels people hang on the work. As we have seen to the logical positivists their approach is the only one worthy of the name scientific work. An analogy might be to consider the phrase “a truly global company”. Some writers have identified the characteristics of such a company and would argue that only “truly global companies” will survive. They may then say Levi Strauss or Benetton do not meet these special characteristics – but I guess no one in the company would care as log as they were making a profit. The label “truly global” does not matter.

However, for most researchers the acid test is “will the examiners approve?” It has to be said that, in practice, the approach and techniques you adopt will be contained by the accepted views of the discipline in which you are working and it will be a brave researcher who goes against those moves e.g. if you are working in physics it is extremely unlikely that you will adopt anything other than the positivist approach and an experimental technique; in the social sciences things maybe different but in modern economics, for example, the same may well be true; in sociology it will be

3 For the first and second criteria see: Flick, U.: Triangulation in der qualitativen Forschung. In: Flick, U., v. Kardorff, E. & Steinke, I. (Hg.): Qualitative Forschung – ein Handbuch. Reinbek 2003, p. 310.

4 For the third criteria see: Kelle, U. & Erzberger, C.: Qualitative und quantitative Methoden: kein Gegensatz. In: Flick, U., v. Kardorff, E. & Steinke, I. (Hg.): Qualitative Forschung – ein Handbuch. Reinbek 2003, p. 308.

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less true and an ethnographic approach maybe more acceptable. In certain instances a variety of approaches can be acceptable e.g. in criminology it is easy to imagine both ethnographic and, say, statistical (regression) techniques being employed.

The biggest problem are likely to be encountered in research projects which bridge disciplines, which traditionally employ totally opposed paradigms – in particular if the researchers in the two areas are temperamentally and culturally opposed to one another. In these cases a meeting of minds may be very difficult to achieve. In fact, as Bryman (1988) puts it, when discussing the rejection of the natural science model in sociological studies, researchers “signal their adoption of a different framework and expect their work to be read and judged differently” (my emphasis). It may be true that “the idea that science consists of attempts to prove hypotheses is as dead as the dodo” (Langrish, 1993) but in my experience many examiners still expect advanced research to focus on testing hypotheses.

In this case I am reminded of an expert on income distribution being asked what was the best way to guarantee a good income – “Choose your parents carefully” was the reply. The advice here must be “Choose your examiners carefully”!

A) Laboratory experimentB) Statistical experiment/testC) QuestionnairesD) Interviews5

E) Cased studiesF) Participant observationG) Literature reviewH) Database searchesI) Grounded theory

Quantitative Qualitative Positivist Ethnographic Objective SubjectiveABCDGH

CDEFGI

ABH

FE

ABH

FDEF

Note: this represents the author’s view – it is recognised there are many “grey” areas here and that other views are entirely likely.

5 As S. Lamnek mentions, there are at least 16 different kinds of realizing a scientific interview (for example the so called “narrative”, “problem based”, “focused” or “half-standardized” Interviews. See: Lamnek, S.: Qualitative Sozialforschung – Band 2: Methoden und Techniken. Weinheim 1995, p. 392 and chapter 3.). All the different interview techniques require profound interview competencies that must have been trained before using one of them. Some interview techniques belong to qualitative approaches others to quantitative approaches and a third group can be classified between these two poles. Therefore an interview method must fit to the scientific background and reasons of a study.

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1.8 Research Philosophies – Reading ListBabbie, E (1991) Survey Research Methods, 2nd edition, Belmont, Wadsworth

Bortz, J and Döring, N (1997) Forschungsmethoden und Evaluation, Berlin

Bryman, A (1988) Quantity and Quality in Social Research, London, Routledge

Bryman, A und Burgess, G (ed) (1994) Analyzing Qualitative Data, London, Routledge

Coffey, A and Atkinson, P (1996) Making Sense of Qualitative Data: complementary research strategies, London, Sage

Diekmann, A. (1998) Empirische Sozialforschung, Reinbek

Easterby-Smith, M et al (2002) Management Research: An Introduction, 2nd edition London, Sage

Flick, U. and v. Kardorff, E. & Steinke, I. (2003) Qualitative Forschung – ein Handbuch, Reinbek

Glaser, B and Strauss, A (1967) The Discovery of Grounded Theory:strategies for qualitative research, N. York, Aldine

Hammersley, M (1992) What’s wrong with Ethnography?: methodological explorations, London, Routledge

Hammersley, M and Atkinson, P (1995) Ethnography – Principles in Practice, 2nd edition, London, Routledge

König, E and Zedler, P (1995) Bilanz qualitativer Forschung, Band I, Weinheim

Lamnek, S (1995) Qualitative Sozialforschung – Band 2: Methoden und Techniken, Weinheim 1995

McNeill, P and Chapman, S (2005) Research Methods 3rd edition, London Routledge

Neuman, W L (1997) Social Research Methods: qualitative and quantitative approaches, Allyn and Bacon

Sarantakos, S (2005) Social Research, 3rd edition, Basingstoke, Macmillan

Strauss, A and Corbin, J (1998) Basics of Qualitative Research: techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory, 2nd edition, London, Sage

Yin, R (2003) Case Study Research: design and methods, 3rd edition, London, Sage

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Steps in the Research Process

Causal model illustrating major influences on educational attainment

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Choose Topic

Inform OthersFocus

ResearchQuestion

InterpretData

DesignStudy

Collect DataAnalyseData

Parentseducation

Parents‘attitude toeducation

Unmeasured

influences

State of school

Other familybackgroundvariables

= Strong influence

= Moderate influence

= Weak influence


1.9 Approaches to Research - Academic vs. Journalistic Studies

1. One of the main things the examiners will be looking for is a rigorous methodological approach.

2. What does this mean? What is the difference between a sufficiently rigorous approach and one which would be considered ‘stuffy’?

3. In the main you will all be seeking to add to knowledge i.e. at the end of your research we will ‘know’ something that we did not know at the start.

4. In order for this to happen we need:

a) A properly constructed research programme with testable prepositions in it,b) A sound methodological approach to generate answers, andc) An absence of untested, unsupported assertions. In particular you must avoid

building the whole thing on top of any untested assertion.

5. The main question you want to keep to the front is ‘how do we know this’?, ‘what is the proof of this’?

6. If you look at the two enclosed reports you should be able to understand these issues more clearly. The two reports – which come to exactly opposite conclusions – appeared in the same newspaper within the space of one week. The issues discussed in the two reports are the globalisation of fashion.

7. Read the two reports and see if you can frame a testable proposition relevant to the issue: and produce a critique of the way in which the two reports went about generating their conclusions.

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1.10 AbstractTitle This, That & The Other; An Investigation of why people like

them and how to improve them further

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION1.1 Theories of This1.2 Theories of That1.3 Theories of the Other1.4 Theories of why people like them1.5 Earlier studies of This, That & the Other and their findings1.6 Definition of central terms1.7 Current knowledge & what needs to bed done

Chapter 2 RESEARCH TECHNIQUES SELECTION2.1 Techniques used to investigate This, That & the Other in earlier investigations & their usefulness2.2 Improvements to these techniques since the earlier investigations2.3 Other techniques that ought to be considered and why2.4 Techniques selected to deploy2.5 Research Design

Chapter 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND DATA COLLECTION3.1 The Techniques & their Application3.1.1 The “A” Technique & how it is used in this project3.1.2 The “B” Technique & how it is used in this project3.1.3 The “C” Technique & how it is used in this project3.1.5 How the techniques are made to complement one another to enhance the project3.2 The Data Collected & It’s Analysis3.3 The Reliability, Validity and Representativity of the Output3.4 The Reliability of the Output3.5 What the Output Means

Chapter 4 THE INTERVENTION AND ITS EFFECTIVENESS4.1 The Purpose of the Intervention4.2 The Design of the intervention4.3 The Data Collected after the Intervention & Its Analysis4.4 What the Output Means

Chapter 5 RESULTS & DISCUSSION5.1 Earlier Findings on This, That & the Other and their status5.2 The New Findings on This, That & the Other, what they meant & the areas open to improvement5.3 The Intervention5.4 The New Findings on This, That & the Other in relation to how much more or less people like them after the intervention

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Chapter 6 CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS6.1 What has been found out6.2 Important things that still need to be determined6.3 Limits of the study, limits of discovery

REFERENCESPrecise referencing to all previous relevant works on which the research builds

BIBLIOGRAPHYTextbooks, articles & research papers read by the researcher which provide a context for the research

APPENDICESDetails such as the actual research tool used, e.g. questionnaires, machine settings, programmes, protocols, example data output

2. Philosophy<???>

3. Proposals<Alex>

3.1 Research processResearch is an “original investigation” carried out to gain further knowledge and understanding. It should demonstrate both academic rigour and managerial relevance, i.e. it should be directed towards a practical aim and objectives in order to solve a specific problem.

The Dissertation provides an opportunity for the student to research a self-selected topic; it is preceded by a research proposal.

When planning the Research Proposal, the student is, in effect, planning the dissertation.

Planning and setting up the Research ProposalThe coursework comprises an outline plan for the dissertation including: a title; an aim and objectives; brief background/justification for choice of topic, including key

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literature sources (references and an additional bibliography to be provided); proposed method(s) of data collection and analysis, possible outcome(s) – optional.

Identify a topic as well as the setting and focus of the dissertation Identify potential supervisor(s) and determine whether s/he is (they are) able

to supervise your chosen area Complete Research Proposal Form A Refine ideas in consultation with supervisor(s) Plan work schedule Develop and discuss interim submissions Final submission of research Proposal and Form B

3.2 Structure of the research proposalNormally, a research proposal comprises: (a) working title, (b) aim, (c) objectives; (d) background, (e) proposed method, (f) potential outcomes, (g) key references and bibliography. Each of these areas is outlined below:

3.2.1 Working title

The working title should be stated in one sentence and capture the essence of the study.

3.2.2 Aim

The dissertation must have a clearly identifiable aim, indicating an approach that is analytical and evaluative and not merely descriptive. The aim is a short statement of what the researcher hopes to achieve on completion of the dissertation.

It should be expressed in one sentence! It is good practice to pose “the research question” to you: in one sentence. What question is this research setting out to answer? Any aim should be expressed more formally but equally succinctly.

The aim should be focused and not general. Usually the narrower the focus the more successful the dissertation is likely to be. The aim should be expressed in such a way as to demonstrate an approach that is not simply investigative. Avoid “to investigate” or “to examine” and use “to analyse” “to evaluate” “to assess” “to determine”.

To describe and list facts is not sufficient; there must be evidence of intent to do more.

Not: “to investigate leisure centres in local hotels” but: “to analyse the effectiveness of leisure centres in attracting visitors to local hotels”

3.2.3 Objectives

These are “concise statements of expected outcomes” of the exploration – what you want to find out, not how you mean to do it – “to establish X by means of case studies” or “to compare Y and Z by means of a literature survey”. It is vital that the

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objectives are carefully determined because the results of the research will b e judged according to whether these objectives have been achieved successfully.

3.2.4 Background (Selection and justification of the topic)

The reasons for the selection of the research topic should be explained, and linked to the literature reviewed.

Do not write that you are studying a topic because it interests you!

Raise issues to underpin the research topic and to demonstrate why it is worthy of consideration. This is usually because (a) it has not been explored before in the proposed way and (b) because the study is perceived to be useful.

Show there is a “knowledge gap” to be filled, but it is more important to demonstrate “research competence” than it is to shake the foundations of the academic or management world.

Discuss the nature and significance of the problem/issue to be addressed. Convince the assessor that it is not a trivial topic and show how it may be of practical “use”.

It is usually relevant and appropriate to discuss the topic area within the context of previous work (writing or research) and to raise issues pertinent to the proposed research, followed by a clear statement of the precise research area or a key research question or a research hypothesis.

3.2.5 Proposed method

Here you must specify your proposed sampling method, data collection techniques (quantitative, qualitative or both), and data analysis methods. The research method should be justified and appropriate to the achievement of the aim and objectives.

3.2.6 Potential outcomes

State briefly what you think the outcomes will be, that is, what knowledge will be advanced from your study.

3.2.7 Key references and bibliography

List about 10 key references, showing that familiarity with the literature that can support your study plus an additional bibliography – texts you intend to cite in the final dissertation.

3.3 Supervisors3.3.1 Allocation of supervisors

Each student is required to have two supervisors who take responsibility for overseeing the dissertation. Students are invited to select their own supervisors, with the agreement of the individuals concerned. However, assistance will be available from the unit leader if required. It is suggested that students consult with their

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supervisor(s) on at least two/three occasions prior to submitting this coursework. Supervisors should be prepared to comment on ways in which draft proposals might be improved. Students may also consult other specialists, either academics or industrialists as required, again with agreement from the individuals concerned; these names should be given to the Dissertation Co-coordinator for administrative purposes.

Each Supervisor is required to sign form B when s/he agrees to supervise the student.

Who finds a supervisor for those students who do not find one for themselves?

The co-ordinator will allocate second supervisors to those students who don not find one for themselves.

3.3.2 Responsibilities

(a) General responsibilities of supervisors Make available specialist knowledge Maintain quality control Oversee student and advise on progress Monitor contact with student

(b) General responsibilities of the student Maintain regular contact with supervisor Comply with official procedures Seek help as required

4. Staying the course / motivation<Jürgen, Claudio, Wolfgang, Regine>

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Dr. Claudio Vignali, Leeds Metropolitan University (2004), [email protected]

Figure 1: Model of the Motivation Process

4.1 Types of Needs4.1.1 Innate needs

Physiological (or biogenic) needs that are considered primary needs or motives. Physiological needs for food, water, air, clothing, shelter, and sex, also known as biogenic or primary needs.

4.1.2 Acquired needs

Generally psychological (or psychogenic) needs that are considered secondary needs or motives= needs that are learned in response to one’s culture or environment (such as the need for esteem, prestige, affection, or power), also known as psychogenic or secondary needs.

4.2 Goals4.2.1 Generic Goals

The general categories of goals that consumers see as a way to fulfil their needs e.g., “I want to buy a vehicle”

4.2.2 Product-Specific Goals

The specifically branded products or services that consumers select as their goals e.g., “I want to buy a Mercedes”

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LearningLearning

Unfulfilled needs

wants, and desires

Unfulfilled needs

wants, and desires

TensionTensionGoal or need

fulfillment

Goal or need

fulfillmentDriveDrive BehaviorBehavior

Cognitive processes

Cognitive processes

Tension reduction

Tension reduction



Figure 2: Means-End Analysis

4.3 The Selection of GoalsThe goals selected by an individual depend on their:

Personal experiences Physical capacity Prevailing cultural norms and values Goal’s accessibility in the physical and social environment

4.3.1 Substitute Goal

A goal that replaces an individual’s primary goal when the goal cannot be achieved or acquired.

4.3.2 Positive Motivation

A driving force toward some object or condition.

4.3.3 Negative Motivation

A driving force away from some object or condition.

4.3.4 Approach Goal

A (generally) positive goal toward which behaviour is directed.

4.3.5 Avoidance Goals

A (generally) negative goal from which behaviour is directed away.

- 27 -

chicken

music instrument

feel happy

low calorieslow sugar

good health

relaxhot tub

diet cola

cure headacheskeep teeth

cleanlinesskill germs

toothbrush

dishwasher

flowers

learn about healthmental health

televisionbooks

red wine

pain reliever

start day right breakfast

good diet apples


4.4 Rational Versus Emotional Motives Rationality implies that consumers select goals based on totally objective

criteria such as size, weight, price, or miles per gallon. Emotional motives imply the selection of goals according to personal or

subjective criteria.

4.5 The Dynamic Nature of Motivation Needs are never fully satisfied New needs emerge as old needs are satisfied People who achieve their goals set new and higher goals for themselves

Defense MechanismMethods by which people mentally redefine frustrating situations to protect their self-images and their self-esteem.

Defense Mechanisms to Counter Frustration:

Aggression Rationalization Regression Withdrawal Projection Autism Identification Repression

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4.6 Arousal of Motives

Physiological arousal Emotional arousal Cognitive arousal Environmental arousal

Philosophies Concerned With Arousal of MotivesBehaviourist School:

Behaviour is response to stimulus Elements of conscious thoughts are to be ignored Consumer does not act, but react

Cognitive School:

Behaviour is directed at goal achievement Need to consider needs, attitudes, beliefs, etc. in understanding consumer

behaviour

4.7 Types and Systems of Needs Hierarchy of Needs A Trio of Needs:

o Need for Powero Need for Affiliationo Need for Achievement

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Figure 3: Murray’s List of Psychogenic Needs (Source: Adapted from Henry A. Murray, “Types of Human Needs,” in David C. McClelland, Studies in Motivation (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1955): 63-66.)

4.7.1 Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological needs Safety needs Social needs Egoistic needs Need for self-actualisation

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NEEDS ASSOCIATED WITH INANIMATE OBJECTSNEEDS ASSOCIATED WITH INANIMATE OBJECTSAcquisition RetentionConservancy ConstructionOrderNEEDS THAT REFLECT AMBITION, POWER, ACCOMPLISHMENT, NEEDS THAT REFLECT AMBITION, POWER, ACCOMPLISHMENT, AND PRESTIGEAND PRESTIGESuperiority Inviolacy (inviolate attitude)Achievement Infavoidance (to void shame, failure,

humiliation, ridicule) Recognition Defendance (defensive attitude)Exhibition Counteraction (counteractive attit.)NEEDS CONCERNED WIH HUMAN POWERNEEDS CONCERNED WIH HUMAN POWERDominance AutonomyDeferrence Contrarience (to act differently from

others)Similance (suggestible attitude)SADOSADO--MASOCHISTIC NEEDSMASOCHISTIC NEEDSAggression Abasement

NEEDS CONCERNED WITH AFECTION BETWEEN PEOPLENEEDS CONCERNED WITH AFECTION BETWEEN PEOPLEAffiliation RejectionSuccorance (to seek aid protection, Play

or sympathy)Nurturance (to nourish, aid, or

protect the helpless)

NEEDS CONCERNED WITH SOCIAL INTERCOURSE (THE NEEDS NEEDS CONCERNED WITH SOCIAL INTERCOURSE (THE NEEDS TO ASK AND TELL)TO ASK AND TELL)Cognizance (inquiring attitude) Exposition (expositive attitude)


Figure 4: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

4.7.2 An Evaluation of the Need Hierarchy

Appears to reflect the assumed motivations of people in our society Sufficiently generic to encompass most needs No way to test and measure the hierarchy Seems culture- and time-bound

4.7.3 A Trio of Needs

Powero individual’s desire to control environment

Affiliationo need for friendship, acceptance, and belonging

Achievemento need for personal accomplishmento closely related to egoistic and self-actualisation needs

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Physiological Needs(Food, water, air, shelter, sex)

Safety and Security Needs(Protection, order, stability)

Social Needs(affection, friendship, belonging)

Ego Needs(Prestige, status, self esteem)

Self-Actualization(Self-fulfillment)


4.8 Motivational ResearchQualitative research designed to uncover consumers’ subconscious or hidden motivations. The basic premise of motivational research is that consumers are not always aware of, or may not wish to renewal, the basic reasons underlying their actions.

Table 1: Selected Product Personality Profiles Uncovered by Motivational Research

Evaluating Motivational Research Based on Freud’s psychoanalytic theory Questionable reliability and validity Too many exotic (usually sexual) reasons for common purchases

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BakingBakingAn expression of femininity and motherhood, baking evokes pleasant nostalgic memories of the odors pervading the house when one’s mother was baking. To man, a woman is subconsciously and symbolically going through the act of giving birth when baking a cake, and the most fertile moment occurs when the baked product is pulled out of the oven.Ice CreamIce CreamIce cream is associated with love and affection. It derives particular potency from childhood memories, when it was given to a child for being “good” and withheld as an instrument of punishment. people refer to ice cream as something they “love” to eat. Ice cream is a symbol of abundance; people prefer round packaging with an illustration that runs around the box panel because it suggests unlimited quantity.

Power ToolsPower ToolsPower tools are a symbol of manliness. They represent masculineskill and competence and are often bought more for their symbolic value than for active do-it-yourself application. Ownership of a good power tool or circular saw provides a man with feelings of omnipotence.

BeerBeerFor most people, beer is an active, alive sensuous beverage thatprovides the drinker with a feeling of security. People generally describe the beer they like as “alive,” “foamy,” and “sparkling,” and disliked brands as “flat,” “dead,” or “stale.”

5. Forms5.1 University Research Degree Forms by the Leeds Metropolitan University

Form R1 (Preliminary) Application for Preliminary Registration for a Research Degree

Form R1 Application for Registration for Research Diploma, MSc by Research, MPhil, MPhil/PhD, PhD

Form R1(B) Application for Registration for PhD by Published WorkForm R2T (A) Application to Transfer Registration from MPhil to

PhD, Mres to MPhil, Research Diploma to Mres (moving up the research degree portfolio)

Form R2T (B) Application to Transfer Registration from Doctor of Philosophy to Master of Philosophy, Master of Philosophy to Masters by Research, Masters by Research to Research Diploma (moving down the research degree portfolio).*n.b. the form can however be used to transfer from a professional doctorate (EdD or Deng to another research degree).

From R2T C Application to Transfer Registration from another Institution

Form R3(EXT) Application for Extension of Period of RegistrationForm R4(S) Application for change in approved arrangements for

supervisionForm R5(E) Application for Approval of Examination ArrangementsForm R6(M/S) Notification of a change in approved mode of studyForm R7(W) Notification of Withdrawal of RegistrationForm R8(S) Notification of Suspension of RegistrationForm R9 Mres (A) Preliminary Report and Recommendation of the

ExaminersForm R9 Mres (B) Examiners joint report (only to be completed if a Viva is

recommended).Form R9 MPhil (A) Preliminary Report and Recommendation of an ExaminerForm R9 MPhil (B) Recommendation of the ExaminersForm R9 PhD (A) Preliminary Report and Recommendation of an ExaminerForm R9 PhD (B) Recommendation of the ExaminersForm R10 (Decl) Declaration by CandidateCV1 sup Curriculum Vitae of Proposed SupervisorCV1 ex Curriculum Vitae of Proposed ExaminerM.R(b) Registered Students Monitoring ReportM.R(c) Supervisors Monitoring Report

All of the above forms are available from the Senior Officer for Research Degrees, Centre for Research and Graduate Studies.

5.2 Form R1 Application for Registration for Research Diploma, MSc by Research, MPhil, MPhil/PhD, PhD

CONFIDENTIAL RESEARCH AWARDS SUB-COMMITTEE

R1 - APPLICATION FOR APPROVAL OF REGISTRATION

Faculty

School

Student ID Number

RESEARCH AWARD (Please tick as appropriate)PhD

EdD or DEng

Output 1 Output 2

MPhil/PhDMPhil MRes Postgraduate

Research Diploma

Part-time Specify amount of time (average hours per week) allowed for programme

Full-time Specify amount of time (average hours per week) allowed for programme

Distance learning Specify amount of time (average hours per week) allowed for programme

Date of admission (this will be used to confirm start date for registration purposes )

CANDIDATE DETAILS The candidate’s full legal name must be given (including all first names) This information will be used in the production of the final degree certificates and for other administrative matters.

Surname First name(s)

Term time address Permanent home address

E-mail address (please specify e-mail address below)

Title of project (maximum 12 words in length)

EMPLOYMENT If the University employs the candidate as a Research Assistant, a copy of the University’s letter of appointment should be provided

Present place of work

Post Held

Particulars of any studentship or other source of funding held in connection with the proposed research programme

Training and experience (include details of activities and dates) relevant to the application for registration such as research short courses, conference papers, books etc.

THE PROGRAMME OF RESEARCH

Aims and objectives of the investigation Please define clear aims and objectives?What key terms are defined?What key questions and/or hypotheses are identified?

- 35 -

Proposed plan of work (maximum 2,000 words excluding references)Candidates are required to include the following: The relationship to previous work, with bibliographic references in Harvard style The background context of the research An indication of the appreciation of the relevant theoretical frameworks An indication of an awareness of methodological debates An outline of methodology to be used (e.g. how will data be

collected/analysed?) Timescales and a plan of work (e.g. in the form of a chart or diagram) Indication of MPhil/PhD levels such as contribution to knowledge and originality

- 36 -

Does the project involve risk? If yes, please complete a risk assessment summary form and attach

Does the project have ethical implications requiring formal approval?

If yes, has ethical approval been granted? (please attach a copy of ethical approval form)

If no, please specify briefly and complete and attach a copy of the ethics release form

Does the project, have implications for intellectual property rights? 1. If yes, please specify.

2. Applications regarding confidentiality and intellectual ownership of the thesis must be made at the time of the application for registration.

3. For further information about intellectual property rights refer to The Regulations and Procedures for Research Degrees and Section 10 of the General Regulations: Leeds Metropolitan University Students.

Details of facilities necessary for the investigation(including source of funding and location)

Details of collaborative arrangements (if applicable)Access to staff, data, equipment or resources must be included/supported by relevant documentation such as letters etc, especially in the case of overseas collaboration.

- 37 -

THE PROGRAMME OF RELATED STUDIES

The Research Training Programme

Core modulesAttending *Exempt

Pathway ModulesAttending *Exempt

Please attach your current Research Training Programme Student Record Form.

Exemption from training in Research Methodology

Students may be exempted from some or all of the research training programme on the following grounds:

completion of an appropriate masters qualification; significant experience of undertaking research projects; completion of an approved programme of research methods training at another

recognised Higher Education Institution.

Additional Research Training

Please identify any other related studies that you are undertaking in relation to your research project e.g. taught masters modules, English Language Training etc

- 38 -

SUPERVISION FOR RESEARCH DEGREE PROJECT

A research degree candidate is normally supervised by a Director of Studies and one other supervisor. In certain circumstances, the Faculty Research Awards Sub-Committee may agree to an additional supervisor. For further details regarding the composition of a supervisory team, please refer to the University Regulations for Research Degrees, Section 6.

DIRECTOR OF STUDIESThe Director of Studies has a key role in the supervisory team to ensure that the candidate is supervised on a regular and frequent basis and to have administrative responsibility for the research degree programme.

Director of Studies (name)

Address

Qualifications

Post held

Organisation (if external to the University)*

*Approval for the appointment of an external Director of Studies is granted only exceptionally. If necessary a written statement justifying such an appointment should be attached to this form

A current CV1 Sup form, for external supervisors only, should also be completed and attached with this form (the R1) giving further details of relevant experience and publications appropriate to the programme of research.

Research Interests5.2.1.1.1 Please specify research interests below

Publications Please give details of your five most recent publications relevant to the research programme

Advanced Professional Diploma in Research Awards Supervision (please tick appropriate box)

Attending Successfully awarded

OrAttended research training supervision workshops and been assigned a mentor (provide details in box)

- 39 -

Director of Studies Experience of Supervision of Registered Research Candidates

Leeds Metropolitan University At Other Higher Education Institutions

M Res MPhil PhD* M Res MPhil PhDNumbers of Research Students Currently Supervising:Numbers of Registration Successfully Completed:* or Professional Doctorates such as D Eng or E dD.

SUPERVISOR (1)

Supervisor (name)

Address

Qualifications

Post held

Organisation (if external to the University)


Research InterestsPlease specify research interests below

Publications Please give details of five most recent publications




- 40 -

Supervisor 1: Experience of Supervision of Registered Research Candidates



Supervisor 2

Supervisor 2 (name)

Address

Qualifications

Post held



Research InterestsPlease specify research interests below

Publications Please give details of five most recent publications




- 41 -

Supervisor 2: Experience of Supervision of Registered Research Candidates



ADVISORS

An adviser or advisers may be proposed in addition to the supervisory team if such an advisor: Has a specialised knowledge of value to the project or Has an appropriate link with, or is in, an external organisation that will assist with the programme

of research.

ADVISOR 1.

Name

Address

Qualifications

Post held


Reasons for appointment

ADVISOR 2.

Name

Address

Qualifications

Post held


Reasons for appointment

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6. STATEMENT BY THE APPLICANT

I am applying for registration for a research degree at Leeds Metropolitan University on the basis of the information given in this application

I understand that except with the specific permission of the University, I may not, during the period of my registration be a candidate for another research award of Leeds Metropolitan University or of another Higher Education Institution.

I understand that, except with the specific permission of the University, I must prepare and defend my thesis in English.

Signed Date

RECOMMENDATIONS

We/ I support this application for registration and believe that the candidate has the potential to successfully complete the programme of work proposed.

We/ I recommend the application for registration to the University. Signature Director of Studies Date

Signature Supervisor 1 Date

Signature Supervisor 2 Date

FACULTY RESEARCH AWARD SUB-COMMITTEE APPROVAL

Approval by the Chair on behalf of the Faculty Research Awards Sub-Committee I confirm support for the candidate’s programme of research in the specified

School including resources.Signed Date

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CHECKLIST OF ATTACHMENTS

University’s letter of appointment, if the University employs the candidate as a research assistant.

Details of any collaborative arrangements (such as letters of support from the collaborative establishment)

Ethics release form (if project has no ethical implications)

Ethics approval form (if ethical approval has been granted)

CV1 Sup forms for external supervisors only

Risk assessment form if required

Statement on IPR if relevant

Research Training Programme: Student Record Form. To be completed and a copy forwarded to the Centre for Research and Graduate Studies

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5.3 Form R2T (A) Application to Transfer Registration from MPhil to PhD, etc.

CONFIDENTIAL R2 (A) Transfer

LEEDS METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY

FACULTY RESEARCH AWARDS SUB-COMMITTEE

Application for Approval of Transfer of Registration from:Master of Philosophy to Doctor of Philosophy *Masters by Research to Master of Philosophy *Research Diploma to Masters by Research * *please delete as appropriate

This form should be wordprocessed or typewritten - please complete all names in full (please also refer to the attached guidance notes before completing the form)

1 CANDIDATE DETAILS

Surname:

First Name(s):

Male/Female*

Date of Birth:

Lodging Address: Permanent Home Address:

Student ID Number

Present Place of Work :

Post Held:

2 DETAILS OF RESEARCH PROJECT

Title of Research Project (should be no longer than 12 words):

Initial Date of Registration:

Expected date of completion:

Mode of Study (full-time or part-time):Award/Exemption date of the PGCRM or Research Training Programme (as appropriate):Name of collaborating establishment, if any

2 SUPERVISION DETAILS

Director of Studies

Name:

Qualifications:

Post Held:

Organisation (if external to the University), School or Research Institute/Centre:

Full Correspondence Address:

Experience of Supervision of Registered Research CandidatesAt Leeds Metropolitan

UniversityAt Other UK Institutions At Overseas Institutions

MPhil PhD MPhil PhD MPhil PhD

Numbers Currently Supervising: Numbers Successfully Completed:

Supervisor (1)

Name:

Qualifications:

Post Held:







Supervisor (2)Name:

Qualifications:

Post Held:







3 DIRECTOR OF STUDIES AND SUPERVISORS’ ASSESSMENT

3.1 On the candidate’s progress on the approved research project:

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

4 RECOMMENDATION OF THE SUPERVISORS

Having considered all aspect of the candidate’s progress and examined the candidate’s own progress report (an abstract of which is given below), and found this to be a satisfactory description of what has been achieved, we recommend that the transfer of registration be granted.

Signed ........................................................................................ Date .......................

Signed ........................................................................................ Date .......................

Signed ........................................................................................ Date ………………..

On the candidate’s progress with the research training programme and/or any other of related studies:

On the evidence that the research project provides a basis for work at PhD standard:

Does the project involve any additional risk not previously identified at the R1 registration stage? YES/NO

If yes, please complete a risk assessment summary form and append

Does the project have any additional ethical implications not identified at the R1 stage requiring formal approval?

YES/NO

If yes, has ethical approval been granted? (please attach a copy of ethical approval form)

If no, please specify briefly and complete and attach a copy of the ethics release form

5RECOMMENDATION BY THE FACULTY RESEARCH AWARDS SUB-COMMITTEE

I support the above recommendation

Signed ....................................................................................... Date .................................Chair of Faculty Research Awards Sub-Committee

6 SUMMARY OF PROGRESS MADE - TO BE COMPLETED BY THE CANDIDATE:

The candidate should provide a statement of progress made. The statement must include progress with the Research Training Programme and should include reference to work already completed and how this relates to the original proposal, major elements of future work and reasons why this will provide the basis of a submission for a higher award. The summary should not exceed 500 words and must be supported by a full transfer report of 2000 – 3000 words.

GUIDANCE NOTES FOR THE Completion of the Application for transfer of Registration (r2T).

Sections 1 and 2: Candidate and Supervision Details

These sections must be completed in full.

It is important for supervisors to supply data on successfully completed PhD supervisions to date which should include both supervision of candidates registered at the University and at other institutions.

The University Research Awards Sub-Committee uses this information to assess the suitability of the experience of the supervisory team to support the candidate to the successful completion of the research award.

Section 3: Supervisors' Assessment

This requires clear and concise statements on aspects of the candidate's progress on the programme of research and its future development. It is important to identify clearly how the programme will fulfil the criteria for the proposed award.

The supervisory team must also confirm that the research training programme, as outlined on the R1 (application for registration) has been satisfactorily progressed.

Section 4: Recommendation of the Supervisors

All supervisors must agree the recommendation that the candidate be allowed to transfer his/her registration.

Section 5: Committee Recommendations

To be completed by the Chair of the Faculty Research Awards Committee

Section 6: Summary of Progress Made

To be completed by the candidate.

This should comprise an abstract (not exceeding 500 words) of the transfer report. The candidate is also expected to produce a written transfer report between 2000 and 3000 words. Full details of the transfer process can be found in the Research Student and Supervisor Handbook or in the University Research Degree Regulations Booklet.

5.4 References

Referees:

Please provide details of two people who would be willing to act as referees for your application. Ideally these will be academic referees but it is also possible to have, professional or vocational referees).

1.Name:

Address:

Telephone number

e-mail

2. Name:

Address:

Telephone number

e-mail

5.5 Procedures for the Ethical clearance of research involving Human Participants

Can the

Yes Seek Advice

Can the Supervisor/Researcher certify that the research conforms to appropriate ethical standards as outlined by the University Research Ethics Sub-Committee?

Complete Research Ethics Release Form to be signed by

supervisor /researcher and passed to the School representative on the

Faculty Research Ethics Sub-Committee for consideration and

recording

Approved

Complete Request for Ethical Approval form and submit to the Faculty Research Ethics Sub-Committee (see note 3.)

Rejected

Refer to University

Research Ethics Sub-Committee

for action

Rejected

Request for review of the decision of the Faculty/University Research Ethics Sub-Committee to be made to the Secretary

of the Committee

Rejected

No further right of appeal

Rejected

Approved

Approved

Approved

Notes In the case of a student registering for a higher degree by research a copy of the Ethics Release form must be attached

to the research registration form (R1) on submission to the Faculty Research Awards Sub-Committee. Where the research comes under the jurisdiction of a Local Medical Research Ethics Committee, or other equivalent

committee, a copy of the appropriate letter must normally be attached to the Ethics Release form. It is essential, however, that Leeds Metropolitan University procedures are always applied alongside requirements from external approval committees

Each Ethical Approval Form to be sent to two independent researchers with appropriate experience for scrutiny (such members may not necessarily be members of the Faculty Research Ethics Committee).

Resubmission required

Faculty/University Research Ethics Sub-Committee invited

to reconsider proposal

Research Ethics Release forms for undergraduate and taught postgraduate student to be stored centrally by the

School and reported to Faculty Research Ethics

Sub-Committee

Forms to be passed to Faculty representative on Faculty Research Ethics Sub-Committee for recording and storage

Research Ethics Release forms for postgraduate research

students and members of staff undertaking independent

research to be stored centrally by the Faculty and reported to Faculty Research Ethics Sub-

Committee

5.6 Research ethics release form: staffLEEDS METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY

RESEARCH ETHICS RELEASE FORM: STAFF

Section A

To be completed by all staff who wish to carry out any research involving human subjects.

Name: ……………………………………… Position: ………………………………Type of Research to be completed …………………………………………………Funding source where applicable: ………………………………………………….Department ……………………………………………………………………………Project Title: ………………………………………………………………………….Name of Principal Investigator (if different from above): …………………………………………………………………………………………..Has anyone else been consulted: …………………………………………………..Expected duration of research project: …………………………………………….Aims of Project: ……………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………………………..Research Design: …………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………….. Nature of Sample (if applicable)……………………………………………………..

Ethical Considerations:

The following points have been assessed in relation to the proposed project:

1. The remit and feasibility of the study.2. The nature of recruitment and participation of participants3. Possible harm to participants, researchers and facilities to deal with it4. Procedures for:

providing explanation to participants – including information sheet if appropriate.

obtaining informed consent from participants or where necessary from their parents/guardians

respecting confidentiality operating with data protection legislation anonymous report writing.

5. Safety requirements – consideration of Health & Safety.6. Insurance and Indemnity arrangements 7. Risk assessment8. Resource allocation

To be completed by Staff undertaking the researchPlease Tick

a) I have undertaken the University training for research ethics, I have read the guidelines provided and understand the ethical implications or

b) I have read the University guidelines and understand the University’s procedures and am scheduled to undertake the University training.

I have appropriate experience of the general research area

I confirm that I will monitor progress of the project and report any changes and concerns that may give rise to research ethical issues.

I confirm that the project complies with the Code of Practice of the following Professional Body (if appropriate)

…………………………………………………………………………..

Signature of Staff undertaking the research ……………………………………………………..

Position…………………………………………………………. Date…………………………..

Section B

To be Completed by member of staff authorising the ethical release (e.g. Research co-ordinator for the School, Head of School, Dean or other appropriate person) THIS SECTION OF THE FORM MUST NOT BE SIGNED BY THE PERSON UNDERTAKING THE RESEARCH

I recommend that the project should proceed without submission to the Faculty Research Ethics Committee

PLEASE TICK BOX IF ETHICAL RELEASE IS TO BE GIVEN AT THIS STAGE

Note: The completed forms must be sent to and lodged with the School Representative on the Faculty Research Ethics Committee.

OR If there are any concerns or doubts about any ethical aspect of this research please refer this form to the Faculty Research Ethics Committee for consideration.

Please indicate your concerns below:

A complete proposal should be attached to this form for submission to the Faculty Research Ethics Committee.

Authorised signatory …..……………………………………………………………………………..

Position ……………………………………………………………………. Date……………………..

5.7 Research ethics release form: studentLEEDS METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY

RESEARCH ETHICS RELEASE FORM: STUDENT

Section A

To be completed by all students who wish to carry out any research involving human subjects.

Name: ………………………………………………………………………………….Type of Research to be completed (ie undergraduate, postgraduate)……………………………………………… Level: …………………………………Funding source if applicable: ……………………………………………………….Course …………………………………………………………………………………Project Title: ………………………………………………………………………….Name of Research Supervisor: …………………………………………………….Expected duration of research project: ……………………………………………Aims of Project: ……………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………………………Research Design: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Nature of Sample (if applicable)…………………………………………………….

Ethical Considerations:

The following points have been assessed in relation to the proposed project:

1. The remit and feasibility of the study.2. The nature of recruitment and participation of participants3. Possible harm to participants, researchers and facilities to deal with it4. Procedures for:

providing explanation to participants – including information sheet if appropriate.

obtaining informed consent from participants or where necessary from their parents/guardians

respecting confidentiality operating with data protection legislation anonymous report writing.

5. Safety requirements – consideration of Health & Safety.6. Insurance and Indemnity arrangements7. Risk assessment8. Resource allocation

Signature of student …………………………………….Date ………………

Section B

To be completed by Research Supervisor.Please Tick

c) I have undertaken the University training for research ethics, I have read the guidelines provided and understand the ethical implications

or

d) I have read the University guidelines and understand the University’s procedures and am scheduled to undertake the University training.


I confirm that as Supervisor, I will monitor the progress of the project:

I confirm that the project complies with the Code of Practice of the following Professional Body (if appropriate)

……………………………………………………………….

I recommend that the project should proceed without submission to the Faculty Research Ethics Committee

Signature of Research Supervisor……………………… Date…………………….

Note: Completed forms must be lodged with the School representative on the Faculty Research Ethics Sub-Committee prior to data collection.

OR

If there are any concerns or doubts about any ethical aspect of this research please refer this form to the Faculty Research Ethics Committee

Please indicate your concerns below:

A complete proposal should be attached to this form for submission to the Faculty Research Ethics Committee.

In case of research degrees please attach this form to the R1 (Proposal).

Signature of Research Supervisor…………………………… Date……………………..

5.8 Policy, procedures and guidance notes for research ethics

POLICY, PROCEDURES AND

GUIDANCE NOTES FOR RESEARCH

ETHICS

Updated May 2003

1. OVERVIEW TO THE PROCEDURES

These Procedures1 are intended for the guidance of staff, undergraduate and postgraduate students (hereafter called students) and their Directors of Studies and Supervisors who wish to undertake research with human subjects2 as an aspect of formal academic activity, including taught research degrees. These procedures do not cover work with animals.

All research involving human participants as subjects undertaken by staff and students as an aspect of formal University academic activity will be subject to these Procedures.

If you were employed, or a registered student, at LMU before 31 May 2002, you may not have the required Criminal Records Bureau clearance to work with children under the age of 16 or vulnerable groups. It is incumbent on you to ensure you have this clearance before commencing work with members of these groups.

All persons should pay due regard to the Code of Ethics of any professional body of which they are members, to the University Equal Opportunities Policy, and to the University’s Registration under the Data Protection Act.

1 These procedures came into being as a result of the work of the Research Ethics Working Group. The working group also drew upon ethical statements from a number of external bodies and institutions and acknowledges the following sources:

University of Teesside (May 2000) Policy, Procedures and Guidance Notes for Research Ethics

Sheffield Hallam University Research Ethics Policies and Procedures: Research Involving Human Participants

Bournemouth University (August 2002) Research Ethics Policy and Procedures

Anglia Polytechnic University Ethics Committee Procedures for the Conduct of Research

2 The phrase ‘human subject’ is commonly used in the field of ethics where a person or persons are the focus of study in any way. It encompasses persons as subjects in all kinds of research, including that using qualitative methods (for example interviews, focus groups, observation); quantitative and experimental methods (for example questionnaires surveys and randomised control trials); and also archival and historical research.

2. DEFINITION OF RESEARCH

These definitions of Research are deliberately wide-ranging and include the generation of new data information from existing published works. The definitions reflect the spread of disciplines and related research activity that exists within the University.

Basic Research: experimental or theoretical work undertaken primarily to acquire new knowledge with no particular application or use in view.

Strategic Research: work which is intended to generate new knowledge which might provide for future application.

Applied Research: work which is undertaken to develop or test existing knowledge and which is primarily directed towards either specific practical objectives or towards the evaluation of policies or practices.

Contract Research/Consultancy: work which involves the development of existing knowledge and the application of analytical and investigative skills to the resolution of problems presented by a client, usually in an industrial, commercial or professional context.

3. GUIDING PRINCIPLES

Research should be undertaken in accordance with commonly agreed standards of good practice such as those that are laid down in the Declaration of Helsinki. These fundamental and widely accepted principles may broadly be categorised as:

Beneficence – ‘do positive good’ Non-Maleficence – ‘do no harm’ Informed Consent Confidentiality/ Anonymity

3.1 Beneficence and Non-MaleficenceTerms such as risk, harm and hazards include emotional and mental distress, possible damage to financial and social standing, physical harm and dignity.

The research should be methodologically sound and the purpose should be to contribute to knowledge;

The research should be undertaken and supervised by those who are appropriately qualified and experienced;

Concern for the interests of the subject must always prevail over the interests of science and society;

The research should be preceded by careful assessment of predictable risks in comparison with foreseeable benefits to the subject or to others;

Research should not be undertaken where the hazards involved are not believed to be predictable;

Adequate facilities and procedures should be in place to deal with any potential hazards.

3.2 Informed Consent Each potential subject should, wherever practicable, be adequately informed of

the aims, methods, anticipated benefits and potential hazards of the research and any discomfort it may entail;

Any documentation given to potential participants should be comprehensible and appropriate to the targeted participant. There should be an opportunity for them to raise any issues of concern;

Consent should normally be required in writing and records of consent should be maintained;

Potential participants must be informed that they are free to withdraw consent to participation at any time, without any adverse implications;

There should be a procedure for making complaints and participants should be made aware of this;

All participants should be volunteers. Considerable care should be taken where consent is sought from those in a dependent position and it should be made clear that refusal to participate will not lead to any adverse consequences. For example, students must be assured that any decision not to participate will not prejudice, in any way, their academic progress;

Any inducement offered to participants should be declared and should be in accordance with appropriate guidelines;

Consent must be obtained from a legal guardian in the case of minors or any others who do not have the legal competence to give informed consent, alongside informed agreement from the child, where applicable;

Potential participants should be aware that they may discuss their involvement with an appropriately qualified, nominated, independent person.

3.3 Confidentiality/ Anonymity All research should conform with legislation relating to data protection; Details that would allow individuals to be identified should not be published, or

made available, to anybody not involved in the research, unless explicit consent is given by the individuals concerned, or such information is already in the public domain;

All reasonable steps should be taken to ensure that confidential details are secure;

Great care must be taken where there is an intention to use data collected for one study, for another study. It is important that relevant guidelines are followed.

4. CONFIDENTIALITY

When personal identifiers are used in a study, researchers should explain why this is necessary and how confidentiality will be protected.

Procedures for protecting the confidentiality of participants should be followed and include:

securing individual confidentiality statements from all research personnel; coding data with numbers instead of names to protect the identity of participants using codes for identification of participants when transcribing audiotapes, and

destroying the tapes on completion of transcription. storing data securely with restricted access; maintaining anonymity of participants, agencies and geographical settings in the

publishing of reports; disposing carefully of information that can reveal the identity of participants or places

(e.g. burning or shredding rather than disposal in wastebaskets).

5. DATA PROTECTION ACT 1998

The collection and storage of research data by researchers must comply with the Data Protection Act of 1998. Researchers should follow the University’s Data Protection Policy and Guidelines

Researchers should be aware of the risks to anonymity, privacy and confidentiality posed by all kinds of personal information storage and processing, including computer and paper files, e-mail records, audio and videotapes, or any other information which directly identifies an individual.

Participants must be informed of the kinds of personal information which will be collected, what will be done with it, and to whom it will be disclosed. ‘Consent to process’ may need to be obtained where information collected from individuals is to be used later for research purposes.

Measures to prevent accidental breaches of confidentiality should be taken and, in cases where confidentiality is threatened, relevant records should be destroyed.

Provisions for data security at the end of a project must be made. Where the researcher leaves the University, this responsibility should usually rest with the relevant School.

6. HEALTH AND SAFETY

6.1 All LMU activities, including those concerned with research, are governed by legislation requiring the University to ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, the health, safety and welfare of its employees, students, visitors or others affected by University activities. The University’s Statement of Health and Safety Policy sets out how the University will meet its statutory obligations, and the responsibilities of managers, staff and students.

6.2 Significant health and safety risks in research proposals must be assessed by research supervisors through the University’s standard risk assessment process, which must be undertaken before and if necessary during research activity. Completion of a formal risk assessment is a requirement for approval.

7. RESPONSIBILITES

7.1 Researcher

The first responsibility for ethical conduct rests with the researcher, who should:

consider ethical implications of all projects, including funding sources and conduct all research in accordance with ethical principles

seek expert advice where appropriate. consult relevant documents from professional bodies be aware of, and operate in accordance with, the University’s policies and procedures

and professional requirements. develop and maintain awareness of relevant discipline and professional ethical

issues.

The researcher has the responsibility for following the procedures as outlined in this document. If researchers are in doubt as to what is appropriate they should seek advice from the Chair of the appropriate Faculty Research Ethics Sub-Committee.

7.2 Integrity of the Researcher

The researcher must possess knowledge and skills compatible with the demands of the investigatory methods to be undertaken and must recognise and not overstep the boundaries of their research competence. If researchers are in doubt as to what is appropriate they should seek advice. Researchers should not accept work they are not qualified to carry out or to supervise.

The researcher normally has the responsibility to publish or make otherwise available the results of the research, displaying, or making available, schedules or other research tools and reporting all relevant data, including negative evidence. Limitations about the validity of the conclusions and the extent to which they can be generalised should be stated.

Reporting of results must be truthful and accurate.

As is common practice in any publication, acknowledgements should be made of the contributions of others, but permission must be obtained before names are cited, or quotations or acknowledgements, made, apart from those in already published works, which are governed by copyright.

The researcher should be aware that they have some responsibility for the use made of the research and should not ignore its misuse.

The researcher is responsible for adherence to the code of ethics by members of their team and by any students working under their guidance.

7.3 Responsibility to Participants

In all circumstances researchers must consider the ethical implications of their research and the physiological, psychological, social, political and economic consequences of it for the participants. Every effort must be made

to assure the protection of Research participants against physical, mental, emotional or social injury. The guiding principle must be that no unnecessary harm or discomfort arises from participation/involvement in the study.

The researcher is responsible for obtaining informed and freely given consent from each individual who is to be a subject of study or be personally involved in a study. The researcher should explain as fully as possible, and in meaningful terms, to the participants what the research is about, who is undertaking and financing it and why it is being undertaken. He or she must make explicit the subject’s right to refuse to participate or to withdraw at any stage of the project, and this right must be respected. When it is not possible to obtain informed consent, for example from vulnerable groups such as unconscious patients, specialist advice must be obtained and approval gained from an appropriate Local Research Ethics Committee.

If the participant, for any reason, is unable to appreciate the implications of participation, informed consent must be obtained from a parent or legal guardian, alongside informed agreement from the participant, where applicable, and particularly in the case of children.

If the participants are being accessed as patients, or information is being abstracted from medical records, then the guidelines issued by the MRC (MRC Ethics Series and DOH Research Governance Framework 2001) should be followed.

If the nature of the research is such that fully informing participants before the study would invalidate results, then whatever explanation is possible should be given to the participants. The most common example of this is likely to be clinical trials in which a placebo may be administered to compare response to intervention and to establish whether the treatment under scrutiny is effective. A well designed trial will ‘blind’ both patient and health professionals administering treatment and care until the completion of the trial. Occasionally, psychological researchers may not disclose the true purpose of their study as knowledge of this would invalidate the responses under investigation. In such cases there must be provision for appropriate explanation and debriefing to the participants on completion of the study.

An investigator should seek the opinion of experienced colleagues whenever their research requires or is likely to involve:- deception being built into the investigation- deception concerning the basis of subject selection- psychological or physiological stress, or - encroachment on privacy

Withholding any information from participants should occur only when the investigator is satisfied that the aims and objectives of the research cannot be achieved, and the welfare of participants assured, by any other means. Where the nondisclosure of any information has been necessary, debriefing should normally follow participation as a matter of course. Where deception has been substantial, the participant should be offered the option of withholding the data, in accordance with the principle of participation by informed consent.

Explanations to participants should include information as to how their names came to the knowledge of the researcher. Researchers should identify themselves and the organisation responsible for the study and provide participants with a written note giving this information, together with a brief statement concerning the nature of the study.

The nature of any assurance of confidentiality or anonymity, or restrictions on the use of information, must be made clear to the participants and strictly adhered to. For further details on the Data Protection Act 1998 please refer to section 5 of this document.

The researcher should be aware that the use of records can present particular problems in relation to confidentiality.

7.4 Responsibilities of Data Collectors and Data Transcribers

Researchers have an obligation to make clear to their employers or sponsors that they cannot undertake work outside their research competence, and to decline work where limitations of competence or facilities in terms of money, time, personnel or equipment are such as to make the achievement of the research aims impossible.

The researcher must make clear to his or her employer or sponsor that ‘solutions’ to problems cannot be guaranteed and should make explicit the limitations of the proposed research.

The terms under which research is being carried out should be stated in a clear way with as much detail as possible, to avoid misunderstanding.

7.5 Responsibilities of Research Supervisors, Research Project Directors/Managers

The research supervisor(s) for each student is responsible for ensuring students are aware of the implementation of procedures and guidelines above. Project managers and directors are responsible for ensuring that research teams are aware of, and implement guidance and understand the importance of implementing the procedures.

7.6 Faculty/School

Deans and Heads of School have responsibility for: making researchers, staff and supervisors aware of ethical guidance providing specialist advice or advising where advice can be sought overseeing implementation of ethical policies and best practice.

The ultimate responsibility for the care of human participants rests with the researcher. Where NHS sites, records, staff, patients, carers or other vulnerable groups are involved, decisions should be referred to local Medical Research Ethics Committees and in the case of Social Services, Association of Directors of Social Services (ADSS).

7.7 University

The University is responsible for:

developing, operating and reviewing policies and guidelines which prevent unethical practices, and which are consistent with recognised standards and best practice in the disciplines

providing appropriate guidance supporting researchers who are undertaking research, which is ethically sound

through implementation of guidance and appropriate supervision. Establishing a University Research Ethics Sub-Committee of the Research and

Graduate Studies Committee

8. UNIVERSITY RESEARCH ETHICS SUB-COMMITTEE

8.1 Constitution

Chair: Determined by the University Research & Graduate Studies CommitteeMembers: Chairs of each of the Faculty Research Ethics Sub-Committees

Chair of University Research Awards Sub-Committee4 members with relevant experience, of whom at least two should be lay members and external to the University

Ex officio: University Secretary (or nominee)Representative(s) from the Centre for Research & Graduate Studies

Secretary: University Secretary’s Office

The Committee has the authority to co-opt additional members with expertise relevant to the terms of reference of the Committee.

Note: Members are not personally liable for decisions taken by the Committee

8.2 Terms of Reference

8.2.1 The Sub Committee has delegated authority to;

(a) consider the ethical propriety of research projects, as referred to it by Faculty Research Ethics Sub-Committee;

(b) provide information and advice to researchers in the University on issues related to research ethics.

8.2.2 The Sub Committee will advise the Research and Graduate Studies Committee on:

(a) a periodic review of the University’s Guidelines on Ethics Relating to Research;

(b) an annual report on its work

8.2.3 The Sub Committee will refer to the Vice-Chancellor:

(a) general ethical matters

(b) University wide issues of ethical concern

Staff, and students and their supervisors, may be required to attend the University Research Ethics Sub-Committee when their research proposals or other matters relating to the ethics of their research are being discussed.

8.3 Quorum

Six of whom one must be an external member.

8.4 Frequency of Meetings

The Committee shall meet as often as is necessary for the efficient conduct of business.

9. FACULTY RESEARCH ETHICS SUB-COMMITTEES

9.1 Constitution

Chair: Dean of Faculty or nominee.Members: Representation from each School, (maximum of six), such that key fields of

study across the Faculty are represented.One representative from another Faculty Research Ethics Sub-CommitteeUp to three additional members external to the Faculty, (who may also be external to the University).

Ex officio: Chair of Faculty Research & Graduate Studies CommitteeChair of Faculty Research Degrees Sub-Committee

Secretary: Appointed by Dean of Faculty

The Committee has the authority to co-opt additional members with expertise relevant to the terms of reference of the Committee.

Note: Members are not personally liable for decisions taken by the Committee

9.2 Terms of Reference

9.2.1 The Committee has delegated authority to:

(a) enquire into any matter of research ethics policy or practice submitted to it by the Dean of Faculty, Faculty Research & Graduate Studies Committee or Faculty Research Awards Sub-Committee;

(b) consider the ethical implication of individual proposed research projects submitted from School, Course or Group panels as appropriate;

(c) consider the ethical propriety of research being carried out by staff and students in the School/Faculty;

(d) provide advice to staff, supervisors and students on good practice and the ethics of their research;

(e) ensure the provision of Research Ethics Training to all appropriate staff, and grant exemption from training where applicable;

(f) provide information and advice to researchers in the Faculty on ethical issues relating to research;

(g) receive an annual report from School representatives on School research ethics management.

9.2.2 The Committee will advise the University Research Ethics Sub Committee on;

(a) the ethical propriety of individual research applications being carried out by staff or students;

(b) issues relating to research ethics policy, or practice arising from its work which may have University wide implications;

(c) report annually to the Faculty Research & Graduate Studies Committee, and to the University Research Ethics Sub-Committee.

Staff, and students and their supervisors, may be required to attend the Faculty Research Ethics Sub-Committee when their research proposals or other matters relating to the ethics of their research are being discussed.

9.3 Quorum

The quorum for meetings of the Faculty Research Ethics Sub-Committees shall be at least six members, including the Chair, and there must be at least one member who is external to the Faculty and lay representation where appropriate.

9.4 Frequency of Meetings

The Committee shall meet as often as is necessary for the efficient conduct of business.

10. PROCEDURES FOR ETHICAL CLEARANCE

Ethical clearance is required for all research involving human subjects undertaken by staff or postgraduate research students, and for masters/diploma students and final level undergraduate students undertaking a research project as final year dissertation. Staff will normally self-certify the ethical propriety of their research following consultation with appropriately qualified and experienced colleagues. Supervisors will normally certify the propriety of their students’ work.

The following procedures should be followed:

a) When a member of staff can confirm that their research conforms to the ethical standards established by the University’s Research Ethics Sub-Committee, s/he may certify this on a Research Ethics Release Form.

b) When a supervisor can confirm that a student’s research conforms to the ethical standards established by the University’s Research Ethics Sub-Committee, s/he may authorise it by signing a Research Ethics Release Form.

In the case of a student registering for a higher degree by research, a copy of the Research Ethics Release form must be attached to the research registration form (R1) on submission to the relevant Faculty Research Awards Sub-Committee.

c) All completed Research Ethics Release forms must be passed to the School representative on the Faculty Research Ethics Sub-Committee for consideration, recording and storage. The School representative will provide a full report of all approved Research Ethics Release forms to the Faculty Research Ethics Sub-Committee.

d) If the School representative rejects the Research Ethics Release form then a Request for Ethical Approval form should be completed for consideration by the Faculty Research Ethics Sub-Committee. The School representative should consult with the Chair of the Faculty Research Ethics Sub-Committee if they have any concerns or uncertainty about the ethical propriety of the research.

e) If a member of staff or supervisor has concerns or is uncertain about the ethical propriety of a piece of research they should consult the Chair of the Faculty Research Ethics Sub-Committee who can advise that a Research Ethics Release form may be completed or that a Request for Ethical Approval form should be completed for consideration by the Faculty Research Ethics Sub-Committee.

f) The Chair may decide that s/he cannot approve a project submitted on a Research Ethics Release Form, in which case the researcher would be asked to complete a Request for Ethical Approval form to be submitted to the Faculty Research Ethics Sub-Committee.

g) All Requests for Ethical Approval forms must be submitted to the appropriate Faculty Research Ethics Sub-Committee in advance of the

date of that committee. Deadline dates will be circulated by the Secretary to the Sub-Committee.

h) The Faculty Sub-Committee will assess the propriety of all research submitted to it on a Request for Ethical Approval form

i) Where the research comes under the jurisdiction of a Local Medical Research Ethics Committee, or other equivalent committee, a copy of the appropriate letter of approval should normally be attached to the Research Ethics Release form. Although neither the University nor the Faculty Research Ethics Sub-Committee can give final ethical approval to research that comes under such jurisdiction, it is essential that Leeds Metropolitan University procedures for research ethics are always applied alongside requirements from external approval committees.

j) Where members of the Committee are directly involved in a proposal they shall declare their interest and leave the room for the discussion and decision.

k) Where the Faculty Sub-Committee is unable, after discussion with the researcher(s) concerned, to resolve concerns and assure itself of the ethical propriety of research, it shall refer the matter to the Dean of Faculty for information and the University Research Ethics Sub-Committee for action.

l) The Committee may approve or reject a proposal, require amendments or defer a decision pending further information and/or advice. Where the Committee is of the view that it requires specialist advice it may seek the views of appropriate specialists either in writing or by attendance at a meeting. However, such specialist shall not be involved in making a decision.

m) Notification of the decision shall be made to the proposer in writing normally within 5 working days of the meeting. Full records of the decisions of the Committee shall be maintained and shall be open to all staff of the University, subject to any confidentiality constraints.

n) Where the Chair is of the view that a decision is required before the next available meeting of the Committee, s/he may make a decision. The Chair is expected to consult with as many other members of the Committee as is practical. It is expected that this route will be used rarely and sparingly. The proper collective consideration of ethical questions is a key principle. All such action taken in this way shall be reported in full to the next meeting of the Committee.

o) Where, in accordance with 9 (j), the Committee rejects a proposal or requires amendments, the applicant may request a review of the decision of the Committee. Such a request should be made in writing to the Secretary of the Committee. Such a request may only be on the basis of providing substantial new information or correcting points of fact. Once the Committee has considered a request to review the decision of the Committee there shall be no further right of appeal.

p) In accordance with School/Faculty policy, members of staff involved in Research may be required to attend Research Ethics training, or may be exempt from that training.

5.9 Request for ethical approvalLeeds Metropolitan University - Request for Ethical Approval

Please return the completed form to the Secretary of the Faculty Research Ethics Committee

Section A: The Applicant

1. Your contact detailsName:Address:Telephone:E-mail2. Contact details of lead researcher or supervisor (if Student project) if different from aboveName:Address:Telephone:E-mail:3. Contact detail(s) of other collaborator(s) on the projectName:Address:Telephone:E-mail4. Please tick type of Researcher

Final Year UndergraduateTaught PostgraduatePostgraduate Research StudentStaff – Higher DegreeStaff – other researchOther

Section B: The Project

5. Title of the Project

6. Expected duration of the projectStart date:

End date:

7. Aim(s) of the project

8. Briefly describe the overall design of the project (A copy of the protocol – no more than 2 sides of A4 – must be attached).

9. Briefly describe the methods of data collection and analysis

10. Has statistical/methodological advice been sought on the size and design of the project?If YES, please state name of adviser and qualifications.

11. What procedure(s) will be carried out on the participants?(Please explain in terms appropriate to a lay person)

12. What potential risk(s) to the participants do you foresee?

13. How do you propose to deal with potential risk(s) to participants?

14. What potential risk(s) to the researchers do you foresee?

15. How do you propose to deal with potential risk(s) to researchers?

16. Does the project involve any other Ethics Committee?If YES, please state which and what approval have already been obtained and attach all relevant documentation

17. Who is funding the project?Funding Body:

Amount:

18. Will any restrictions be imposed upon the conduct of the research by the funding body?If YES, please specify the nature of the restrictions.

19. Will any restrictions be placed on the publication of results?If YES, please state the nature of the restrictions.

Section C: The Participants20. Describe the number and type of participants likely to be involved.

21. State how potential research participants in the study will be identified, approached and recruited.If subjects are to be approached by letter please attach a specimen copy to this application

22. Will payments to participants be made?If YES, please state details of payment.

23. Will informed consent be obtained from all participants?If NOT, why not? Please provide rationale.If written, please attach a copy of the consent form.

24. If there are doubts about participants’ ability to give informed consent, what steps will be taken to ensure that the participant is willing to participate? For example, assistance of independent colleague, next of kin or other means.

25. If participants are aged 18 years or under please describe how you will seek informed consent.

26. How will consent be recorded?

27. How will the participants be briefed and debriefed?Please attach a copy of the information to be given to participants.

28. Will subjects be informed of the right to withdraw without penalty?If NOT, why not? Please provide rationale.

29. How do you propose to ensure participants’ confidentiality and anonymity?

30. How and where will data be stored?

Section D: Declaration

Please Tick

e) I have undertaken the University training for research ethics, I have read the guidelines provided and understand the ethical implications

or

f) I have read the University guidelines and understand the University’s procedures and am scheduled to undertake the University training.


I confirm that as Supervisor, I will monitor the progress of the project:

I confirm that the project complies with the Code of Practice of the following Professional Body

……………………………………………………………….

Signature of Applicant: Date:

Signature of Project Supervisor/Director of Studies (if applicable) Date:

Section E: Faculty Approval or Referral

EITHER:Following consideration by the Faculty Research Ethics Committee the above project is authorised and approved

Signature of Chair of Faculty Research Ethics Committee Date

ORThe Faculty Research Ethics Committee is unable to reach a conclusion, and the case is referred to the University Research Ethics Committee

Signature of Chair of Faculty Research Ethics Committee Date

The Chair of the Faculty Research Ethics Committee must send a copy of an APPROVED Request for Ethical Approval Form to the Secretary of the University Research Ethics Committee. The original ethical approval form should be kept in the Faculty. If the request is REFERRED the ORIGINAL Request for Ethical Approval Form must be sent to the Secretary of the University Research Ethics Committee.

Section F: University Approval or Rejection

EITHER:On behalf of the University Research Ethics Committee, I now authorise the above projectSignature of Chair of University Research Ethics Committee Date

ORThe University Research Ethics Committee is UNABLE TO APPROVE the project for the following reasons:

Signature of Chair of University Research Ethics Committee Date


TUESDAYTopic: Information

Leader: Thomas BreuerMembers: Oskar Müller, John Temperley, Miroslav Mandic

Agenda:

Time Contents8.30 Welcome and introduction

8.40 Thinking about research What is research? Why research? What is original?

9.00 Students present and explain their research ideas

9.30 Short break

9.35 Criteria for identifying an original topic Questioning the research ideaDefinition and limitations of the research questions

What are you planning to do? Why are you planning to do it? How are you going to do it? Which methods will be used and why? (refers to

corresponding workshop parts) What resources are required to do it? What outcomes are expected, and how will they be

promulgated?10.45 Coffee break

11.00 Planning the research project and keeping a research diary Time Management (planning realistic time scales) Mapping the project

11.45 Basic reading strategies Taking notes (using cards / on computer)

12.15 Lunch

13.15 Planning the literature searchSearching information sources (search techniques)

Libraries (selecting libraries / access to libraries / using libraries)

Electronic information resources (online databases / electronic journals / www)

Critical review of the literature (hierarchy and importance of sources)

14.00 Time for each student to develop his/her individual project plan (based on the initial research idea) and a corresponding


presentation Lecturer will be around if students need help Literature search will be possible in the library

15.30 Each student presents his/her project planFeedback of lecturer and group for each student

16.30 End of the workshop


6. Thinking about researchDipl. Betriebswirtin (FH) Antje Duden, University of Applied Sciences Vorarlberg (2004), [email protected]

6.1 What is research? Research is every intersubjective verifiable study of an objective fact as well as a systematic description respectively the explanation of a fact.

Figure 5: Epistemology basics

The describing sciences control their hypothesis through repeatable observation and experiments. The understanding sciences interpret a single fact, text, and incident.

Pure sciences(mathematics, logics)

Describing sciences (natural sciences)

Understanding sciences (arts sciences)

Deduction Induction InterpretationUnchanging ideas Unchanging be Changing ideas

Changing be Universally applicable legality

Universally applicable legality

Understanding single intentions and incidents

Object is necessary (determined)

Object is necessary (determined)

Object is by chance (contingent)

Derivation of axioms Observation of repeatable proceedings

Understanding of not repeatable proceedingsSubjective position of the observer

natural scienceGalilei (16. Jhd.)

culture and arts sciencesAristoteles (4. Jhd. v. Chr.)

describing understanding

nomothetic(gr. nomos = law)

ideographic(gr. ideo = idea)

inductive deductive

Induction specific to generalBuilding models

Deduction general to specific

Building hypothesis

Tradition of thinking

Gainingknowledge

Developa theory

Description



6.2 Why research?Research has five functions to fulfil:

Science: Research has an innovative effect in all parts of knowledge. Accumulation: Research ensures the gained knowledge through science,

discuss it and put their results into archives. Interpretation: Research interprets the scientific request to speak and the

human actions in that way that they are connected in a new and actual context.

Critics: Research positions it against the rational critics of others. Application: Research is applicable in all parts of culture, technique and nature

(not without ethical reservations).

6.3 What is original?6.3.1 Verifiability of methods

The used methods have to be disclosed. Besides the results also the discovery of the findings has to be presented.

6.3.2 Objectivity

Basically is the demand of scientific objectivity. The scientific objects have to be handled neutral and functional. An evaluation has not to take place. Nevertheless, the own opinion is allowed to present. This has to be made in the way that the own opinion is recognizable and explained.

6.3.3 Disclosement of the sources

All opinions used from other authors have to be apparent. Through a reference the original source is shown and everybody can view it at any time.

6.3.4 Understandable argumentation

The line of argumentation has to be in the way that it is understandable without aid.

6.3.5 Free accessible results

Results which are not freely accessible can not be seen as scientific texts.

6.3.6 Accuracy, reliability

Each author of a scientific text is obliged to work with as most accuracy as possible. The scientific public wants to have as much as possible reliability and honest. Especially all elements of citation and referencing have to be made meticulous.


6.3.7 Consistency

A scientific text have to be in a formal consistent was. Different referencing stiles, abbreviations, etc. should not be made.

Scientific working encloses some independent techniques which all focus on the use of texts and references

Investigation and bibliography Reading and extracts Collecting, saving and arrange the scientific material Analysing and documentation of the scientific material Layout of the scientific material (writing, citation, referencing) Workplace organisation and time management

Practice – Definition of research

Discuss with your neighbour the two following questions what is understand as research:

1. What makes research to research?2. What makes a PhD to a PhD?

Write down the results (minimum of two) and present it

7. Criteria for identifying an original topicDipl. Betriebswirtin (FH) Antje Duden, University of Applied Sciences Vorarlberg (2004), [email protected]

7.1 Questioning the research ideaFinding an adequate topic for a scientific work is a first important step which has to be considered carefully. The tasks of the author are especially to specify and limitate the topic.

Important criteria’s are

The topic should be in a “workable” way, this means enough literature should be present with out this the topic can not be handled exhaustively.

The topic should be concrete, this means clearly formulated and in a specific content defined.

The topic should not be too broad.



Check if the selected topic not already exists somewhere. The time consume should be estimated.

7.2 What are you planning to do?For selecting a topic different aids can be used

Articles from journals and magazines („open research questions“) Offers from companies and organisations („practice semester“) „Open question“ found in lectures, seminars or in the literature Material or questions which are already known in a certain way

Before contacting a supervisor prepare the meeting carefully. Also prepare a short description of the topic.

7.3 Research questionsDefinition and limitations of the research questions

Why are you planning to do it? How are you going to do it? Which methods will be used and why? What resources are required to do it? What outcomes are expected, and how will they be promulgated?

8. Planning the research projectDipl. Betriebswirtin (FH) Antje Duden, University of Applied Sciences Vorarlberg (2004), [email protected]

8.1 Topic Selection Put two/three initial ideas on paper Identify keywords Perform brief general search for information Read round potential topics Consult with potential supervisors (see list of specialists) Select and focus on agreed topic that should be interesting, practical,

achievable and academically rigorous Begin focused secondary information retrieval on research topic using books,

journals, electronic media, newspapers, popular press, information from industry etc.

The topic should:



be of interest to the researcher. “novel” or different. lend itself to an academically rigorous approach.

Topics may evolve from a variety of sources, for example, interest in a particular subject area by the student and/or supervisors or derived from a particular experience or problem found in the Industry. If a student is having difficulty in deciding on a topic, one way forward is to talk with a number of staff to identify possible topics of mutual interest.

It is important that appropriate supervision is available within the university. Freedom to pursue a particular topic will be governed by whether academic supervisors are able and willing to co-operate. There may be occasions when there is no member of staff with the expertise to supervise a particular topic, or the data required from industry are unobtainable / confidential.

ALSO Make sure that the information is obtainable and that co-operation is certain. Be sure that the proposed workload can be completed in the time.

Please refer to introduction to research methods notes for further information.

8.2 What is a dissertation?A dissertation provides an opportunity for the individual to demonstrate his/her ability to explore an issue of his/her own choice over a period of time. Essentially it is a student-centred effort but it must be planned, researched and written up with the advice of an academic supervisor whose role is to offer guidance in terms of specific knowledge, progress and a guarantee of the necessary quality requirements. The fist supervisor should be from the lecturing staff of the department. (A list of the names of staff who have agreed to supervise dissertations, and their research interests/subject specialisms, has been distributed). Where necessary, students may consult other members of staff/industrialists for their specialist knowledge where this is appropriate.

One of the main reasons for doing a dissertation is so that the competence of the researcher may be assessed. At postgraduate level, the presentation of the research should demonstrate both academic rigour and managerial relevance.

Research competence is concerned with:

(i) the ability to contribute to the solution of a particular managerial or industrial problem;(ii) the application of appropriate techniques to a particular situation, or even to discover something new. The research should certainly add to the existing body of knowledge.


Research is an “original investigation” carried out to gain further knowledge and understanding.

It can be:

a. pure/basic: theoretical or empirical work with no immediate practical implications; bit is more likely to be;

b. applied: directed toward a practical aim and objectives in order to solve a specific problem.

8.3 Types of dissertationsThere are a number of types of dissertation:

(i) investigation of a problem, question or issue.Any academic dissertation, however, needs not only to investigate but also to “explain”, to be critical of ideas and methods and to evaluate quality of evidence. These issues should be addressed as well as the consideration of a solution to the problem or the question that has been posed.

(ii) application of a particular theory, concept or model to a “real world” situation – perhaps for the first time or, more usually, in a situation or context in which it has not been applied previously.

(iii) critical analysis of the work of others (whether documentary evidence or secondary data) – in a reflective, incisive and evaluative way. This requires “Armchair theorising” or scholarship; thinking, reading and contemplation. (this, too, could lead to new ideas, theories and hypotheses).

This last type (iii) may be more difficult to do successfully than (i) or (ii).

8.4 Structure of the dissertationThe following elements should appear in any submission. These should not be interpreted as requiring a separate chapter for each.

Title page

Declaration

Abstract – a short summary of the research to introduce the reader to the Dissertation. This should not normally exceed one page.


Acknowledgements – these should refer to those people who have been of assistance in the completion of the research, for example: Supervisor, Industrialists, Administrative staff etc.

Contents page – list with page numbers for Chapters, Sections, Sub-sections only.

Introduction – background to the need for research, raising a series of issues that result in the formulation of an aim and objectives and perhaps the preliminary formulation of a research question or a hypothesis.

Literature Review – to ascertain and evaluate current knowledge and necessary background information. The literature review involves a survey of existing work on the topic in order to “set the scene” in the context of current knowledge. The literature review should culminate in a series of research questions or hypotheses related to an “unknown area” which is to be explored by the student.

Therefore, there is a need to classify, summarise, synthesise and comment on the existing literature (books, academic and industrial journal articles, trade magazines, newspapers, company information). Where there may not appear to be much existing literature to review, there are always associated areas that can be consulted, for example: theories and practices from other industries or disciplines. This approach can sometimes be used to demonstrate gaps or to apply alternative approaches or theories. In some cases, in the absence of existing literature, some preliminary primary data my have to be generated, for example by preliminary interviews.

The review should not only cover the topic itself (and associated areas) but also associated concepts – a source of theoretical ideas and to establish the theoretical, conceptual context of the study. The findings from the review might necessitate modification/refinement of the initial research question or hypothesis. Whether modified or not, the culmination of the literature review should identify the research questions/hypotheses to be answered/tested through the methodology.

Methodology – The methodology comprises an explanation of how the research was carried out, including a definition of the research population, the sampling methods adopted, the selection of secondary and primary (if applicable) data collection and outline of the method(s) of data analysis. Comment on and give reasons for any restrictions encountered and analytical procedures, with justification from the literature (and appropriate references) for the methods selected. Is the methodology appropriate and will it yield the information required to satisfy the appropriate objectives? This chapter should not only argue for the methods used but include discussion as to why certain potential methods where not used. (Include libraries used, and bibliographies and abstracts consulted).


Results, analysis, evaluation and discussion – a presentation and analysis of the research findings, an evaluation of the data/information generated, synthesised into summaries. (Raw data should be included in an Appendix). The outcomes should then be subject to evaluation/testing with reference to the research objectives/questions/hypotheses.

It is tempting to include all the material/information collected. Ensure that only material which helps achieve the aim is included. Be relevant! Any material, which is not relevant, should be discarded. The inclusion of irrelevant material will affect the overall mark since it will suggest lack of thought, logic or focus.

The whole study should be balanced and objective; evidence should lead to the conclusions and not vice versa. Do not start with pre-conceived ideas and set out to confirm them, however strongly and earnestly those ideas are felt or believed in. Be “enquiring” and be prepared for outcomes and conclusions contrary to the beliefs and ideas initially expected.

Conclusions, recommendations and research reflections/limitations.The conclusions should be based upon the research finding sand should identify the extent to which the aim/objectives have been met (or not). The examiner should be able to see easily where they have come from. They should not be produced out of “thin air”! The research process(es) should lead naturally to the conclusions.

Conclusions should relate not solely to the problem or question explored but also related to the body of knowledge generally an theories, models, etc. they should be considered in the context of the literature review so that the previous findings of other researchers/theories/models/systems can be confirmed or further refined. If the research is of an applied nature, the practical implications of the findings should also be identified and the implications discussed. Also include an appraisal of the significance for the field of study/domain within which the research has taken place.

Recommendations should include further avenues of research which have been identified, and/or consider applications to current industrial practice. The recommendations should be made for all interested parties, i.e. future researchers (what is left to do – future avenues for research), the industry (specific subgroups of personnel, such as managers, operatives or hoteliers as appropriate), the customers (if applicable).

The research reflections/limitations are an evaluation of the research process, for example: methods used including how they could have been improved. The student is expected to comment on any mistakes, errors and/or omissions. Are there any lessons to be learned? How might the study have been done differently in the light of experience? Are there any other sources of information that might have bee tapped? The reflections should indicate whether the researcher has learned how to research.


References – alphabetically list the references used in the text. Please use the Harvard system.

Appendices – to contain supportive information. They should be numbered.

8.5 Keeping a research diary

Figure 6: Learning curve / learning levels

8.6 Time Management Self management is also time management and behaviour management; the time itself is not manageable. Time management is a result of good self management.

The principle of time management is (Briese-Neumann, 1997; p.13):

“Doing the right things to the right time!”

Or as Jane Allan (1997; p. 8) in her book Time Management formulates:

Good time management is not about working harder,

The prerequisite therefore are the phases of the self management process:

Effectively treating information (learning / information treating). Focus activities towards a goal (goal setting/ problem definition).

Phase 1

Phase 2

Phase 3

Phase 4

complete understanding

time

learning level

incr

easi

ng u

nder

stan

ding

of

the

thin

g

Koenig (1990)


Pre-think the way to the goal in thoughts and plan it in steps (planning). Decide you for the best goal and the best way to the goal (decision). Go the planned way and realise the intentions consequently (realisation). Control the process regularly and draw conclusions from the goal setting,

planning and decisions (controlling / reflexion).

The individual steps of the self management process can be presented as clover-leaf or as achievement of objectives – controlling loop.

Figure 7: Achievement of objectives – controlling loop

Figure 8: Spiral model of the self management process

goal setting

controlling

planning decision

realisation thinking and information

-

concept building / decision

execution

planning goalsetting / problem description

goal


Practice – Planning procedures

To reach the objectives in the set period of time, it is necessary to acquire and to structure procedures, meetings and methods. Procedures in days, weeks, months, quarters and years can be planed and managed with various systems.

Solve the following task in a team:

Present your personal planning system to the others. List in the above table:

a) Type of planning systemb) Advantages of the planning systemsc) Disadvantages of the planning systems

Visualise the group results on a pin board.

Allocation on the pin board:

Period of time Planning system Advantages Disadvantages

Day

Week

Month /quarter

Half year/ year

8.7 Mapping the project

Substance: Attribute: I ask myself:

Subject „Title“ of the information2 to 3 key words

What is it all about? What is the learning objective? What is the key problem?

Key note generalization rules key arguments key statements model features problem solving

What does the author really wants to say to the subject? What is his message, his concern?

What is said in the first and last sentence of a paragraph or in the first or last paragraph in a chapter?

What are the arguments and conclusions in the discussion?


Supporting details explanations examples data survey appendix

How are the key notes visualised and presented?

Whit what is something proved?

Secondary facts More homogenous examples aggrandizements digressions

Table 2: Method for the determination of the information building (cf. Metzger, 1996; p. 58)

9. Basic reading strategiesDipl. Betriebswirtin (FH) Antje Duden, University of Applied Sciences Vorarlberg (2004), [email protected]

The reading of scientific texts requisite own techniques and methods. Reading implies emotions, pre-understandings and advantages of the reader. The main part of reading is coming from subjective sources: One is always reading itself.

Do not forget the added value through reading: Scientific reading is consolidating the identity of the author, is an exhaustless idea source, gets acquainted with methods of thinking, corrects wrong assessments, structures subjective standard of knowledge and conveys the style of scientific writing. Reading is the most important part of scientific working. It should always be a reciprocal interaction with writing.

Acquire for yourself a reading journal, where you put down your ideas, intentions, concepts, etc. Reading and writing is seen as a developing entity. The documentation of this development in a reading journal can be a great value.

9.1 Reading processThe reading process is divided in four sequenced parts (Werder 1994, p. 21-25):

1. Reading preparation Analysis of the subject Inspection and selection of texts Set reading objectives

2. Reading Identification of words Acquiring statements Understanding text structures Acquiring the whole text

3. Post processing the reading Paraphrase, analyse and comment the read texts



4. Application of the text Write a text with a reference to the read text Controlling through revising and evaluating reading

9.2 Techniques of creative reading

Reading preparation

Brainstorming Brain floating Free writing Working on the title All lies and truths for the subject Title network Visualise the title

Reading accompaniment Accessory sentence and theses Key idea Own key idea

1. Traditional 2. Rational

3. Socratic4. Rhetorical

reading

excerption

Questions

Structure

the text

not encoding

the sense

SQR

SQ3R

PQ4R

Smiths method

metaphors,

similes

Blablablablablabla

„my comment“

Who?

How?

What?

Why?

Where?

When?

Who?

How?

What?

Why?

Where?

When?

5. Correction

Read

the own

text

Quick reading from the right to theleft, (standard) correction marks,mark things which are not

fitting ,beware of the argumentation

5. Correction

Read

the own

text

Quick reading from the right to theleft, (standard) correction marks,mark things which are not

fitting ,beware of the argumentation

7. Creative

Use

creativity

methods

Brainstorming,

visualise texts,

collect definitions,

truth and lies

7. Creative

Use

creativity

methods

Brainstorming,

visualise texts,


truth and lies

Brainstorming,

visualise texts,


truth and lies

6. Critical

Social development

Inner contrarieties

From the detail

to the whole

6. Critical

Social development

Inner contrarieties

From the detail

to the whole

8. ComparisonsGo through more chapters / books with the same subject

9. CursoryCross reading,

get a general view




get a general view


get a general view


Deduction and induction of the key idea Techniques of proving the truth Signal word Structures of argumentation

Post processing the reading

Opinions of the author, own opinion Visualise the key ideas (card, diagram, cluster, Mind-

Map, etc. Text snowballing of the text reproduction Text critics Text network

Application of the text Free writing for defence and critics of the text Collect definitions and write an own text Summary of the reading in literary forms

Table 3: Most important techniques of creative reading

9.3 Taking notes The material has to be collected and edited. During the research process often old material collections are used. Therefore a well structured system has to be developed for using in a longer period of time.

Design a useful material order system and use some time for the design of this system. Corrections during the analysis or writing phase can lead to disorder and confusion.

Collection of scientific material always means also selection. Reduce your material collection in a first step to the really important sources.

For the collection of the material different Medias can be used:

9.3.1 Photo copy

This is a simple collection method. The material can be edited at home, the material is error-free and literal, it can be marked and comments can be made. Photo copies are a cheap reproduction possibility.

9.3.2 Excerpt

An excerpt is a summary or a literal reproduction of a text passage. Literal reproductions are set with quotation marks and with an exact quotation reference. Original page breaks are marked with squared brackets. The summary of excerpts boosts the understanding of the text and forces to the concentration of key statements.

9.3.3 File card

File cards are suitable very good for excerpts. All above mentioned information have to be on the card (in acronyms).

9.3.4 Data bank

Instead of putting excerpts of file card they also can be put into a data bank.


9.3.5 Concordance book mark

A useful instrument of referring is a book mark with the important key words (inclusive page) during the material collection phase. Creating a concordance book mark only makes sense when the literature source can be used over a longer time.

Title

V. Flusser: Media culture

p. 77/ key word: "List"

p. 89-102/ Details of the film

p. 190/ paradigm change

9.3.6 Tray

For the storage of the collected material document files, hang registers, card boxes and as well also the computer.

9.3.7 Textual structure

For the naming of the collected material it is useful to develop a rough structure in advance. With this structure the material can be classified in a first step.

10. Planning the literature searchDipl. Betriebswirtin (FH) Antje Duden, University of Applied Sciences Vorarlberg (2004), [email protected]

10.1 Searching information sources For the search for scientific literature consult following scientific publications:

10.1.1 Scientific journals

In library the journals of the actual volume are stored in so called “Huber-boxes”. Normally the older volumes can be found bounded in the library. For the provision of the yearly table of contents or an internet index can be used.

10.1.2 Anthology

Anthologies contain different texts to a specific topic. In most cases they track the same purpose:



Cross section of the research Status quo of the research Reader (important text of the subject history) Congress reader Event documentation Festschrift

10.1.3 Text book, initiation

Text books induct into a specific scientific part.

10.1.4 Hand book

Hand books try to cover a scientific part in the whole and to present a status quo of the research.

10.1.5 Monograph

A monograph is a special discourse to a specific topic from an author. A monograph can also represent a subjective perspective of the author (e.g. interpretation texts).

10.1.6 Pamphlets

Pamphlets are an accumulative term for all external publications of the publishing and book industry. Examples are e.g.:

Publications of institutions Company report Reports Doctoral thesis, diploma thesis, seminar reports

10.2 Search techniques10.2.1 Snowball system

Investigation with the “snowball system” is the classic method for literature search. It can only be used as “entrance” because it is not delivering a sufficient result.

The key idea of the snowball system is locating the central texts (standard literature) in a specific area of knowledge. After locating the fundamental literature the found references and links in the text are further bibliographic. Texts which are found constantly can be seen as very relevant.

10.2.2 Hand books and subject dictionary

For the literature search after the snowball system and for the development of short texts at the start of the search a review of specific hand books and subject dictionaries should be made.


Hand books and subject dictionaries should be especially used:

for the determination of general fundamental theses, to get a first overview of the topic, as entrance into an detailed literature search, to understand connections between sub areas of the subject.

10.2.3 Bibliographic classification (systematic)

Libraries adjust their books according to a specific classification. Such a classification can be a first entrance into the literature search.

In the Anglo-Saxon area often standardised classification are used, e.g. the „Library of Congress Classification“ (http://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/lcco/lcco.html ), the „Dewey Decimal Classification“ (DDC) or the „Universal Decimal Classification“ (UDC). In the German-speaking are such standardised classification can not be found.

10.2.4 Bibliographies

Bibliographies present on the basis of complete citations texts and sources of a specific area of knowledge. Bibliographies do no contain information of the availability of the listed literature.

There are three forms of bibliographies to differentiate:

Periodical bibliographiesPeriodical bibliographies appear in categorical time intervals and provide information for all publications in a geographical area, in an institution, etc. published (e.g. various national bibliographies, etc.)

Special bibliographiesSpecial bibliographies are narrowed to a specific area of knowledge and register also depended published articles.

AbstractsAbstracts are short summaries of scientific publications. They are offered as part of bibliographies or in online data bases.

10.2.5 Book trading catalogs

Book trading catalogs list all deliverable books and digital media.

10.2.6 Online recherche

Specific search techniques facilitate an unerring recherche in the online catalogs. Most catalogs offer detailed search masks which should be used categorical.

http://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/lcco/lcco.html


10.3 Critical review of the literature

Figure 9: Assessing literature

11. Recommended literature & linksAnderson, Jonathan; Millicent Poole (2001): Assignment and thesis writing. 4th ed.

Milton; Sydney; Melbourne: John Wiley & Sons.

Bell, Judith (1999): Doing your research project. A guide for first-time researchers in education and social science. 3rd ed. Maidenhead; Philadelphia: Open University Press.

Berry, Ralph (2000): The Research Project. How to write it. 4th ed. London: Routledge.

Blaxter, Loraine; Christina Hughes; Malcolm Tight (2001): How to research. 2nd ed. Buckingham; Philadelphia: Open University Press.

Bünting, K.-D. (1996): Schreiben im Studium, Berlin.

Delamont, Sara (2004): Supervising the doctorate: a guide to success 2nd ed.

Dunleavy, Patrick (2003): Authoring a PhD : how to plan, draft, write and finish a doctoral thesis or dissertation

Eco, U. (1993): Wie man eine wissenschaftliche Abschlußsarbeit schreibt, Heidelberg.

Kugemann, W. F. (1991): Lerntechniken für Erwachsene

TitleFirst hint –

often misleading

Under titleContains mostly important

factual information

PublisherSpecific reputation, special

offers

Clap text (behind or inside)

Further explanations of the

book content

Author Maybe she/he fits in a

“school” or a “direction”

AbstractsSummary of the main

results

ReferencesClassify the used topics /

personStructureInformation of the set-up

and the focus - - exclusion

criteria


Langer, I.; Schulz von Thun, F. & Tausch, R. (2002): Sich verständlich ausdrücken, München.

Lompscher, J. (1996): Lehr- und Lernprobleme im Studium, Bern.

Meehan, E. J. (1992): Praxos des wissenschaftlichen Denkens – Ein Arbeitsbuch für Studierende, Reinbek.

Metzig, W. & Schuster, M. (1993): Lernen zu lernen, Berlin.

Murray Rowena: The viva. Undated. Multimedia pack.

Phillips, Estelle M. (2005): How to get a PhD: a handbook for students and their supervisors / Estelle M. Phillips and Derek S. Pugh. 4th edition.

Rost, F. (1997): Lern- und Arbeitstechniken für pädagogische Studiengänge, Opladen.

Rückriem, G.; Stary, J. & Franck, N. (1995): Die Technik wissenschaftlichen Arbeitens, Paderborn.

Rugg, Gordon (2004): The unwritten rules of PhD research

Salmon, Phillida (1992): Achieving a PhD: ten students' experiences

Schräder-Naef, R. (1993): Lerntraining für Erwachsene, Weinheim.

Sesink, W. (1997): Einführung in das wissenschaftliche Arbeiten, München.

Stary, J. & Kretschmer, H. (2000): Umgang mit wissenschaftlicher Literatur – Eine Arbeitshilfe, Frankfurt am Main.

Vollmer, G. & Hoberg, G. (1994): Top-Training: Lernen – Behalten – Anwenden, Stuttgart.

Wisker, Gina (2001): The postgraduate research handbook : succeed with your MA, MPhil, EdD and PhD

Leeds Metropolitan University – useful library links for researchershttp://www.leedsmet.ac.uk:8082/lco/php/support.php/research/

Leeds Metropolitan University – Skills for Learninghttp://www.leedsmet.ac.uk/lskills/

UK Higher Education and Research Opportunities in the United Kingdom (‘HERO’)http://www.hero.ac.uk

Leeds University - Useful links for researchers: http://www.leeds.ac.uk/sddu/Res_links.htm

Writing a Research Plan: http://nextwave.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/2002/07/23/2

Start your Research: http://www.nrf.ac.za/yenza/research/index.htm

Writing your Research Proposal: http://www.nrf.ac.za/methods/proposals.htm

http://www.nrf.ac.za/methods/proposals.htm

http://www.nrf.ac.za/yenza/research/index.htm

http://nextwave.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/2002/07/23/2

http://www.leeds.ac.uk/sddu/Res_links.htm

http://www.hero.ac.uk/

http://www.leedsmet.ac.uk/lskills/

http://www.leedsmet.ac.uk:8082/lco/php/support.php/research/


Proposal Writer’s Guide: http://www.research.umich.edu/proposals/pwg/pwgcomplete.html

Beginners Guide to the Research Proposal: http://www.ucalgary.ca/md/CAH/research/res_prop.htm

Persuasive Proposal Writing: http://www.biu.ac.il/RA/www/rserch/writing/write1.html.

Developing Your Research Plan: http://nextwave.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/2000/08/09/3

Vorarlberg University of Applied Sciences: http://www.fhv.at

Vorarlberg University of Applied Sciences Library: http://www.fhv.at/fhv/lib

http://www.fhv.at/fhv/lib

http://www.fhv.at/

http://nextwave.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/2000/08/09/3

http://www.biu.ac.il/RA/www/rserch/writing/write1.html

http://www.ucalgary.ca/md/CAH/research/res_prop.htm

http://www.research.umich.edu/proposals/pwg/pwgcomplete.html


WEDNESDAYTopic: Data collection and interpretation

Leader: Guido KempterMembers: Tihomir Vranesevic, Peter Cullen, Judith Garcia

Agenda:

Time Contents09.00 – 10.00

10.00 – 11.00

Data collection Population sampling Measurement theory (operationalisation) Criterions to select and balance techniques Data collection workshop

10.00 – 11.0015.00 – 16.00

13.00 – 14.0015.00 – 16.00

17.00 – 18.00

Data collection techniques lecture Qualitative techniques: questionnaire, interviews, focus

groups, content analysis, etc. Quantitative techniques: observation, physiological

measurement, content analysis, physical and chemical measurement

Experiments: physical models, models form human and social sciences

Data analysis - statistics: descriptive, inferential Data interpretation/presentation: matching data with the

model, discussion Data collection workshop

Workshop


12. Data collection<Peter>

Progressive Stages of Research:1) Generate ideas for topics2) Conduct preliminary research in field(s) of enquiry, i.e. background reading

and initial information collection3) Select topic4) Determine focus of study and produce research proposal, i.e. background,

aim, objectives and proposed methodology5) Carry out focused in-depth reading and detailed information collection on topic

area6) Plan methodology – possibly refine research proposal7) Draft plan for literature review8) Collect secondary/primary data and supportive information9) Analyse data and information10)Evaluate results11)Prepare and present findings12)Draw conclusions, reflections and make recommendations

Consider:(i) nature of information and data required – quantitative or qualitative or a mixture?(ii) how the required data can be collected.

Recording and transcribing information Questionnaires Individual interviews Group discussions/focus groups Observation Other techniques, for example, Delphi; projective; critical incident Specially developed or standardised tests Experimentation

Further to this, consider:

Analysing information from: internal secondary sources; external secondary sources and primary sources.

The above techniques are often combined in specific data collection procedures, perhaps employing a mixture of quantitative and qualitative methods.


12.1 Sampling issues & sampling methods (Ineson, E.M. (2002); Ineson, E.M. (2003) in Ed. Wood, R. and Brotherton. B. Encyclopaedia of hospitality management (in press))

A sample is a group of elements, items, people or cases (subset)taken from a research population for inspection. In quantitative studies, sample size should be considered relative to population size and also to ensure the validity of certain statistical tests. The sample characteristics should replicate the population characteristics as loosely as possible; the sampling technique selected should maximise the degree to which sample data represent the population, hence reliability and permit generalisation of findings. Samples may be selected using random (cf. probability) or non-random (cf. non-probability) methods. It is acceptable for qualitative researcher to work with small unrepresentative samples (Ineson 2003).

The sampling frame (operational definition) comprises all the accessible elements of the “research population”, ideally in list form but in random order with respect to any variations or similarities in the data. The appropriateness of readily available/published lists needs to be considered carefully to ensure that valuable elements and unique characteristics of the population of research interest are not lost, or systematically included or excluded, hence to minimize bias. The researcher, who may need to construct a list from scratch, should check the relevance, completeness, accuracy/precision and “up-to-dateness” of any sampling frame (Denscombe 2000) and also for duplication of elements (Ineson 2003).

The sample elements (n in total, where n is the sample size) are a subset of the population elements (N is the total number of elements in the population; N may be unknown). The sample elements may be referred to as the sample items, members, research participants (previously subjects) or cases; they are the base units from which or whom information is collected and comprise the sample data set. They are chosen using an appropriate sampling technique, or evolve, from the research population or sample frame according to the nature of the research and the requisite data (Ineson 2003).

Sample selection should be approached with a clear idea of what the researcher wants to achieve and how it can be achieved the method of sample selection should be chosen according to the nature of the data (qualitative or quantitative), the proposed method(s) of data analysis, and keeping in mind the aim, objectives, intentions and possible outcomes of the research. There are two basic methods of sample selection: (i) probability sampling, the key component of which is randomness and (ii) non-probability sampling. Probability sampling is used when the researcher wishes to test research hypotheses in order to make predictions and/or to draw conclusions that can be generalised to the research population. Therefore sample size and sample representativeness are key issues for consideration. Non-probability sampling tends to be used for the purpose of illustration, or explanation, or exploration, both in quantitative research to study relatively small groups which may be representative of the population, or in the discovery processes of qualitative research. Method of sample selection include behaviour sampling, cluster sampling, convenience sampling, multi—stage sampling, quota sampling, purposive sampling,


simple random sampling, repetitive sampling, snowball sampling stratified sampling, systematic sampling and theoretical sampling (Ineson 2003).

In quantitative research, the sample size should be determined from the outset. It is necessary to identify the population parameters prior to sampling. Many statistical tests operate on principles of variation, so the greater the diversity in population, the larger the requisite sample size. Certain (parametric) statistical tests are valid only when the samples (and maybe subsets of the samples in test employing comparative analysis) are of minimal specified sizes, usually 30 elements. Statistical formulae, used to calculate minimal sample sizes, employ confidence levels (usually 5%, 1% or 0,01%), sample standard deviation and acceptable error. The sampling error is the difference between the characteristics of sample and those of research population; the larger the sampling error, the less representative is the sample. Both sample size and homogeneity of the population affect degree of error due to chance. Qualitative researcher may employ unrepresentative samples of “unpredetermined” sizes in the processes of element, unit or case selection until the research arrives at the point of “theoretical saturation”, when new data confirm the analysis rather than add anything new, the sample size is “enough” (Densombe p206). In sampling, size is less important than representativeness; large samples don not guarantee accurate sets of results (Ineson 2003).

A representative sample reflects the characteristics of the research population in all respects that are potentially relevant to the study and the distribution of characteristics among the sample elements matches the distribution of those characteristics among the total population. Non-representative samples are “biased”; the sampling process should minimise bias. Probability sampling does not necessarily produce more representative samples than non-probability sampling although in the former, the sampling error can be evaluated statistically, i.e., the likelihood of the sample being biased. However, errors may be due to issues other than sampling; there is no guarantee that representative samples yield accurate results (Ineson 2003).

What sampling methods are available to you and what are their relative advantages and disadvantages? Examples are:

Simple Random SamplingEvery item in the population has an equal chance of being selected and the selection of one item or subject is independent of the selection of all other items or subjects. (Ineson 2002)

Stratified Random SamplingStratified sampling uses prior information on a heterogeneous population to create more homogenous subsets or strata, pertaining to specific criteria of import to the researcher. In order to achieve representativeness, the number of elements (sub-sample) selected randomly from within each stratum should ensure proportionate representation from all the strata in the total sample, and so reflect the characteristics of the research population. Stratified sampling allows the researcher to maintain control over the sample selection and saves time and money. When quantitative research design focuses on the process of


multi-way stratification, sub-samples should be sufficiently large to permit valid statistical testing (Ineson 2003).

Cluster SamplingCluster sampling involves selecting groups of sample elements form a naturally occurring cluster or clusters, or even a series of whole clusters, that are in close proximity to one another. The research population is large with no clear sampling frame. Either clusters or sample elements within clusters are chosen randomly or systematically. Because clusters or sample elements are not selected individually, this is a non-random technique appropriate in either qualitative or quantitative studies when time, cost or geographical location(s) are of concern. To reduce sampling error, maximise the number of clusters and minimise the number of elements from each cluster (Ineson 2003).

Quota SamplingIn quota sampling, the researcher makes, and justifies, a decision to sample a quota, or fixed number of elements, from one or more subgroups. It is used when the composition of the target population is known and when subgroups within the sample frame can be defined clearly. Sample elements matching the characteristics of the subgroups are sought (nonrandomly) until each subgroup quota is reached. Quota sampling is used when a population is large to obtain a quick overview, such as in street surveys or opinion polls. Some representativeness is ensured but external validity is questionable due to probable sampling bias (Ineson 2003).

Snowball SamplingThis method may be used when it is not possible to define the sample frame but the requisite characteristics of the research items or subjects can be identified clearly. The researcher begins with one or more known or recommended contacts who then recommend further items or subjects for study. In turn, the second set of contacts is used to make further contacts and so on until there are no new cases, the desired quota has been reached or the requisite amount of data has been collected (Ineson 2002).

Stage Sampling (Two or more stages)(i) The research population is subdivided in to groups or clusters. (ii) A predetermined number of groups or clusters are selected randomly and then each chosen group is divided into smaller subgroups or sub-clusters. (iii) Individuals or units from within these subgroups or sub-clusters are selected at random for study (Two stage). The process, i.e. (i) then (ii), may continue until the required degree of refinement has been reached before (iii) takes place (Multi-stage). Because of the random features of this approach, the sampling error may be calculated statistically (Ineson 2002).

Systematic or Quasi-random SamplingSystematic sampling is a non-random technique that employs the selection of every nth element where n is the sampling interval. The population must be homogenous in relation to the research criteria and the sampling interval should not coincide with any pattern, regularity, cyclical, annual, seasonal or


geographical variation in the data. Systematic sampling in most effective when there is a sample frame, perhaps in the form of a computer-generated list. Sample selection starts from a random point on the list and the sampling interval are determined by the size of the sampling frame and the size of the required sample (Ineson 2003).

Theoretical SamplingThis is a non-probability technique used in qualitative research when the size and composition of sample are not predictable at the outset. It is “directed by evolving theories; it is a sampling of incidents, events, activities, populations” (Strauss 1987: 21). The sample (usually small) evolves through a discovery process based on the development of a theory or theories “grounded” in evidence as opposed to following a pre-determined plan or set of rules. Evolving theories prompt the choice of elements/instances in each subsequent sampling phase and new evidence is used to modify or confirm the sampling progression (Ineson 2003).

Purposive SamplingPurposive or judgmental sampling is a non-probability sampling method used when there is interest in the entire population of a limited subgroup. Sample elements are considered to be “typical”, “average” or “representative of the norm” but pertain to a specific research field and they are “handpicked” with a purpose in mind, usually because of their unique position/characteristics. Items or subjects may be chosen because they display a specific criterion or, they math a set of criteria, or they are of particular relevance to the topic under consideration. It is used for exploratory research, test or instrument validation or qualitative studies (Ineson 2003).

13. Data collection techniques13.1 Qualitative techniques<Tihomir>

Qualitative data are collected and used to assess perceptions, motivations and attitudes. Sometimes these data are referred to as ”soft” in contrast with “hard” quantitative data. Sometimes they can be quantified. The qualitative data collection techniques that you might consider are:

Interactionist methods view people’s behaviour as a product of the internal processes by which they interpret the situations in which they find themselves. The main premise is that people tend to act in accordance with how they perceive themselves in relation to other people. For example:

- Ethnography : a description and analysis of the lifestyles, practices or beliefs of individuals, cultures or communities in their natural setting.


- Phenomenology : describes and analyses the essence of the subjective experience, i.e. the world or life is perceived as the observed see it.

- Symbolic interactionism : viewed as a ”conversation of gestures”. These can be verbal or non-verbal and produce a “mutual adjustment of behaviour” between people. Each person uses the initial “gesture” of another person as a cue for his or her own action (gesture) until some shared understanding of a situation is produced. Most human understanding is symbolic, i.e. it depends on “shared understandings” between people regarding the nature of social life. If using this methodology, the task is to determine what these symbols are (and how they are sometimes misinterpreted) in order to paint a picture of a situation, an organisation or a society.

Case study: A case study is a detailed study of:- an individual person, unit or company (not recommended for MSc)- a group of people- potential application (sO of procedures(s) or system(s) through

observation, self reports or other secondary or primary information for the purpose of offering possible solution(s) to a problem.

Data are accumulated by different method and triangulation is often employed.

Field study: This is a study of predefined aspect of a particular genuine location or area for a specific purpose.

Methods of data collection

Observation Interviews Probed questioning techniques Focus groups Panel research Open-ended questioning Scaling techniques Projective techniques Delphi technique Critical incident technique

All these methods permit the use of small non-random samples. Nevertheless, your sampling method must be explained and justified in the context of the aim(s) of your study.


13.2 Quantitative techniques & Experiments Prof. Dr. Guido Kempter, University of Applied Sciences Vorarlberg (2004), [email protected]

Overall Goal in Selecting Research MethodsThe overall goal in selecting basic research method(s) is to get the most useful information to research question in the most cost-effective and realistic fashion. Consider the following questions during selecting research methods:

a. What information is needed to answer research question?

b. Of this information, how much can be collected and analysed in a low-cost and practical manner, e.g., using questionnaires, surveys and checklists?

c. How accurate will the information be?

d. Will the methods get all of the needed information?

e. What additional methods should and could be used if additional information is needed?

f. Will the information appear as credible to researchers?

g. Will the nature of the audience conform to the methods, e.g., will they fill out questionnaires carefully, engage in interviews or focus groups, let you examine their documentations, etc.?

h. Who can administer the methods now or is training required?

i. How can the information be analysed?

Note that, ideally, the researcher uses a combination of methods, for example, a questionnaire to quickly collect a great deal of information from a lot of people, and then systematic observation to get more in-depth information from certain aspects of questionnaire’s results. Perhaps case studies could then be used for more in-depth analysis of unique and notable cases, e.g., those who benefited or not from the program, those who quit the program, etc.

13.2.1 Questionnaire

The questionnaire is a very popular method of collecting responses to simple questions. The respondents can live far away, as the questionnaire can be mailed to them and they can mail it back to the researcher. To be able to ask exact questions, you must have an exact idea of what you want to know. You often have quantitative hypotheses with arithmetic variables.

Questionnaire is a good method if (a) the problem is well defined (perhaps as a hypothesis) and it will not be modified during the project, (b) all the questions to be answered are known in advance, resp. additional clarifying questions are not



necessary, (c) the range of possible answers is known in advance, (d) the questions involve mostly facts, quantities or easily definable physical matters, (e) there are questions that some respondents might prefer to answer anonymously and (f) you are keen on numerical analysis. Note that when using a questionnaire, you will only get the answers to your questions; you will have no means of asking additional questions (which you will have in an interview). This difference may be crucial in such research projects where you know the issue only superficially in the beginning and those additional questions might be essential. On the other hand, there are certainly projects where no additional questions are needed.

Whatever the method of asking, you must honour the respondents' right to know why they are questioned. That is why at the beginning of the form, you usually put an introduction where you state your organization and how the report of the enquiry is going to be used. Moreover, you should give a deadline for the return, and it is also advisable to include a self addressed, postage paid envelope. In many cases, it would be proper to state to which degree the respondent's statements will be kept confidential. It is often best not to include the respondent's signature or other identification in the form itself. However, you would probably want to put an identification symbol on the envelope. In the next phase, this symbol will enable you to detect the non-respondents and to mail the reminders.

13.2.2 Structured Interview

A method which is basically similar to the questionnaire is the structured interview, in which the interviewer just asks the prespecified questions and records the responses. Usually almost all of the questions are of the fixed-choice type. The method seems to combine the disadvantages of the interview and the questionnaire while giving no special advantages other than the results being easy to analyse statistically

13.2.3 Survey

The survey, another type of non experimental, descriptive study, does not involve direct observation by a researcher. Rather, inferences about behaviour are made from data collected via interviews or questionnaires. Interviews or questionnaires commonly include an assortment of forced-choice questions (e.g. True-False) or open-ended questions (e.g. short answer essay) to which subjects are asked to respond. This sort of data collection is sometimes referred to as a self-report. Surveys are particularly useful when researchers are interested in collecting data on aspects of behaviour that are difficult to observe directly (such as thoughts about suicide) and when it is desirable to sample a large number of subjects. Surveys are used extensively in the social and natural sciences to assess attitudes and opinions on a variety of subjects, from political views to facility usage in a National Park to sexual practices.

13.2.4 Telephone Survey

People can usually be contacted faster over the telephone than with other methods. If the Interviewers are using computer-assisted telephone interviewing, the results can be available minutes after completing the last interview. You can dial random


telephone numbers when you do not have the actual telephone numbers of potential respondents. Software, such as The Survey System, makes complex questionnaires practical by offering many logic options. It can automatically skip questions, perform calculations and modify questions based on the answers to earlier questions. It can check the logical consistency of answers and can present questions or answers choices in a random order. Skilled interviewers can often elicit longer or more complete answers than people will give on their own to mail, email surveys (though some people will give longer answers to Web page surveys). Interviewers can also ask for clarification of unclear responses. Some software, such as The Survey System, can combine survey answers with pre-existing information you have about the people being interviewed.

13.2.5 Mail Survey

This is the only kind of survey you can do if you have the names and addresses of the target population, but not their telephone numbers. The questionnaire can include pictures - something that is not possible over the phone. Mail surveys allow the respondent to answer at their leisure, rather than at the often inconvenient moment they are contacted for a phone or personal interview. For this reason, they are not considered as intrusive as other kinds of interviews. One way of improving response rates to mail surveys is to mail a postcard telling your sample to watch for a questionnaire in the next week or two. Another is to follow up a questionnaire mailing after a couple of weeks with a card asking people to return the questionnaire. The downside is that this doubles or triples your mailing cost. If you have purchased a mailing list from a supplier, you may also have to pay a second (and third) use fee - you often cannot buy the list once and re-use it. Another way to increase responses to mail surveys is to use an incentive. One possibility is to send a dollar bill (or more) along with the survey (or offer to donate the dollar to a charity specified by the respondent). If you do so, be sure to say that the dollar is a way of saying "thanks," rather than payment for their time. Many people will consider their time worth more than a dollar. Another possibility is to include the people who return completed surveys in a drawing for a prize. A third is to offer a copy of the (non-confidential) result highlights to those who complete the questionnaire. Any of these techniques will increase the response rates

13.2.6 Email Surveys

Email surveys are both very economical and very fast. More people have email than have full Internet access. This makes email a better choice than a Web page survey for some populations. On the other hand, email surveys are limited to simple questionnaires, whereas Web page surveys can include complex logic. An email questionnaire can gather several thousand responses within a day or two. There is practically no cost involved once the set up has been completed. You can attach pictures and sound files and the novelty element of an email survey often stimulates higher response levels than ordinary “snail” mail surveys.

Although use of email is growing very rapidly, it is not universal. Many “average” citizens still do not possess email facilities, especially older people and those in lower income and education groups. So email surveys do not reflect the population as a whole. At this stage they are probably best used in a corporate environment where


email is common or when most members of the target population are known to have email.

13.2.7 Web Page Surveys

Web surveys are rapidly gaining popularity. They are extremely fast since a questionnaire posted on a popular Web site can gather several thousand responses within a few hours. Many people who will respond to an email invitation to take a Web survey will do so the first day, and most will do so within a few days. There is practically no cost involved once the set up has been completed. Large samples do not cost more than smaller ones (except for any cost to acquire the sample). You can show pictures. Some Web survey software can also show video and play sound. Web page questionnaires can use complex question skipping logic, randomisations and other features not possible with paper questionnaires or most email surveys. These features can assure better data. Web page questionnaires can use colours, fonts and other formatting options not possible in most email surveys. A significant number of people will give more honest answers to questions about sensitive topics, such as drug use or sex, when giving their answers to a computer, instead of to a person or on paper. On average, people give longer answers to open-ended questions on Web page questionnaires than they do on other kinds of self-administered surveys. Some Web survey software, such as The Survey System, can combine the survey answers with pre-existing information you have about individuals taking a survey.

At this stage we recommend using the Internet for surveys mainly when your target population consists entirely or almost entirely of Internet users. Business-to-business research and employee attitude surveys can often meet this requirement. Surveys of the general population usually will not. Another reason to use a Web page survey is when you want to show video or both sound and graphics. A Web page survey may be the only practical way to have many people view and react to a video. In any case, be sure your survey software prevents people from completing more than one questionnaire. You may also want to restrict access by requiring a password (good software allows this option) or by putting the survey on a page that can only be accessed directly (i.e., there are no links to it from other pages).

13.2.8 Interview

The interview method of research is a conversation with a purpose and is non-experimental in design. The interviewer in one-to-one conversation collects detailed personal information from individuals using oral questions. The interview is used widely to supplement and extend our knowledge about individual(s) thoughts, feelings and behaviours. Or how they think they feel and behave. Interviews can give us both quantitative and qualitative data about participants' thoughts, feelings and behaviours. This is due to the standardisation and/or free ranging nature of questions asked. The more structured or standardised interview questions are, the more able you are to get quantitative data. Quantitative data is reliable and easy to analyse. The less structured and freer ranging the interview questions the more qualitative your data becomes. Qualitative data is difficult to analyse and is not as reliable. There are two categories of interview, the structured interview and unstructured interview. The key feature of the structured interview is in the pre-planning of all the


questions asked. Structured interviews also allow for replication of the interview with others. You can then generalise what you find out to the population from which your interview sample came. Structured interviews are conducted in various modes: face-to-face, by telephone, videophone and the Internet. There are three types of structured interview. The structured interview itself, the semi-structured and the clinical interview. A major feature, and difference, is the degree to which each use standardised and unplanned questions. Standardisation helps the reliability of your results and conclusions. The more use of unplanned questions, the less structured the interview becomes. Unplanned spontaneous questions are a key feature of the unstructured interview. Spontaneous questioning is more responsive to the participant. However spontaneous questioning does not allow for generalisation. Spontaneous questions can also be accused of generating invalid results and conclusions. Thus standardisation v. the free ranging nature of questions is both the main advantage and disadvantage of the interview method of research, in general and in particular, sampling bias.

13.2.9 Depth Interview

Involve one-to-one contact with respondents and are usually conducted face-to-face, although telephone interviews are sometimes used. The depth interview is very different from the tightly structured interview used in quantitative surveys or opinion polls: it is not only longer (45-60 minutes), but also more discursive and open-ended. The interviewer also has a greater level of flexibility: since they are not constrained by the order or wording of questions, s/he is able to cover the issues specified in the topic guide in a more context sensitive way, as they 'naturally' and conversationally emerge, and to probe responses to gain a full understanding of their meaning and/or implications.

13.2.10 Thematic Interview

The thematic interview resembles normal discussion: the respondent has the right to add any comments that she/he finds relevant, and if the interviewer finds these new topics interesting he/she takes the hint and may present additional questions based on the new viewpoint. But if the interviewer thinks the digression is unnecessary, he/she directs the conversation back to the originally selected themes. The interview is a good method, if (a) the object of study is not quite well known; the problem and the objective of the study may be revised during the project, (b) the range of possible answers cannot be known in advance. Some respondents may present viewpoints that are new and unknown to you, (c) you need the option of presenting additional questions based on the information from the respondents, (d) some respondents have possibly superior information and you wish to go deeper into the topic with them, (e) you can afford the extra time and cost of interviews and travels, (f) some of the respondents have difficulties to express themselves in writing and (g) you want to publish a report that interests even the general public. The thematic interview is a suitable method especially when you have no exact theory about the issue while on the contrary you are eager to learn about new viewpoints you had not anticipated. If you select this method, the respondents will often produce more new viewpoints than you can use.


13.2.11 Computer Direct Interviews

These are interviews in which the Interviewees enter their own answers directly into a computer. They can be used at malls, trade shows, offices, and so on. Some software systems can easily create computer-direct interviews. Some researchers set up a Web page survey for this purpose. By computer directed interviews you will get more accurate answers to sensitive questions (e.g. HIV-risk, drugs use). Employees are also more often willing to give more honest answers to a computer than to a person or paper questionnaire. You will be able to eliminate the interviewer bias. Different interviewers can ask questions in different ways, leading to different results. The computer asks the questions the same way every time. Furthermore, the computer direct interview can ensure people are not asked questions they should skip based on their earlier answers. These automatic skips are more accurate than relying on an interviewer reading a paper questionnaire. Finally, the response rates are usually higher. Computer-aided interviewing is still novel enough that some people will answer a computer interview when they would not have completed another kind of interview.

13.2.12 Narrative Record

The intent of creating a narrative record is to lay down an account of a behavioural episode which is as complete as possible in fully representing all that occurred. The researcher may try to take detailed written notes about the behaviour and other features of the situation or, using a tape recorder, record a detailed spoken commentary. Video cameras have proven an important tool for creating narrative records and, as these have become smaller and more portable, they are used increasingly in behavioural research. While the use of a video recorder can create a more complete and multi-dimensional account of behaviour, it is not appropriate in many situations in which the presence of the recorder and operator would change the nature of the behaviour which occurs. To be maximally useful as research data, narrative records created by an observer who is writing notes or speaking into a recorder, should be as objective as possible. To the extent possible, the observer should just record the observable elements of the situation in detail. It is not appropriate or useful for the observer to make guesses about such things as the motives which may be driving certain behaviours or the non-observable feelings and reactions of the players. If a researcher is involving others in the creation of narrative records, training and practice should be provided beforehand. Observers should be encouraged to record their accounts either while the behaviour is occurring or soon after.

13.2.13 Observation

Observation is a primary method of collecting data by human, mechanical, electrical or electronic means. The researcher may or may not have direct contact or communication with the people whose behaviour is being recorded. Observation techniques can be part of qualitative research as well as quantitative research techniques. There are six different ways of classifying observation methods:

a. participant and nonparticipant observation, depending on whether the researcher chooses to be part of the situation s/he is studying (e.g. studying


social interaction of tour groups by being a tour participant would be participant observation)

b. obtrusive and unobtrusive (or physical trace) observation, depending on whether the subjects being studied can detect the observation (e.g. hidden microphones or cameras observing behaviour and doing garbage audits to determine consumption are examples of unobtrusive observation)

c. observation in natural or contrived settings, whereby the behaviour is observed (usually unobtrusively) when and where it is occurring, while in the contrived setting the situation is recreated to speed up the behaviour

d. disguised and non-disguised observation, depending on whether the subjects being observed are aware that they are being studied or not. In disguised observation, the researcher may pretend to be someone else, e.g. "just" another tourist participating in the tour group, as opposed to the other tour group members being aware that s/he is a researcher.

e. Structured and unstructured observation, which refers to guidelines or a checklist being used for the aspects of the behaviour that are to be recorded; for instance, noting who starts the introductory conversation between two tour group members and what specific words are used by way of introduction.

f. Direct and indirect observation, depending on whether the behaviour is being observed as it occurs or after the fact, as in the case of TV viewing, for instance, where choice of program and channel flicking can all be recorded for later analysis.

The data being collected can concern an event or other occurrence rather than people. Although usually thought of as the observation of nonverbal behaviour, this is not necessarily true since comments and/or the exchange between people can also be recorded and would be considered part of this technique, as long as the investigator does not control or in some way manipulate what is being said. For instance, staging a typical sales encounter and recording the responses and reactions by the salesperson would qualify as observation technique. One distinct advantage of the observation technique is that it records actual behaviour, not what people say they said/did or believe they will say/do. Indeed, sometimes their actual recorded behaviour can be compared to their statements, to check for the validity of their responses. Especially when dealing with behaviour that might be subject to certain social pressure (for example, people deem themselves to be tolerant when their actual behaviour may be much less so) or conditioned responses (for example, people say they value nutrition, but will pick foods they know to be fatty or sweet), the observation technique can provide greater insights than an actual survey technique. On the other hand, the observation technique does not provide us with any insights into what the person may be thinking or what might motivate a given behaviour/comment. This type of information can only be obtained by asking people directly or indirectly.

When people are being observed, whether they are aware of it or not, ethical issues arise that must be considered by the researcher. Particularly with advances in technology, cameras and microphones have made it possible to gather a significant amount of information about verbal and non-verbal behaviour of customers as well as


employees that might easily be considered to be an invasion of privacy or abusive, particularly if the subject is unaware of being observed, yet the information is used to make decisions that impact him/her.

13.2.14 Naturalistic Observation

The naturalistic observation is a type of study classified under the broader category of field studies; no experimental approaches used in the field or in real-life settings. In the naturalistic observation method the researcher very carefully observes and records some behaviour or phenomenon, sometimes over a prolonged period, in its natural setting. The subjects or phenomena are not directly interfered with in any way. In the social sciences this usually involves observing humans or animals as they go about their activities in real life settings. In the natural sciences this may involve observing an animal or groups of animals or some physical phenomena, such as the eruption of a volcano. The major strength of this method is that it allows researchers to observe behaviour in the setting in which it normally occurs rather than the artificial and limited setting of the laboratory. Further uses might include studying nature for its own sake or using nature to validate some laboratory finding or theoretical concept.

13.2.15 Systematic Observation

Systematic observation is focused on particular categories of behaviours or other events. A research plan includes the identification of independent and dependent variables and usually a statement of a hypothesis. These then guide observation. In social sciences we frequently focus our observations on human behaviours which are related to the dependent variable. In natural sciences we focus on behavioural and other natural events and which are related to the dependent variable. Systematic observations are made under carefully specified and/or controlled circumstances. Because of the concern for limiting the ability of extraneous variables to influence behavioural outcomes and maximizing the ability to identify relationships between variables, such precision is essential. The procedures to be used in making systematic observations are usually specified in detail before the research is conducted and involve an agreed upon system for both observing and recording observational data. Through both the observational process itself and the subsequent data recording phase, objectivity is emphasized. Opportunities for observers to make their own interpretations of the significance or meaning of behaviours are minimized. This improves the level of agreement between scientists observing the same event, a key factor in observational research.

13.2.16 Focus group

Focus group research is based on facilitating an organized discussion with a group of individuals selected because they were believed to be representative of some class (ex., the class of consumers of a product, the class of typical users). Discussion is used to bring out insights and understandings in ways which simple questionnaire items may not be able to tap. Focus group is used because we can seek to tap emotional and unconscious motivations not amenable to the structured questions of conventional survey research. The interaction among focus group participants brings out differing perspectives through the language that is used by the discussants.


People get caught up in the spirit of group discussion and may reveal more than they would in the more formal interview setting. As discussants ask questions of each other, new avenues of exploration are opened. In discussions, multiple meanings are revealed as different discussants interpret topics of discussions in different ways. Interaction is the key to successful focus groups. In an interactive setting, discussants draw each other out, sparking new ideas. The reactions of each person spark ideas in others, and one person may fill in a gap left by others. One may even find a form of collaborative mental work, as discussants build on each other to come to a consensus that no one individual would have articulated on their own.

13.2.17 Case Study

This method is also a non-experimental, descriptive type of study. It involves an in-depth descriptive record, kept by an outside observer, of an individual or group of individuals. In the social sciences this often involves collecting and examining various observations and records of an individual's experiences and/or behaviours. Typical data collected might include biographical data, medical records, family history, observations, interviews, and the results of various psychological tests. In the natural sciences case studies might involve in-depth studies of a particular animal or group of animals or some detailed investigation of a particular physical phenomenon. Case studies are particularly useful when researchers want to get a detailed contextual view of an individual's life or of a particular phenomena. In the social sciences they are often used to help understand the social and familial factors that might be part of the development of some form of deviant behaviour in an individual. Natural scientists might use this method to study a single animal or a single instance of some physical phenomenon. Case studies are also useful when researchers cannot, for practical or ethical reasons, do experimental studies.

13.2.18 Content Analysis

Content analysis is a research tool used to determine the presence of certain words or concepts within texts or sets of texts. Researchers quantify and analyse the presence, meanings and relationships of such words and concepts, then make inferences about the messages within the texts, the writer(s), the audience, and even the culture and time of which these are a part. Texts can be defined broadly as books, book chapters, essays, interviews, discussions, newspaper headlines and articles, historical documents, speeches, conversations, advertising, theatre, informal conversation, or really any occurrence of communicative language. Texts in a single study may also represent a variety of different types of occurrences, such the study of two composition classes, in which student and teacher interviews are analysed, writing journals, classroom discussions and lectures, and out-of-class interaction sheets. To conduct a content analysis on any such text, the text is coded, or broken down, into manageable categories on a variety of levels--word, word sense, phrase, sentence, or theme--and then examined using one of content analysis' basic methods: conceptual analysis or relational analysis. Perhaps due to the fact that it can be applied to examine any piece of writing or occurrence of recorded communication, content analysis is currently used in a dizzying array of fields, ranging from marketing and media studies, to literature and rhetoric, ethnography and cultural studies, gender and age issues, sociology and political science,


psychology and cognitive science, and many other fields of inquiry. Additionally, content analysis reflects a close relationship with socio- and psycholinguistics, and is playing an integral role in the development of artificial intelligence.

There are two general categories of content analysis: conceptual analysis and relational analysis. Conceptual analysis can be thought of as establishing the existence and frequency of concepts – most often represented by words of phrases – in a text. For instance, say you have a hunch that your favourite poet often writes about hunger. With conceptual analysis you can determine how many times words such as “hunger,” “hungry,” “famished,” or “starving” appear in a volume of poems. In contrast, relational analysis goes one step further by examining the relationships among concepts in a text. Returning to the “hunger” example, with relational analysis, you could identify what other words or phrases “hunger” or “famished” appear next to and then determine what different meanings emerge as a result of these groupings.

13.2.19 Objective Test

A test can be defined as a standardized procedure for sampling behaviour and describing it with categories or scores. Psychological testing was originally designed for two purposes: to measure intelligence and to detect personality disorders. Over time, psychological testing has expanded to measure diverse concepts. Psychological tests must meet three criteria: (a) reliability, (b) standardization, and (3) validity. Tests are used by a variety of professionals, including school psychologists, special-education teachers, clinical psychologists, guidance counsellors, psychiatrists, speech therapists, guidance teachers, nurses and engineers.

Tests are used for a variety of purposes, which can be labelled as (a) classification, (b) self-understanding, (c) program evaluation, and (d) scientific inquiry. Classification involves a decision that a person belongs in a certain category. Self-understanding involves using test information as a source of information about oneself. Program evaluation involves the use of tests to assess the effectiveness of a particular program or course of action. For all areas of research (scientific inquiry), the precise measurement of individual differences made possible by well-constructed tests is an essential prerequisite. Professional journals in the social and behavioural sciences include studies which use psychological tests to operationally define relevant variables and to translate hypotheses into numerical statements that can be assessed statistically.

13.2.20 Projective Test

Projective tests are psychological tests in which a subject's responses to ambiguous or unstructured standard stimuli, such as a series of cartoons, abstract patterns, or incomplete sentences, are analysed in order to determine underlying personality traits, feelings, or attitudes. The main idea with projective tests is that people tend to structure their experience around their personality. People have characteristic values, assumptions about people, ways of characterizing themselves, conflicts, and generally ways of viewing the world. Often times people's reasons for doing things are clear. For example, if you see someone shoot a gun at someone else, you can imaging that the second person is pretty well motivated to avoid being shot, and are


likely to be frightened and angry. Such situations don't offer much insight into a person's personality, however, It is better to have a somewhat ambiguous situation instead, so that the person has to organize the situation. That way, what ever the person brings to the situation should reflect their characteristic disposition -- their personality. Projective tests are tests in which the test taker 'projects' his or her personality into a situation. Possibly the most famous projective test contains a series of inkblots. The test taker is shown an inkblot and asked "What might this be?" or "what does this look like?"

13.2.21 Psycho-physiological Measurement

Psycho-physiological measurement concerns the study of cognitive, emotional, and behavioural phenomena as related to and revealed through physiological principles and events. This method does not only address fundamental questions regarding human processes, but also provide a conceptual perspective that cuts across aspects of the natural and social sciences. Two cardinal postulates underlying psycho-physiological measurement are that physiological processes, subjective experience, and overt actions all harbour information about human nature and each of these domains also contains irrelevant data, artefacts, and misinformation. Consequently, knowledge regarding physiological mechanisms, biometric and psychometric properties, and experimental design is important in extracting veridical information about human nature. Consistent with this perspective, verbal reports as the standard of validity are challenged, reductionism as being the idealized endpoint in studies of human nature is rejected, and overt behaviour as the optimally sensitive or discriminable measure of underlying processes is questioned.

Psychophysiology reveals new insights about cognition, emotions and behaviour by measuring corresponding changes in physiological activity such as brain waves, heart rate, muscle tone, eye movement, eye gaze, skin conductivity, and blood pressure. Electrodermal activity has been one of the most widely used response system in psycho-physiology. This activity is measured through a pair of small electrodes placed on the surface of the skin. One of the most used paradigms involves measuring the elicitation and habituation of various indices of orienting response. The myoelectric signals from human muscles are also measured through surface electrodes. The electromyography indicates not only skeletomotor activity of body movement, facial expression, and eye movements but also emotional and cognitive processes. The recording of electrical activity of the brain has intrigued scientists and lay people alike. Inherent in the idea of electroencephalography is the possibility of having an objective marker that reflects underlying psychological processes. Electrodes must be chosen and appropriately placed on the scalp. The result of electroencephalography recorded from the surface of the head can be represented by various types of periodic activity. The cardiovascular system is seen in psycho-physiology primarily from the standpoint of behaviour and psychological processes. The cardiovascular activity is measured through electrocardiography, photoplethysmography, and blood pressure measurement and indicates, for example, attention, mental load, arousal, and different emotional states. Finally, different devices of eye tracking systems are capable of observing a person's pupil to determine the direction of their gaze.


13.3 Experiments13.3.1 Experimental method

The experimental method is one in which a researcher manipulates a variable (anything that can vary) under highly controlled conditions to see if this produces (causes) any changes in a second variable. The variable, or variables, that the researcher manipulates is called the independent variable while the second variable, the one measured for changes, is called the dependent variable. Independent variables are sometimes referred to as antecedent (preceding) conditions.

All scientific disciplines use this method because they are interested in understanding the laws (cause-and-effect relationships) of nature. The power of the experimental method derives from the fact that it allows researchers to detect cause-and-effect relationships. In order to see cause-and-effect relationships the researcher must be sure that his manipulations (the independent variable) are the only variables having an effect on the dependent variable. He does this by holding all other variables, variables that might also affect the dependent variable, constant (equivalent, the same). Only by this highly controlled procedure can the researcher be sure that the observed changes in the dependent variable were in fact caused by his manipulations.

Experimental studies, therefore, are used when the researcher is interested in determining cause-and-effect relationships. Also, this method can be used when it is appropriate, both practically and ethically, to manipulate the variables. However, a major limitation is that this method can only be used when it is practical and ethical for the researcher to manipulate the antecedent conditions. A psychologist for instance might want to know if parent's method of disciplining their children has an effect on how their children behave. It would be neither practical nor ethical to make parent's discipline their children in a certain way just to see if that effects their child's behaviour. A second limitation to this method is that experimental studies are usually done in the highly controlled setting of the laboratory. These conditions are artificial and may not reflect what really happens in the less controlled and infinitely more complex real world.

13.3.2 Correlational method

Correlation is classified as a non-experimental, descriptive method. The reason for that is because variables are not directly manipulated as they are in the experimental method. Although correlation is often described as a method of research in its own right, it is really more of a mathematical technique for summarizing data, it is a statistical tool. A correlational study is one designed to determine the degree and direction of relationship between two or more variables or measures of behaviour.The strength of this method lies in the fact that it can be used to determine if there is a relationship between two variables without having to directly manipulate those variables. In other words, correlation can be used when the experimental method cannot; correlation can be used when it is impractical and/or unethical to manipulate the variables. Correlation also can be used as a basis for prediction. For instance, if we know that two variables are highly correlated, say +.85, we can predict the value


of one by knowing the value of the other. Suppose that student admission scores and college grade point averages correlate at +.85. Knowing this, college admission officials can predict a student's grades in college, with a fair degree of accuracy, if they know that student's admission scores. The greatest limitation of correlation, one that is often forgotten, is that it does not tell researchers whether or not the relationship is causal. In other words, correlation does not and cannot prove causation. It only shows that two variables are related in a systematic way, but it does not prove nor disprove that the relationship is a cause-and-effect relationship. Only the experimental method can do that.

References

Babbie, E. (1990). Survey Research Methods. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.Converse, J. & S. Presser. (1986). Survey Questions. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Bales, Robert Freed (1979). SYMLOG: a system for the multiple level observation of groups. New York: Macmillan.

Bernard, Russell H. (2000). Chapter 9 and 10. In Social Research Methods. Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Cacioppo, J. T. , & Tassinary, L. G. (Eds.) (1990). Principals of Psychophysiology. Newy York: Cambridge University Press.

Dillman, D. (1978). Mail and Telephone Surveys: The Total Design Method. NY: Wiley.

Dillman, D. A. (2000). Mail and internet surveys: The tailored design method. New York: Wiley.

Fowler, F. (1993). Survey Research Methods. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Fowler, Floyd J., Jr., Survey Research Methods, 2nd ed. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1993 (or equivalent).

Hagan, F. (2000). Research Methods in Criminal Justice and Criminology. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Kettner-Polley, Richard B. (2000). Observations Systems. In Borgatta, Edgar F. & Rhonda J.V. Montgomery (eds.) Encyclopedia of Sociology, Volume 3, 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan.

Labaw, P. (1980). Advanced Questionnaire Design. Cambridge, MA: Abt Books.

Lofland, John, and Lyn H. Lofland, Analyzing Social Settings: A Guide to Qualitative Observation and Analysis, 3rd ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1995.

Miller, Delbert C., Handbook of Research Design and Social Measurement, 5th ed. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1991.

Nachmias, D. & C. (1981). Research Methods in the Social Sciences. NY: St. Martin's.

Rossi, P. et al. (1983). Handbook of Survey Research. NY: Academic.

Rubin, R.B., A.M. Rubin, and L.J. Piele (1993), Communication Research: Strategies and Sources, 3rd edition, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.


Senese, J. (1997). Applied Research Methods in Criminal Justice. Chicago: Nelson Hall.

Sudman, S. & N. Bradburn (1983). Asking Questions: A Practical Guide to Questionnaires. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Tourangeau, R., Rips, L. J., & Rasinski, K. A. (2000). The psychology of survey response. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Wimmer, R.D. and J.R. Dominick, Mass Media Research: An Introduction, 4th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1994.


THURSDAYTopic: Data collection and interpretation

Leader: Graham Orange Members: Horst O. Mayer

Agenda:

Time Contents09.00 – 10.0011.00 – 12.0013.00 – 14.0010.00 – 11.00

Data analysis lecture

Data analysis workshop14.00 -15.0015.00 -16.0017.00 -18.00

Data interpretation lecture Data interpretation workshop Final workshop


14. Data analysis Prof. Dr. Horst-Otto Mayer, University of Applied Sciences Vorarlberg (2004), [email protected] Translation by Mag. (FH) Silke Jurkowitsch [email protected]

14.1 Quantitative data analysis14.1.1 Steps

It is necessary to code the data, transmit the data in a file and make an error checking. Also, the data have to be prepared for the statistical analysis. This includes the transformation of variables, the forming of new variables and the building of scales and indices.

After the data preparation the statistical analysis can be started. The data preparation contains the description of the sample data (= descriptive statistic) and the test of the hypotheses (= inductive analysis). Both methods are divided in univariate (= one variable), bivariate (= two variables) and multivariate (three and more variables) statistic (cf. Berekhoven et. al, 1999; Diekmann, 2000).

Figure 10: Phases of the data analysis

Often techniques like correlation methods and factor analysis (e.g. for scaling purposes) are part of the second step but the description of the allocation and the hypotheses test about connections between the variables are made after the data preparation.

14.1.2 Coding & Error checking

To analyse the questionnaires, the participation reports, etc. it is necessary to transform the answers into numbers. This procedure is called coding. Thereby each variable of the questionnaires, the reports, etc. is assigned with numbers (for more information see Mayer, 2004, p. 113 ff.).

Coding,data transforming,

error checking

Forming new variables, indices and scales

Statistical Analysis:• Description

• Test hypotheses




After the data entry a control phase is necessary. During this phase the data is checked concerning values

outside of the coding (e.g. the value 6 in a coding between 1 and 5), implausible values (e.g. age of 135) respectively, contradict values (e.g. with the profession “doctor” the highest education is

secondary modern school).

If errors are identified, a comparison with the respective question is necessary. This can be made with less effort when the questionnaires, reports, etc. were coded before and entered as variable.

After the data entry and the error checking it is important to build new variables, transform variables respectively resume several variables to a variable (Index building and scaling). Before the next steps the created data file should be saved. The security file is used only as a backup if data is lost in the further procedure.

14.1.3 Index building & scaling

Index building

The measurement of theoretical items is made with indicators. Which indicators are used for a theoretical item, has to be founded theoretically in the index building. Nevertheless, the selection of indicators, their weighting, etc. is heavily depending on the researcher6 (Berekhoven et. al, 1999, p. 77). Therefore the method of index building is substantial different from the scaling method, because the scaling method determines the solidarity of indicators via methods of calculation, today normally with the factor analysis7.

During the analysis of the data, the variables were added up to a new variable, the index. The reason for the index building is to come back from the indicators to the theoretical item.

The variable “social milieu” is often measured with the support of the indicators “education” and “profession”. Have both indicators the same amount of characteristics they can be resumed through a simple adding to a layer index (= unweigthed additive index).

LAYER = EDUCATION + PROFESSION

In an additive index all indicators must have the same amount of characteristics, if not the indicators are coming in an unbalanced way into the index (cf. Friedrichs, 1995, p. 168; Schnell et. al., 1999, p. 163). Has the indicator EDUCATION four characteristics and the indicator PROFESSION eight characteristics and it is claimed 6 For instance within the scope of an analysis the theoretical item “virtual communication” could be a resume of the indicators

quantity of SMS (converted in minutes), quantity of e-mails (converted in minutes), stay in forums in minutes, stay in chats in minutes and length of telephone calls in minutes (each referred to e.g. a week). During the index building the various indicators are just added.

7 Often the index building is called as a subjective external assessment (through the researcher and not from the participant). The scaling is an objective external assessment because the solidarity of indicators is checked (see Berekhoven, 1999, Christof & Pepels, 1999).


that both indicators have the same weight in the index, it could be that in each case two characteristics are resumed. Is in the building of the layer index also the income in €, so it is not allowed to add it with the four characteristics of the indicators education and profession. The income has to be divided into four classes and add it then with the other variables.

Scaling

As mentioned before, for the measuring of a theoretical item more indicators are necessary. Whereas in the index building the resume is based on the researchers’ definition and discretion, the scaling examines mathematically if the indicators belong together (e.g. questions of a question battery) (for more information see Berekhoven, 1999; Diekmann, 2000; Mayer, 2004; Schnell, 1999). Normally this is made with the factor analysis.

For the measurement of satisfaction with the sales people following, e.g. five variables respective items were used:

1. The sales people appeal polite.2. The sales people have a friendly appearance.3. The sales people are very helpful.4. The sales people know all about the offering.5. The sales people know where to find the products.

The factor analysis is a method, which resumes variables respectively items, which are correlation heavily with each other. This means a huger amount of variables is analysed concerning similarities and is reduced to a small amount of factors, which can be understood as bundles of variables (cf. Christof & Pepels, 1999, p. 136). With the help of the factor analysis it is deemed to reduce the data pool (= data reduction) in the way that factors are calculated, which are underlying the actual exploited variables.

With the factor analysis it can be measured, if the used variables in the research are also indicators of a latent variable and if the various variables are approximating one or more dimensions of the latent variable.


Figure 11: Principle of the factor analysis

The factor analysis with the variables for the satisfaction with the sales people resulted in e.g. a two-factorial result. The items 1 to 3 load on the factor 1, which can be called politeness, friendliness. The items 4 and 5 are loading on the second faction, which is representing knowledge and skills of the sales people.

Figure 12: Two dimensions of the latent variable

For the further analysis out of the five indicators for the “satisfaction with the sales people” two new variables are built (= data reduction):

1. Politeness / Friendliness = Helpfulness + Politeness + Friendliness2. Knowledge / Skills = Offer + Location

With the factor analysis a huge amount of variables can be reduced to some few dimensions. This reduction of the variables contributes significantly to the increase of the information rate and the straightforwardness (cf. Berekhoven et. al, 1999, p. 219).

Variable 1

Variable 2

Variable 3

Variable 4

Variable 5

Factor 1

Factor 2

Satisfaction withthe sales people

Politeness,Friendliness

Knowledge,Skills

1. Politeness2. Friendliness3. Helpfulness

1. Knowledge of the offer2. Knowledge of the location


The prerequisite for the deployment of the factor analysis is a quantitative scale level of the used variables. Keep in mind that the method of the factor analysis8 can be adapted for the amount of the extracted factors and the used rotation method. When using the factor analysis it is necessary to consider that the results are very different causing of the various used methods. Also, the result interpretation depends on the researcher and needs some experiences (cf. Voß, 2000, p. 285; Bühl & Zöfel, 2000, p. 470)9. After the closing of the data preparation the new built data matrix is the fundament for the statistical analysis.

14.1.4 Statistical analysis

General

The descriptive statistic is focusing on presenting clear information to realise the basics very fast. With the inductive statistic it is researched if the sample results can be relied to the population. The following figure presents a collection of different methods of the descriptive and inductive statistic10.

Univariate methods Bivariate methods Multivariate methods

descriptive statistic

Tables Mean value Variance coefficient

Cross tabulation Various correlation

coefficients

Tables with 3 or more variables

Partial correlations coefficient

inductive statistic

² goodness-of-fit-test

simple t-test

² test Correlation analysis t-tests u-test

Multiple regression Co-variance

analysis

Table 4: Analysis methods for the descriptive and inductive statistic

Representativeness checking

For the assessment of the sample representativeness the variables which characteristics are known from the population have to be used11. Often these are sex and age. A comparison of sex in the population and in the sample can be made with the ² goodness-of-fit-test12. For testing age the simple t-test can be used13 (t-test with one sample).

8 Often the main component method is used. 9 A detailed explanation of the factor analysis with different rotation methods is found e.g. in Mayer, 2004, p. 134-147.10 More detailed information for these methods can be found in e.g. in Clauß et. al, 1999 and in Vortz, 1999. Examples from the

market research can be found in Green & Tull, 1982. 11 Thereby it is gone out, that if the tested variables have no significant variance from the population, this is also valid for the rest

of the variables (this is of course only a presumption). The sample is than, a small picture from the population. 12 The amount of the participants in the sample have to be at least 40, the expected frequency has to at least 1 and 80 %

respectively 5 (cf. Clauß et. al, 1999, p. 189). 13 A detailed description of the simple t-test can be found e.g. in Clauß et. al, 1999, p. 196 f.


Descriptive analysis

The task of the descriptive statistic contains the description of the allocation and their connections. Thereby it is differed in a univariate (one variable), bivariate (two variables) and multivariate analysis (three or more variables).

Univariate methods

The first step of the data analysis is the description of the frequency distribution of each variable. Besides the absolute frequency often the relative frequency in percent, the cumulated absolute frequency (= cumulative frequency) and the cumulative relative frequency in percent is the point of interest (cf. e.g. Diekmann, 2000, p. 555 f.). The added value of 76,5 in the column “cumulative relative frequency in %” shows, for instance that 76,5 % of the participants have an secondary modern school diploma or an apprenticeship respectively a secondary school diploma. The rounding from the relative frequency in percent differs sometimes minimal from 100. If this is annoying this circumstance can be handled through up and down rounding.

Code Absolute frequency

Relative frequency in

%

Cumulative absolute

frequency

Cumulative relative

frequency in %

Secondary modern school 1 23 5,5 23 5,5

Apprenticeship 2 298 71,0 321 76,5High school graduation 3 63 15,0 384 91,5University 4 36 8,6 420 100,1Sum 420 100,1Missing values 8

Table 5: Frequency allocation of the variable “education“

If there are less variable characteristics it is possible to represent the allocation in the form of a histogram. The allocation can have different forms14.

In tables and graphical forms there is a relative huge part of the primary information contained of the data. For some purposes another information reduction is requisited. Often a number, which is characteristic for the allocation, is seeked (cf. Kromrey, 1995, p. 329 f.). This is made mainly with the following measures15:

1. Mean value2. Variance coefficient

The most known mean value is the arithmetical mean value . The calculation of the arithmetical mean value requires a quantitative scale level of the data, and the data has to be at least approximately a normal distribution (cf. Clauß et. al, 1999, p. 36).

14 Different representation forms of the allocation can be found in e.g. in Diekmann, 2000, p. 559 and Clauß et. al, 1999, p. 23.

15 Detailed explanations are in Clauß et. al, 1999, p. 37-52, Diekmann, 2000, p. 563 ff and Kromrey, 1995, p. 339 ff.


The median is the value, which is in the middle of an item sorted by the set of the measured values. For the calculation at least ordinal scaled level has to be present. There are no claims concerning the allocation.

Another mean value is the modal value. It is the most recurrent value in an allocation. The modal value can be determined with data of all scale levels, therefore also for nominal scaled variables.

Mean values representing the “typical value” of a univariate method. Variance coefficients represent how “typical” a mean value is for the overall items of the measured values. Is the variance of the measured values lower, so the mean value of the allocation is more characterising. For characterising an allocation it is useful to specify besides the mean value also a degree of the variance16.

A high importance has the mean quadratic deviation, the variance (s²). The calculation of the variance requires a quantitative scale level from the data. The square root from the variance is called the standard deviation s.

Bivariate methods

A simple method for presenting connections between two variables (or more) is the cross table (or contingency table). As is customary, the independent variable is at the top of the table and the dependent variable is on the side (cf. Schnell et. al, 1999, p. 408 f.). In the following table is therefore the sex of the participants the independent17

and the education the dependent variable.

Sex Row sumFemale MaleSecondary modern school

14 (6,6 %( 9 (4,3 %) 23 (5,5 %)

Apprenticeship 142 (67,4 %) 156 (74,6 %) 298 (71,0 %)High school graduation 36 (17 %) 27 (12,9 %) 63 (15,0 %)University 19 (9 %) 17 (8,1 %) 36 (8,6 %)Column sum 211 (100 %) 209 (100 %) 420

Table 6: Connections between sex and education

From the table it can be seen that for instance that 75 % of the asked male participants made an apprenticeship. Only two third of the female participants have an apprenticeship. A university degree have 9 % of the females and 8,1 % of the males. Are the rows “high school graduation” and “university” added, than 26 % of the participated females have at least a high school degree, the percentage of the male is 21 %.

For the description of the connections between two variables (bivariate analysis) a lot of measures exist. As in the univariate method also here the scale level of the data has to be kept in mind.

16 A description of the different variance coefficients can be found e.g. in Clauß et. al, 1999, p. 37-52, Diekmann, 2000, p. 563 ff, Kromrey, 1995, p. 339 ff.

17 Sex is not depending on the education


quantitative ordinal nominal dichotom

quantitativeBravais -

PEARSON r

ordinalSPEADMAN R,

KENDAL

nominalContingency coefficient C

dichotom (two characteristics)

Variable xVa

riabl

e y

Table 7: Examples for connections measures18

Do two variables have different scale levels the lower level defines the choice of the coefficient (cf. Denz, 1989, p. 102).

Do both variables have a quantitative scale level, a normal distribution and a linear correlation, so the correlation coefficient r from Bravais-Pearson can be calculated. The values are between -1 and +1, whereas -1 is a strong negative correlation and +1 is a strong positive correlation. The value of r is the more lower the lower is the linear correlation between the variables. Is there no linear correlation the correlation coefficient is 0.

Figure 13: Different correlative correlations

The Bravais-Pearson correlation coefficient r is also called a measure correlation coefficient, product-moment correlation coefficient or simple a correlation coefficient (cf. Clauß et. al, 1999, p. 64, Kromrey, 1995). The square of the correlation coefficient (r²) specifies in which range the variance of one variable is determined through the variance of the other variable19.

18 A detailed description of the coefficients and the prerequisites for their calculation can be found in Clauß et. al, 1999.19 In a research of the dependence of the sales amount (dependent variable y) the price (independent variable x) a correlation

coefficient of r =0,9 was calculated. This is a value of r² of 0,81 which means 81 % of the variance of the sales is explained by the price, 19 % from other variables (cf. Berekhoven et. al, 1999, p. 200 ff).

x

y

x

y

x

y

r = +1 r ~ -0,8 r = 0


Do the variables have ordinal scale levels, so the correlation can be calculated with the help of the rank relation correlation coefficient r from Spearman and Krueger of with the rank relation correlation coefficient (Tau) from Kendal. The rank relation correlation coefficients are ranging also between -1 and +120.

The contingency coefficient C can also be calculated for nominal scaled data. The values are lying between 0 and 1, because in the nominal scale level no direction is specified. The characteristics can be arranged however it is wanted.

Do have the variables only have two characteristics (dichotomy variables) (Phi) is calculated. This coefficient is also lying between 0 and 1. and the contingency coefficient C are based on the ² value (Chi-Quadrat).

Multivariate methods

Sometimes a connection of two variables is caused by a third variable. This is a so-called pseudo correlation. A good example can be found by Paul F. Lazersfeld (cf. Diekmann, 2000, p. 603). He is referring to a positive correlation between the amount of firemen (x) at a fire and the amount of the fire damage (y). Such a correlation suggests not giving the fire department a phone call. This is not useful because the explaining third variable is the size of the fire. In a large fire more firemen are employed as in small fires. The amount of the fire damage is growing in overall with the size of the fire.

Figure 14: Interceding variable and pseudo correlation

The control of the third variable (multivariate analysis) preserves that a determined bivariate correlation is overrated respectively wrong interpreted as a causal correlation of a definite direction and weight. With quantitative data this control is made with the partial correlation coefficient and with the limitation that a linear correlation exists between the variables.

20 Calculation examples of the rank relation correlation coefficients R and can be found in Clauß et. al, 1999, p. 67 ff. Prerequisite for the calculation and their advantages and disadvantages of the both rank relation correlation coefficients are content of Röhr et. al, 1983, p. 162 ff.

Size of the fire(z)

Amount of firemen (x)

Amount offire damage (y)

Pseudo correlation


Inductive analysis

The task of the inductive analysis is the testing of the hypotheses. Starting point is the working hypothesis (H1) which assumes that there is an observed difference between the sample and the population. The observed difference between the measures (e.g. mean value and variance) is not by chance. The working hypothesis is negated for the statistical testing and therefore a null hypothesis (H0) is formulated. This hypothesis assumes that there is no difference (cf. Berekhoven et. al, 1999, p. 234 ff.).

H1: Between males and females is a significant mean value difference concerning the item “learning attitudes”.

H0: Between males and females is no significant mean value difference concerning the item “learning attitudes”

H1: Between the variable “age” and the variable “attitude concerning the product X” is a significant correlation.

H0: Between the variable “age” and the variable “attitude concerning the product X” is no significant correlation.

With the null hypothesis it is assumed that the real difference between the mean value and the variance respectively the real correlation between the two variables is null and the observed difference is varying from the sample by chance. Is the statistical analysis resulting that the null hypothesis has to be rejected than this is a significant (statistical secure) difference concerning the measure (mean value, variance) or a significant correlation between the two observed variables.

Each hypothesis testing contains the risk of misdetermination. An error of first art (-failure) is when the null hypothesis (H0) is rejected, for instance a correlation of two variables is significant, also when it is by chance (the working hypothesis H1 is wrongly assumed). The limit of the error of first art is marked through the probability of error (significance niveau). Is the null hypothesis (H0) maintained, even when it is wrong, this is an error of second art (-failure), for instance a true connection between two variable is not uncovered (the working hypothesis H1 is wrongly rejected). Both risks of misdetermination react contrary: a lower results in a higher and vice versa.

H0 is true H0 is not true

H0 is not rejected correcterror of second art

(-failure)

H0 is rejectederror of first art

(-failure)correct

Table 8: Art of errors in the inductive data analysis


The probability of error (significance niveau) and therefore the rejecting of the null hypothesis and to accept an alternative hypothesis depends on the researcher’s attitude and the research objective. The researcher has to consider which error he is accepting in ahead of the research (cf. Clauß et. al, 1999, p. 176 f.).

Often the probability of error of = 0,05 (5 %) is used (cf. Schnell et. al, 1999, p. 414; Röhr et. al, 1983, p. 21). Statements which have the probability of error of < 0,05 are called significant, statements with < 0,001 are called extremely significant. In tables this circumstance is presented with one, two or three stars (cf. Bühl & Zöhl, 2000, p. 109).

Probability of error Label Symbol > 0,05 not significant ns < 0,05 (5 %) significant * < 0,01 (1 %) very significant ** < 0,001 (0,1 %) extremely significant ***

Table 9: Labels and symbols for probabilities of error

The working hypothesis of the research can contain one-side or two-side questioning. The two-side questioning can for instance have a difference in both directions, whereas the one-side questioning has a difference in only one direction.

H1: Two-side questioningBetween males and females is a significant mean value difference concerning the item “learning attitudes”.

H1: One-side questioningThe females are significantly better concerning the mean value for the item “learning attitudes” difference than the males.

Also in the inductive analysis it can be differentiated between univariate, bivariate and multivariate methods. Furthermore, the scale levels have to be kept in mind.

Univariate methods

Univariate methods are for instance the ² goodness-of-fit-test (nominal scale level), the t-test for one sample (= simple t-test) (with quantitative scale levels). Both methods were already mentioned in connection with the checking of the representativeness.


Bivariate methods

Are the data nominal21 or dichotomy, than the ²-test can be made. The following conditions have to be fulfilled (cf. Clauß et. al, 1999, p. 225 + 241 f.):

1. The sample n has to be at least 60. 2. The expected cell values fe have to be at least 522.

Cells with less than 5 cases can be re-grouped.

The testing of the correlation between two ordinal and quantitative scaled variables can be made with the correlation analysis. This method results in the statement if a significant correlation between the measured values exists or if the observed correlation is by chance. With ordinal variables the rank correlation coefficient of Spearman or the rank correlation coefficient of Kendal is calculated. Whereas the rank correlation coefficient of Spearman is used in descriptive comparisons with the measure correlation coefficient and the Kendals is used for the significance testing (cf. Röhr et. al, 1983, p. 162 f). The testing of linear correlations for quantitative data is calculated via the correlation coefficient r from Bravais-Pearson.

Is the independent variable characterised with two groups (e.g. female and male) and is the dependent variable quantitative, so the differences between the two groups can be tested with the t-tests (t-test for the same variance, t-test for different variance). Is the dependent variable ordinal or not normally distributed than the u-test (= Mann-Whitney test) can be calculated. The normal distribution is tested with the Kolmogorov-Smirnov-test.

Are the mean values of more than two independent samples compared than a variance analysis is the suitable method. The dependent variable has to be quantitative. The significance is not interpreted as index of the measure of the impact for the dependent variable. It is said that this is a correlation. The strengths of the impact are specified for instance calculated with the coefficient (eta) respectively ²23. Further test methods for bivariate analysis are found in Clauß et. al (1999), Bühl & Zöfel (2000) and Bortz (1999).

Multivariate methods

Multiple regression analysis

With the multiple regression analysis the impact of more, independent variables into a dependent variable is researched. The coefficient b1 to bn of the equation

y = a + b1 * x1 + b2 *x2 + … + bn * xn

have to be assumed, whereas y is representing the dependent variable and x1 to xn are the independent variables. The factor is a constant. The regression coefficient b1 and bn are presenting how strong each independent variable x is influencing the 21 The variables should than have not to many characteristics otherwise they fall into another category. 22 Are there more than 2x2 rows and columns all cell values have to be at least 1 and 80% of them at least 5.23 For the calculations see e.g. Denz & Mayer, 2001, p. 96 f.


dependent variable y. The objective is to determine the regression coefficient for the independent variable in that way that the calculated values for the dependent variable are close to the observed values.

The independent variable x1 to xn have to be either in a quantitative scale level or as dichotomy variables (two characteristics). The dependent variable y has to be in a quantitative scale level (cf. Bortz, 1999, p. 415).

For instance it should be researched how age and sex of the customers influence the satisfaction with the sales people. Also, another independent variable which is included is the price orientation respectively the service orientation of the customers.

Figure 15: Measurement model for the variable „Politeness / Friendliness

Keep in mind that the result of the multiple regression analysis is depending heavily from the selection of the measurement model. Are additional independent variables included or is one of the four determinants abandoned than these are completely different results. It is important to include all fundamental variables into the regression; therefore it is necessary to ensure the theoretical measurement model.

Furthermore, it is responsible for seeing that the independent variables are not correlating to heavy with each other because with the increased dependence the quality of the assessment decreases. Is there a high correlation one of the affected variables has to be excluded. The rule of thumb is r > 0,75 (cf. Berekhoven et. al, 1999, p. 209).

The multiple regression analysis delivers besides the multiple correlation coefficient R and the multiple determination value R2 the beta coefficients, which determine the correlation of each independent variable with the dependent variable. The multiple correlation coefficient R represents how high all independent variables are correlating with the dependent variable. The multiple determination value R2 stands for the part of the variance of the dependent variable which is explained through all independent variables.

The beta coefficients can not be easily compared with the correlation coefficients. Therefore often it is useful to calculate the partial correlation coefficients. The result of such a calculation could be as follows:

Determinants x1, x2, x2, x4

Age

Sex

Price

Service

Politeness / Friendliness

Regular customer

Customer satisfaction y

Outcomes

Recommendation

Complaints

…


Figure 16: Effects of the four independent variables on the dependent variable y (partial correlation coefficients)

The satisfaction with the sales people is heavily influenced by the customers’ age. Elderly people are less satisfied with the politeness / friendliness than younger people. Females are more satisfied than males24. The price orientation is the most affecting result. Is the price in the forefront than the sales people are valued more polite and friendly. This is also valid for the service orientation but the impact of this variable is lower than the impact of the variable price orientation.

Instead of doing a multiple regression analysis it could be an idea just to correlate the independent variables x1 to x4 separately with the dependent variable y. But the independent variables x1 to x4 correlate heavily with each other. This means that each correlation with the dependent variable y contains effects which are caused through correlations with each other. Therefore it is necessary to remove these effects and only to calculate the pure effect of the independent variable x i to the dependent variable y. This effect is caused with the multiple regression analysis (cf. Denz, 1989, p. 123).

Co-variance analysis

A co-variance analysis has to be made when independent variables of nominal scale levels should be part of the analysis. The dependent variable has still to have a quantitative scale niveau. The co-variance analysis is calculated in SPSS after the method of the “overall linear model” (cf. Bortz, 1999, p. 447-470; Denz, 1989, p. 122 ff).

The coefficient ² determines the part of the variance of the dependent variable which can be followed back to the particular independent variable. ² for all independent variables together correspond to the multiple determination value R². The -coefficient can be calculated when the square root of the coefficient ² is made. The -coefficient presents the strengths of the coefficient between each particular independent and dependent variable. The -coefficients can be compared with the partial correlation coefficients in the multiple regression analysis. The algebraic sign has to be explained because the -coefficient can only be positive. 24 In this example females are coded with 1 and males with 2.

Determinants x1, x2, x2, x4

Age

Sex

Price

Service

Politeness / Friendliness

Regular customer

Customer satisfaction y

Outcomes

Recommendation

Complaints

…

-0,638

-0,390

0,842

0,339


Univariate co-variance analysis are made when besides quantitative and dichotomy independent variables in the analysis are also nominal scaled independent variables. The dependent variable has to have a quantitative scale niveau as in the multiple regression analysis.

14.2 Qualitative data analysis14.2.1 Steps

After the information is collected via different methods, this information has to be secured and structured with editing methods. With the analysis methods a material analysis can be done.

14.2.2 Preparation methods

Through different research methods it is attempted to represent information from the reality. These materials have to be recorded, prepared and ordered before it can be analysed.

Textual transcription

Often the textual transcription is used as a preparation method. Thereby a complete text recording of the verbal levied material is made. This is the fundament for a detailed interpretative analysis. There are different procedures. For the textual transcription three techniques can be used (cf. Mayring, 1999, p. 69 f.):

the international phonetic alphabet to display all dialects and languages the literary transcription, which is also displaying dialect in the common

alphabet the transcription into standard German

In the research (e.g. expert interviews) dialects are not relevant, sometimes annoying. In these cases it makes sense to ask the interview partner to speak in standard German.

Commented transcription

With the help of the commented transcription information for instance breaks, intonations, etc. are kept. Two methods can be differed:

breaks, intonations, language characteristics through symbols additional comments after defined criteria in a separate column or table

The additional information results in a difficult readability of the protocol. A commented transcription should only than be made when the additional information is important for the analysis. In most cases for instance in expert interviews are


breaks, intonations, language characteristics not important and are not used for the analysis25.

14.2.3 Analysis methods

Two methods are presented from the various analysis possibilities.

Content analysis

The content analysis analyses texts systematically. Therefore the material is separated and analysed step by step. In the focus of the analysis is a theoretical developed category system. With the help of this category system that aspects are determined which should be filtered out of the material (cf. Mayring, 1999; Lamnek, 1995b; Mayer, 2004). This procedure is different to the above mentioned phenomenology analysis which is a more interpretative and hermeneutical editing of text.

Three forms of the content analysis can be differed:

1. Summary2. Explication3. Structuring

In the summary the material is reduced that the basic information is kept. Through the abstraction a manageable summary can be made, which is still a picture of the detailed material.

The objective of the explication is to get additional material (items, sentences, etc.) for text parts. This additional material broadens the understanding and explains the text passage.

The structuring focuses on the filtering on specific aspects of the analysis material. This can only be made when order criteria are set before which allows a cross section of the material.

Phenomenology analysis

The fundamental idea of the phenomenology analysis is that perspectives of the subjective importance structure and intentions of individual person should be appointed to. It is necessary to get the core of the things and not to stick on the surface of the phenomenon. Therefore a given phenomenon is compared in different contexts or the contexts are varied. This is a focused analysis of the phenomenon.

The analysis starts with the phenomenon definition. The material collection has to refer to the description of the subjective-intentional perspective. In the first material screening the overall sense of the whole is determined. This overall impression of the whole material is important because the procedure is not very much formalised, is has to be justified in individual cases. In a second material screening importance 25 For more information see Mayring (1999), Flick (1999), Lamnek (1995b).


criterion elements are built with a view of the phenomenon. Subsequently the importance criteria elements are interpreted. In the last step the interpreted importance criteria elements are compared, connected and synthesized to a general phenomenon interpretation (cf. Mayring, 1999, p. 85 ff.).

References

Berekhoven, L., Eckert, W. & Ellenrieder, P. 1999, Marktforschung, Wiesbaden: Gabler.

Bortz, J. 1999, Statistik für Sozialwissenschaftler, Berlin: Springer.

Bühl, A., Zöfel, P. 2000, SPSS Version 10, München: Addison Wesley.

Clauß, G., Finze, F.-R. & Pratzsch, L. 1999, Statistik. Für Soziologen, Pädagogen, Psychologen und Mediziner. Grundlagen, Frankfurt a. M.: Harri Deutsch.

Christof, K. & Pepels, W. 1999, Praktische quantitative Marktforschung. München: Vahlen.

Denz, H. 1989, Einführung in die empirische Sozialforschung, Berlin: Springer.

Denz, H. & Mayer, H. O. 2001, Methoden der quantitativen Sozialforschung. In: Hug, T. (eds.), Wie kommt die Wissenschaft zu Wissen? Band 2, Hohengehren, p. 75-105.

Diekmann, A. 2000, Empirische Sozialforschung. Grundlagen, Methoden, Anwendung, Reinbek: Rowohlt.

Flick, U. 1999, Qualitative Forschung, Reinbek: Rowohlt.

Friedrichs, J. 1985, Methoden empirischer Sozialforschung, Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag.

Green, P.E. & Tull, D.S. 1982, Methoden und Techniken der Marketingforschung, Stuttgart: Poeschel.

Heinze, T. 2001, Qualitative Sozialforschung, München/Wien: Oldenbourg.

Kromrey, H. 1995, Empirische Sozialforschung - Modelle und Methoden der Datenerhebung und Datenauswertung, Opladen: UTB.

Lamnek, S. 1995a, Qualitative Sozialforschung, Band 1, Methoden und Techniken. Weinheim: Psychologie Verlags Union.

Lamnek, S. 1995b, Qualitative Sozialforschung, Band 2, Methodologie, Weinheim: Psychologie Verlags Union.

Mayer, H. O. 2004, Interview und schriftliche Befragung, München/Wien: Oldenbourg.

Mayring, P. 1999, Einführung in die qualitative Sozialforschung, Weinheim: Psychologie Verlags Union.

Röhr, M., Lose, H. & Ludwig, R. 1983, Statistik. Für Soziologen, Pädagogen, Psychologen und Mediziner, Band 2, Thun: Harri Deutsch.

Schnell, R., Hill, P. B. & Esser, E. 1999, Methoden der empirischen Sozialforschung. München/Wien: Oldenbourg.


Voß, W. 2000, Praktische Statistik mit SPSS, München/Wien: Hanser.

15. Data interpretation<???>


FRIDAYTopic: Publications and assessment

Leader: Graham Orange Members: ???

Agenda:

Time ContentsWriting for publications

Guidelines International standards - harvard system Referencing/citation Supervisor(s) role Workshops: preparation/evaluation of papers + evaluation of

peer reviewsPublication strategy

Conference ranking Publication/journal ranking Role of supervisor(s) Identification of publication partners Target

Assessment Assessment regulations Examiner selection/role Role of supervisor(s) Assessment process Submission Viva Examiners: what questions they may ask, how to defend,

what questions could they may askPlagiarism


16. Writing for publications<???>

Introduction

The main aim of scientific research is publication.The scientist must not only carry out scientific experiments but must write about the experiments and the finding of these experiments. Many people claim to carry out research but no matter how good the research, how dramatic the findings, the research is not completed until the results are published. Scientists may spend years of hard work collecting data and then let much of their research be lost because of lack of interest in the communication process. (NB PhD writing up). The research scientist must provide a written document of what was done, why it was done, how it was done and what was learned from it. Scientific research must be reproducible. Scientists are measured, and become known, primarily by their publications.

The Scientific Paper

A scientific paper is a written and published report describing original research results. The author should organise and write the manuscript so that it provides an easy structured pathway for editors, referees and ultimately readers to follow in reading the paper. Sufficient information must be included so that users of the data can assess observations, repeat the experiments, and assess whether the authors conclusions are justified by the data.

The paper should have distinctive and clearly evident component parts. Most scientific journals have a format similar to the following:

TitleAuthors and AddressesAbstract (a mini version of the paper)Introduction (what problem was studied?)Methods, or Materials and Methods (how the problem was studied?)Results (what were the findings?)Discussion (what do these findings mean?)In some cases the results may so complex or provide such contrast that immediate discussion seems necessary, and a combined Results and Discussion section would then be used.AcknowledgementsReferences

To determine how to organise the papers and which of the headings to use, refer to the Instruction for Authors of the journal you have selected.

Submitting the Manuscript

Which Journal do you select?


You will probably have thought about this when you are preparing the manuscript, since you will probably be typing the manuscript in accord with the Instructions to Authors.The requirements of journals vary widely from discipline to discipline, and even within the same discipline. However, certain basic principles are accepted in most scientific journals. Your choice depends on the nature of your work. You must identify those journals that publish in your subject area.

The need for clarity is important. Scientific writing is not designed for entertainment. Its purpose is to communicate new scientific findings. It should be as clear and simple as possible. There is no room for ornamentation.

What happens next?

17. Publication strategy<???>

18. Assessment<???>

19. Plagiarism<???>

phd-net: methodology programme - circle … · web viewit is a style of research which also...

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