ph.d. workshop proceedings · ikram nur muharam marketing visitor attractions in the digital age: a...

Ph.D. WORKSHOP

PROCEEDINGS

7 January 2020

University of Surrey

Guildford, UK

Editors:

Jason L. Stienmetz

Berta Ferrer-Rosell

Markus Schuckert

Stienmetz, Ferrer-Rosell & Schuckert (eds.) Proceedings of the ENTER2020 Ph.D. Workshop

ii

Proceedings of the ENTER2020 Ph.D. Workshop

7 January 2020

University of Surrey

School of Hospitality and Tourism Management

Guildford, UK

Organized by:

The International Federation for Information Technology and Travel & Tourism

University of Surrey, School of Hospitality and Tourism Management

Editors:

Jason L. Stienmetz, Modul University Vienna

Berta Ferrer-Rosell, University of Lleida

Markus Schuckert, Hong Kong Polytechnic University

ISBN: TBC

Copyright and related rights waived via CC0

https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/


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Preface

The ENTER Ph.D. Workshop is a pre-conference event for the annual ENTER

International eTourism Conference organised by the International Federation for

Information Technology and Travel & Tourism (IFITT). Each year the ENTER Ph.D.

Workshop provides the unique opportunity for doctoral students to interactively

present and discuss their research with peers and leading scholars in the field.

Doctoral students at all stages (i.e., beginning as well as nearly completed) are

encouraged to participate. Importantly, this full-day workshop gives participants the

opportunity to improve their research ideas and the structure of their work in a critical

but supportive environment by receiving feedback from mentors, experts, and senior

researchers within the global IT and Tourism research community. The Workshop

also represents a fascinating glimpse into the future agenda of eTourism research.

Therefore, on behalf of IFITT we are proud to present these Proceedings of the

ENTER2020 Ph.D. Workshop as we believe these papers represent the next

generation of eTourism research. Not only do these proposals capture a wide range of

research areas (smart destination management, technology adoption, destination

metrics, digital experience, and current issues in IT and tourism), but they also discuss

issues and applications of new, cutting-edge technologies impacting travel and

tourism globally. We hope that these research topics will continue to be developed

and that these young scholars will continue to push the study of eTourism forward.

The Proceedings and the Workshop itself would not have been possible without the

support of a great community. First, we extend our deepest gratitude to members of

the Scientific Committee who have contributed their valuable time and expertise in

the review process. Secondly, we sincerely thank the senior experts who have

volunteered to mentor students and to contribute to the Workshop program. Thirdly,

we are extremely grateful to the University of Surrey, School of Hospitality and

Tourism Management for hosting the Workshop and providing invaluable support.

Most importantly, we heartily congratulate all the students that submitted their

research proposals to the ENTER2020 Ph.D. Workshop -- you are the future leaders

of the IT and Tourism research community and we wish you continued success as you

work hard to complete your doctoral studies and begin the next exciting chapter of

your career.

Jason L. Stienmetz, Modul University Vienna

Berta Ferrer-Rosell, University of Lleida

Markus Schuckert, Hong Kong Polytechnic University


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Scientific Committee

John Ap, Macao Institute for Tourism Studies

Norman Au, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University

Pierre Benckendorff, The University of Queensland

Claudia Brözel, Eberswalde University for Sustainable Development

Chih-Chien Chen, University of Nevada, Las Vegas

Yeongbae Choe, University of Macau

Eduard Cristóbal-Fransi, University of Lleida

Daisy Fan, Bournemouth University

Lawrence Fong, University of Macau

Ulrike Gretzel, University of Southern California

Wolfram Höpken, University of Applied Sciences Ravensburg-Weingarten

Lidija Lalicic, Modul University Vienna

Jaeseok Lee, Macau University of Science and Technology

Rosanna Leung, I-Shou University

Daniel Leung, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University

Sai Liang, Nankai University

Jingjing Lin, Kyoto University

Sevy Liu, Nanjing Audit University

Anyu Liu, University of Surrey

Eva Martin-Fuentes, University of Lleida

Fuad Mehraliyev, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University

Emanuele Mele, University of Italian Switzerland

Irem Onder, University of Massachusetts, Amherst

Sangwon Park, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University

Stephen Pratt, The University of the South Pacific

Miriam Scaglione, HES-SO Valais-Wallis

Katerina Volchek, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University

Zheng Xiang, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

Anita Zehrer, Management Center Innsbruck


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Table of Contents

Preface iii

Scientific Committee iv

Smart Destination Management

Determination of Rejuvenation Strategies in Tourism Destinations in Scope of

Destination Life Cycle Model: The Case of Kas 2 Birgul Aydin Emre Ozan Aksoz

Relational Factors that Influence Multi-Stakeholder Engagement in Inter-

organisational Collaboration: An Examination of Tourism Supplier Engagement in

Smart Tourism 11 Abbie-Gayle Johnson Jillian M. Rickly Scott McCabe

Factors Influencing the Successful National Destination Management System

Implementation In Vietnam 16 Le Thi Phuong Anh

Technology Adoption

Blockchain-based Sharing Economy 18 Ikram Nur Muharam

Marketing Visitor Attractions in the Digital Age: A Study of the E-marketing

Adoption in the Visitor Attraction Sector 19 Giancarlo Fedeli

Analysis of Inter-Relations Between Sustainable Technology Adoption, Legitimacy

and Reputation in the Market Based on Institutional Theory 26 André Luiz Vieira Soares Luiz Mendes Filho Ulrike Gretzel

The Comparative Study of 3D Cooking Science and Online Cooking Science Video

for Students’ Learning Achievement 27 Nai-Yun Hsu Ching-Hsu Huang

Destination Metrics

Spatial Patterns of Tourists Preferences in Romanian Cities Using TripAdvisor 33 Lupu Cristina Oana Mihaela Stoleriu

Indicators for Sustainable Smart Heritage 40 Rafael Almeida de Oliveira


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Measuring Tourism Destinations with Tracking Data 47 Janika Raun

The R Programming Language Study of Online Reviews of Service Failure by Using

Data Mining 48 Chien-Yi Li Ching-Hsu Huang

Digital Experience

Sustainable Digital Enterprises Reaching the Sustainable Development Goals

Through E-Tourism in Tourism Enterprises 50 Ida Marie Visbech Andersen

Transmedia Tourism: Analysis, Evaluation and Characterisation of Transmedia

Experiences for the Design of New Tourist Spaces 51 Silvia Casellas

Analysing the Affective-Cognitive Sides of Virtual and Augmented Reality in

Tourism 57 Sergio Ibáñez-Sánchez Carlos Flavián Carlos Orús

Authenticity and Augmented Reality in Heritage Sites 58 Emmy Y M Yeung

Current Issues

Social Media Influencers for Destination Marketing – Application of the Self-

Congruity Theory on Generational and Cross-Cultural Comparison 60 Yi Xuan Ong

Cruising with a Conscience: Navigating Moral Identity and the Ethics of

Sustainability in the Online Cruise Community 66 Judith Römhild-Raviart

Is There Life Beyond Airbnb? Dynamics of Peer To Peer Accommodation Platforms

in Spain 67 Vivian C. Medina-Hernandez


1

Smart Destination Management


2

Determination of Rejuvenation Strategies in Tourism

Destinations in Scope of Destination Life Cycle Model:

The Case of Kas

Birgul Aydin

Anadolu University, Eskisehir/Turkey

[email protected]

Emre Ozan Aksoz

Anadolu University, Eskisehir/Turkey

[email protected]

Abstract

The aim of the study is to determine the rejuvenation strategies within the scope of the destination life cycle model. In this context, the research is planned to be carried out in the Kas (Antalya, Turkey). Qualitative research methods will be used in the research. In data collection, it is planned to compile the data by using interviews, observation, secondary sources and tourism statistics. The interviews will be conducted with tourism stakeholders in the Kas region. In this research, examining the tourism development process and defining the rejuvenation strategies within this scope will bring important results for both Kas and other similar tourism destinations.

1 Problem Statement

Most of the studies suggest Butler's (1980) tourist area life cycle model as the time-

oriented development cycle model which best explores the process from the discovery

of tourism regions to its maturity (Cooper, 1994; Tooman, 1997; Garay and Canoves,

2011). Butler's (1980) life cycle model is influenced by internal and external factors

that lead to economic, social, and environmental changes in destination. The internal

and external factors which can affect tourism development and sustainability are

exceeding carrying capacity, accessibility, image, planning, local governments, local

people's attitude towards tourism, security, natural disasters, global warming, floating

exchange rates, crisis, war, epidemics, threats of terrorism, and political

disagreements (Agarwal, 1997).

Tourism development in a destination usually resulted in unexpected and unplanned

way (Dodds, 2007). The uncertainty on the result can lead to stagnation of

destinations (Brooker and Burgess, 2008). Tourism rejuvenation strategies are

necessary to avoid the stagnation and decline of destinations. Different alternatives

can be applied during the execution of those strategies. Researchers have proposed

various approaches for its implementation (Butler, 1980; Diamond, 1988; Russell and

Faulkner, 1998; Agarwal, 2002; Brooker and Burgess, 2008) (Table 1).


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Table 1. Rejuvenation Strategies

Butler (1980)

• New market searches • Product diversification • Product differentiation

Diamond (1988)

• Turnaround strategy • Sustainable growth strategy • Incremental growth strategy • Selective tourism strategy

Russell and Faulkner (1998)

• Dismantling competition from cooperation • Destination marking • Avoiding adherence to the vision of a single

entrepreneur • Developing a comprehensive strategy with feedback

from stakeholders affected by the current state of tourism

• Adaptation to changing market trends • Forecasting future market changes • Vision • Planning and leadership • Innovation • Diversification • Utilization of information and communication

technologies

Agarwal (2002) • Product reorganization • Product transformation

Brooker and Burgess (2008)

• Cooperation • Strategy development • Creating a destination brand intertwined with current

and future visitors and innovations

The researchers propose similar rejuvenation strategies to be applied to the case of

study than the ones evaluated from the referenced authors. Although those are

applicable, their validity and applicability to all destinations is not strictly known.

Furthermore, it can be seen that these studies are oriented to evaluate strategies

towards mass tourism destinations. The lack of research on rejuvenation strategies for

small tourism destinations is noteworthy. In small tourism destinations, all-inclusive

system and package tour approach is not provided. Visitors fully realize their

preferences with their individual effort. Therefore, marketing, advertising and

promotion activities are not intense according to the destinations where mass tourism

is prevalent. Since these efforts are made individually, the regions do not have a

strong tourism infrastructure, thus, can be affected by internal and external effects.

Small tourism regions have to adapt the changing and developing tourism demand in

order to increase their competitiveness and sustainability in the tourism market

(Faulkner, 2002). Therefore, flexible and well-planned tourism policies that can

capture changes in small tourism regions need to be established. In this context,

applying rejuvenation strategies would help to understand the change in supply and

evolution of demand in small tourism regions, highlight the main characteristics that

characterize local tourism products, acquire information about tourist-local

community preferences, stimulate the development and economic growth in a


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sustainable way (Brau et al., 2009). There is a need to determine the rejuvenation

strategies of the destinations, how those strategies are implemented, and how

stakeholders take part in tourism development.

When a tourism destination is evaluated, it can be seen that tourism development and

its cycle evolution is inevitable, therefore after a certain point tourism stagnation and

decline may occur. The stagnation and decline phase can be understood through

indicators such as ranging numbers of tourist arrivals, the emergence of new

destinations, stagnation experienced in the destination infrastructure, and business

performance. For the particular case of study, town of Kas (Antalya, Turkey) where

tourism demand-supply and number of tourist arrivals changed dramatically in last

years, the research list of questions of reference will be proposed to be the following

(Butler, 1980; Diamond, 1988; Choy, 1993; Gunn, 1994; Bräunlich, 1996; Agarwal,

2002; Butler, 2000; Butler, 2006; Cooper, 2006):

• How has the development process been realized since the discovery of

tourism in the region?

• What are the effects of internal factors on tourism development in the

region?

• What are the effects of external factors on tourism development in the

region?

• What are the strategies used in the development of regional tourism?

• What are the strategies used in the rejuvenation of regional tourism?

• What are the roles of stakeholders in the tourism development and

rejuvenation of regional tourism?

2 Literature Review

2.1 Destination Life Cycle

The concept of life cycle has been applied in many areas to examine the level of

tourism development and changing process. The concept was originally used in

biology to explain the cycle of species, including the stages of regeneration,

conception, birth, reproduction, and rebirth among different generations. In the 1960s,

the growth curve was used by the business community to model the sales curve of a

product over time (Levitt, 1965 quoted O’Hare and Barnett, 1997). It has been

recognized by geographers that tourism destinations are advancing along a typical S-

shaped growth curve or life cycle. Butler (1980), based on the product life cycle and

applying life cycle considerations, developed a six-stage evolutionary model that

followed the discovery, development, and saturation of a region, followed by its

decline (exploration, interest, development, maturity, stagnation, and post-stagnation,

which is decline and rejuvenation).

2.2 Rejuvenation Strategies in Destinations

Rejuvenation strategies are seen as a tool of economic sustainability to a great extent.

However, this approach provides a narrow perspective on the sustainability of a

complex destination. Destinations are not only regions with economic resources, but

are also social, cultural, and environmental elements. Agarwal (2002) states that there

are various factors affecting the development of tourism. Therefore, the decline in


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tourism in destinations cannot always be attributed to a natural phase in the life cycle,

and ‘’interactions between internal and external forces’’ and the restructuring

component need to be emphasized. Travis (2011) argues that the concerns of

researchers using the TALC model focus rapidly on “active regeneration of

destinations and find ways to extend the life cycle rather than the decline process’’.

Rejuvenation strategies focus not only on the sustainability of tourism, but also on

providing a healthy economic environment for these settlements. Rejuvenation

strategies are commonly addressed as a result of established management/planning

practices and structures, based on successful strategies used in the past, which might

not adapt to the current environment of study. However, rejuvenation strategies have

a structure that includes elements from the past, present, and future of destination

development. Besides that, the role of stakeholders is an important issue in the

tourism development process. Therefore, the personal qualities, skills, abilities, and

characteristics of key actors in a destination should be considered as important

indicators of the rejuvenation and development of the destination (Weizenegger,

2006).

In the tourism industry, restructuring theories have been applied for some service

sectors, especially as a result of globalization and increasing competition. According

to Agarwal (2002) it is important to mention the rejuvenation strategies for the labor

market in the tourism sector and labor flexibility, as well as subcontracting and

functional flexibility strategies that should be adopted to minimize seasonal impacts.

In order to increase demand through product revitalization, it is necessary to focus on

diversification, repositioning, and maximum service product quality.

Overall, rejuvenation, which is an ongoing process in tourism development, needs to

be carried out with special attention. Because destinations in the same geographic and

cultural context tend to be basically similar and offer the same attractions, in some

aspects they can accommodate differences. This view also requires focusing on

competitiveness in developing strategies for both individual organizations and

destinations as a whole (Faulkner, 2002).

3 Research Area

Kas is a small town geographically located in the west of Antalya (Mediterranean

Region, Turkey) being a province district center. Its privileged location on the Teke

Peninsula (Lycia in Antiquity), lies between the Antalya Bay (Phenicia) in the east,

the Fethiye Bay in the west, Elmali and Fethiye districts in the north, the Greek island

of Meis (Castellorizo) and extends towards the Mediterranean Sea in the south

direction. Tourism in the region has started to develop since the 1980s. The region is

among the top 50 diving destinations in the world and offers a variety of tourist

activities such as paragliding, sea kayaking, Lycian Way hiking, village tours,

festivals, Meis Island tours, and plateau tourism. Since Kaş is a Lycian city, it is an

important region in terms of cultural tourism. It is possible to see the ruins of the city

of Phellos and Antiphellos in the region. In this context, it is possible to come across

the ruins of royal tombs, rock tombs, and an ancient theater (Erkurt and Paker, 2014).

Operating structure in the region is compared to other tourism regions in Antalya,

where small businesses operate. Kas is one of the special destinations in Antalya,


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where mass tourism is not dominant and boutique tourism is realized and multiple

tourism types are brought together. In this respect, it differs from other destinations in

Antalya. When the tourism statistics on Kas tourism are examined, it is determined

that there are changes in the number of tourist arrivals (Table 2). Considering the

number of tourists in the last nine years, it can be said that there are serious

differences between the tourist arrivals numbers. In addition, Kas has become one of

the destinations preferred by national tourists in recent years. These findings indicate

that the number of international tourist numbers decreased significantly and the

number of national tourists increased. This shows that there has been a significant

demand change in Kas. Considering the current tourism situation, it is inevitable to

experience changes in the tourism supply offered in the Kas region along with the

changes in tourism demand. Therefore, there is a need to determine the rejuvenation

strategies in the context of economic, social and environmental changes in Kas, which

provides the findings and the small tourism enterprises and offers boutique tourism

services.

Table 2. Kas Region Tourist Arrival Statistics

Years National Tourist International Tourist Total

2000 7 914 15 980 23 894

2001 33 342 20 452 53 794

2002 38 771 54 881 93 651

2003 8 040 58 826 66 866

2004 51 082 17 645 68 727

2005 38 082 38 555 76 637

2006 30 855 24 383 55 238

2007 28 633 77 133 105 766

2008 122 557 40 374 162 931

2009 33 737 57 512 91 249

2010 29 429 78 538 107 967

2011 41 211 97 321 138 532

2012 24 325 79 668 103 993

2013 31 308 72 897 104 205

2014 30 528 140 511 171 039

2015 25 878 149 468 175 346

2016 13 836 102 227 116 063

2017 12 584 29 061 41 645

2018 68 914 29 253 98 167

4 Method to be Applied

The plan for this research is to use qualitative methods, using the study of tourism in

the Kas region as a case study. Single state case study method is preferred since it

allows the applicability of the TALC model in the context of a particular destination

only. In the research, to carry out in-depth and holistic understanding in order to

determine the strategies for tourism development and rejuvenation is important.

Multiple tools to be used to compile data contribute the credibility and authenticity of

the research (Glesne, 2013). In this context, primary and secondary data will be used

in the research. The basic data collection techniques of the research are: interview,


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observation, field notes, researcher diary. Secondary data is the number of tourists

collected from the Turkish tourism statistics, tourism industry revenues,

accommodation capacity, overnight stay and occupancy rate. In addition, other

sources will be used for data collection which are brochures, photographs,

documentary analysis and archive records (Botterill and Platenkamp, 2012).

Documentary analysis on Kas will be carried out by examining historical documents,

official web pages and searching the marketing and planning brochures of the

municipal authorities.

Observation data will be compiled by creating a structured observation form in the

context of indicators (Buhalis, 2000) that constitute the supply elements of

destinations. In this context observation protocol will be prepared in order to gain

information. The indications to be used in the scope of observation in the Kas region

are: natural beauty, accommodation facilities, food and beverage services,

transportation, special events, support services. Observation in the research will be

realized as non-participatory observation.

The interviews will be carried out through questions conceived in a semi-structured

form which are formed under research questions through relevant literature.

Depending on the characteristics of the stakeholders, separate open-ended interview

questions is planned to prepared for each stakeholder. Interviews will be held face to

face with tourism stakeholders. The research participants are planned to be tourism

stakeholders in Kas region. In this context, meetings will be held with local people,

touristic district management, local administrations, tourists, non-governmental

organizations, tourism employees, and business owners/managers. According to the

Freeman (1999) tourism stakeholders consist of groups and individuals that affect

tourism development and are affected by tourism development. Stakeholders have

been chosen as participants in the research because they play an active role in the

development of tourism destinations in order to make clear the developments in the

development process of tourism destinations. The research is planned to be carried out

within the scope of maximum diversity sampling in order to reveal the effects of

tourism development, current situation, stakeholder of various groups and individuals

and rejuvenation strategies (Patton, 2002).

There is not general ratio of the number of participants in qualitative research.

Although it is stated that between 30 and 50 participants should be interviewed in

general (Morse, 1994), there is not clear answer. In this context, it is planned to carry

out interviews with five people in the reachable of eight stakeholders in determining

the stages of the destination life cycle model. As a result, interviews will be

conducted with an average of 40 people. This number may increase or decrease

depending on the status of the data which is obtained. In this research the validity and

reliability which are proposed by Creswell (1998) will be used to provide credibility

in eight steps: 1) Long-term observation and interaction in the field; 2) Diversification

of data; 3) To give an opinion to the research by an outsider; 4) Contrast situation

analysis; 5) Explain researcher bias; 6) Participant approval 7) Rich and detailed

description; 8) External audit. Besides that, the role of the researcher in qualitative

research is one of the important issues. In this study, the researcher has an active role

in all interviews, observations, verbal and nonverbal behaviors and all of the

relationships that he / she establishes in formal or informal stages of the research. In


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addition, the researcher is a part of the data since he/she is a person who experiences

and observes all processes related to research (Glesne, 2013).

In order to determine the suitability of the research questions and the qualitative

method for the aim of the research, a pilot study will be conducted in Kas. During the

pilot study, the elements of tourism will be examined on site and information about

the research process and observation techniques will be obtained. In this context, the

intelligibility of the interview questions, the language used, the content of the

questions, the elements to be observed and the duration of the interview can be

determined. The main research will be carried out during the high season and low

season to observe and find out differences between both term. After the research data

is compiled, the transcriptions of the interview data will be performed. Since

programs such as Nvivo help in ‘’searching, marking, linking, rearranging and

presenting data, and keeping ideas and theorizations, analysis and coding will be

performed through Nvivo qualitative data analysis program (Weitzman, 2000). The

analysis of the data will be carried out by inductive approach. The type of coding to

be applied in the analysis of research data will be determined depending on the

characteristics of the data obtained in the field research.

5 Expected Results

The aim of the study is to examine the tourism development process of the Kas region

within the scope of the destination life cycle model and to determine the rejuvenation

strategies to follow in this direction. It can be seen that the researchers mostly focus

on mass tourism destinations in their research about the destination life cycle model

and investigates the stage of the region in the model of tourism development. In this

study, it can be expected that the results obtained by examining the tourism

development process of the region, which has the characteristic of boutique tourism,

will bring important results to be applied in destinations with similar characteristics to

the case of study. In addition, the determination of rejuvenation strategies in the

context of Kas region, where market changes have been experienced in recent years,

will have significant results both in the literature and in practice.

As a result, with the determination of rejuvenation strategies, creation of flexible and

well-planned tourism policies that can capture future changes, developing and

improving destination supply depending on the needs of tourists, increasing the

effectiveness of tourism policies by understanding the importance of local tourism

characteristics, aimed at growth and sustainable development will be possible. Also,

the rejuvenation strategies could serve as a roadmap for the implementation of a

sustainable and planned development of a destination in tourism, and enable the

establishment of an early warning system.

References

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Agarwal, S. (2002). Restructuring seaside tourism: The resort life cycle. Annals of tourism research, 29(1): 25-55.

Botterill, D., & Platenkamp, V. (2012). Key concepts in tourism research. Sage.


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Relational Factors that Influence Multi-Stakeholder

Engagement in Inter-organisational Collaboration:

An Examination of Tourism Supplier Engagement in

Smart Tourism

Abbie-Gayle Johnson

Nottingham University Business School, University of Nottingham, UK

[email protected]

Jillian M. Rickly


Scott McCabe


Abstract

Amidst, the growing awareness of smart tourism and interest in research on the subject matter, there is still need for a more in-depth and critical understanding of its development within destinations especially from a suppliers’ perspective. This thesis examines stakeholder engagement in smart tourism initiatives through the lens of collaboration, paying attention to the relational factors within these ecosystems. Based on the case of Ljubljana in Slovenia, this thesis will provide a conceptual framework for smart tourism engagement. These results will provide a further understanding to industry practitioners as they embark on smart tourism development as well as to academics who are engaged in these discussions.

1 Problem Definition

Collaboration “occurs when a group of autonomous stakeholders of a problem domain

engage in an interactive process, using shared rules, norms, and structures, to act or

decide on issues related to the domain” (Wood and Gray, 1991, p. 146). For over 20

years, there have been calls for collaboration amongst stakeholders within the tourism

industry (Jamal & Getz, 1995). In 2017, these calls were reiterated by the United

Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) in order for tourism industry

practitioners to address destination management challenges, such as urban city

congestion (UNWTO, 2017) and increased business competition (Zervas et al., 2017).

Some destinations have responded by establishing smart tourism initiatives- forms of

collaboration founded on the characteristics of intelligence, instrumentality and

interconnectivity (Buhalis and Amaranggana, 2015; IBM, 2018) and driven by

advanced technologies (Gretzel et al., 2015; Li et al., 2017). Smart tourism functions

as an interconnected ecosystem structure with multiple, interdependent stakeholders

from diverse sectors, with dual physical and virtual platforms and its development in

mainly observed in urban areas. However, stakeholder engagement has been

unsuccessful in some instances, with distinct inhibitors to participation, as seen in

cases such as Amsterdam’s Rijenradar Virtual Queuing System and Copenhagen’s

City Data Exchange Platform (Copenhagen Solutions Lab, 2018). Thus, using

resource dependency theory, institutional theory and network theory, this research

suggests potential factors for the lack of cooperative stakeholder behaviour in inter-


12

organisational collaborations. These factors include power, legitimacy, urgency and

frequency.

The networked structure of smart tourism ecosystems presents the need to examine

the relational factors of stakeholder engagement. The application of the theory of

power (Foucault, 1980) uncovers the power mechanisms embedded in micro-

relations, which can enhance understanding of the development of smart tourism. The

study also incorporates the institutional analysis and development framework

(Ostrom, 2008) in order to highlight the institutions and stakeholder roles for

collaboration. While factors such as power and legitimacy have been explored in the

tourism literature broadly, smart tourism brings a unique context whereby a

concentration on structural forces will not sufficiently explain the facilitators and

inhibitors of these collaborations. In other words, in the case of smart tourism,

authoritative leaders and regulations may not be the only representations of power and

legitimacy as previous tourism collaboration studies have suggested. Therefore,

unknown aspects such as power mechanisms and practices in the network as well as

legitimacy in the form of institutional legitimacy (collective morals, values and rules)

must be examined.

This thesis therefore aims to examine the relational factors that facilitate and inhibit

stakeholder engagement in smart tourism initiatives in Ljubljana, Slovenia. This is in

response to the lack of smart tourism contexts being explored in the tourism

collaboration literature and the limitations of current technological models to examine

smart engagement.

2 Literature Review

In order to develop and maintain smart tourism, stakeholder engagement within

destinations becomes necessary. Within the literature, this is examined via the point

of view of technology adoption using these respective models with an emphasis on

tourists’ perspectives (Johnson and Samakovlis, 2019). However, technology is only

one of the many facilitators in crafting smart destinations, therefore, technology

adoption models may not be sufficient for analysis.

This thesis is being positioned within the conversations surrounding tourism

collaboration, as the core philosophy being proposed underpinning smart tourism is

collaboration due to its interconnectivity among multiple and diverse stakeholders for

problem solving. The current understanding of tourism collaboration is set within the

research areas of collaboration and inter-organisational relationships that are topics

found in the fields of organisational behaviour and strategic management. Within

these fields, Mitchell et al. (1997) and De Wit (2017) are able to reveal the relational

factors of power, legitimacy, urgency and frequency.

Mitchell et al. (1997) provides three relational factors of collaboration: power,

legitimacy and urgency. Subsequently, authors such as Agle, et al. (1999) have tested

these constructs using documents as secondary sources of data along, with surveys as

the primary data collection method. Since then, other authors such as Friedman and

Miles (2002) have built upon the work of Mitchell et al. (1997) and Agle et al. (1999).

These factors, in addition to the factor of frequency, are what De Wit (2017)


13

categorises as the relational factors in inter-organisational relationships also known as

collaborations. These are yet to be investigated in tourism collaboration and smart

tourism literature. Fyall et al. (2012) state that there still exists a lack of empirical

studies on collaboration at the destination level. Therefore, the results of this thesis

will also make a methodological contribution to the tourism literature on

collaboration.

3 Conceptual Development

Based on the literature review, which identified the gaps in the literature, a conceptual

framework was produced as evident in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework for Thesis

This led to the formation of the main aim of the thesis, which is to explore the

relational factors that influence stakeholder engagement in smart tourism. In order to

fulfil this aim, the following questions were proposed:

1.What role does power play in stakeholder engagement in smart tourism

development within the destination and why?

2.How do forms of institutional legitimacy, specifically rules and morals, influence

stakeholder engagement in smart tourism?

3.What is the perceived influence of urgency on stakeholder engagement in smart

tourism initiatives?

4.How do previous frequent interactions among tourism suppliers influence

stakeholder involvement in smart tourism?

4 Proposed Methodology

Although there are four relational factors to explore (power, legitimacy, urgency and

frequency), power is the central factor in tourism collaborations. This thesis is


14

influenced by Michel Foucault’s theory of power as he concentrates on the

decentralisation of power rather than viewing power as domination. In order to

explore power based on Foucault’s conceptualisation, discourse analysis is applied to

unravel findings that can deepen understanding of stakeholder engagement and

existing power mechanisms in smart tourism.

This thesis applies case study as the research design. In order to perform an in-depth

study of these factors, it is prudent to concentrate on one case. A list of smart tourism

destinations were compiled based on personal knowledge and information from the

smart tourism literature and the tourism industry conferences. This list was later

edited based on the criteria of accessibility to destination stakeholders, which resulted

in a list of proposed sites, namely Copenhagen, Barcelona, Jamaica and Ljubljana.

The case chosen is the smart tourism destination of Ljubljana in Slovenia. Ljubljana is

a 2018 European Capital of Smart Tourism with a concentration on sustainability.

Ljubljana has embraced environmental sustainability as the country of Slovenia is

known to have a long-standing identity of being a destination with nature-based

attractions. According to the Municipality of Ljubljana, there are forty-five smart

initiatives. Ljubljana, being a size of 163.8 km² with a population of 279, 631, makes

it smaller than the other destinations that were considered. This may prove beneficial

in the case of launching smart tourism initiatives as they depend of interconnectivity

of systems and partnerships. Unlike the other destinations, the people of Ljubljana

have had a political history of embracing change and the idea of collaborations

through this change, which can possibly influence stakeholder behaviour. Yet, this

destination has not been examined in the literature.

Data collection is focused on online material, printed documents and interviews.

These will be analysed using the method of discourse analysis. Fairclough (2003)

states that Foucault referred to discourse analysis as the analysis of discourse, namely

written words and utterances. Discourse reveals the power relations that exists among

individuals in a society. Foucault refused to develop an actual analytic method that he

called his own. In fact, he stated that “I would like my book to be a kind of toolbox

which others can rummage through to find a tool which they can use however they

wish in their own area” (Foucault, 1974, p. 523- 524). Dittmer (2010) states that there

are two fundamental aspects to observe when starting to conduct discourse analysis:

the text and the social environment surrounding the text.

5 Anticipated Results

Smart tourism literature currently lacks supplier-based studies. This thesis therefore

should provide an actual understanding of the relational factors of multi-stakeholder

engagement in inter-organisational collaboration and smart tourism studies. It will

provide a model that allows for the understanding of stakeholder engagement in smart

tourism destinations. Findings are expected to confirm that power, legitimacy and

frequency influence stakeholder behaviour, with other codes being developed such as

business infrastructure and physical proximity to other collaborators. Nonetheless,

power in the form of structure and ideologies will be dominant. It shows how culture

plays a role in smart tourism design. Based on empirical findings, practitioners and

academics can understand the development of smart tourism destinations. The study

will also make an original contribution by being one of the first studies to apply the


15

theory of power to examine smart tourism. This thesis offers a theoretically based

study to the smart tourism domain, which is currently dominated by practical

research.

References

Agle, B., Mitchell, R. and Sonnenfeld, J. (1999). Who matters to CEOs? An investigation of stakeholder attributes and salience, corporate performance and CEO values. Academy of Management, 42 (5), pp. 507-525.

Buhalis, D. and Amaranggana, A. (2015). Smart tourism destinations enhancing tourism experience through personalisation of services. Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism 2015. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-14343-9.

Copenhagen Solutions Lab (2018) Copenhagen Solutions Lab [online]. Available at: https://cphsolutionslab.dk/en [Accessed 1 May 2018].

De Wit, B. (2017) Strategy- an international perspective. Hampshire: Cengage Learning. Dittmer, J. (2010). Textual and discourse analysis. THE SAGE Handbook of Qualitative

Geography. Fairclough, N., 2003 Analysing discourse- textual analysis for social research, Routledge,

London. Foucault, M. (1974) Dits et ecrits, Vol. 2, Paris: Gallimard. Foucault, M. (1980). Questions of methodology in J. D. Faubion (Ed.), New York. Friedman, A. L. and Miles, S. (2002). Developing stakeholder theory. Journal of management

studies, 39(1), pp. 1-21. Fyall, A., Garrod, B. and Wang, Y. (2012). Destination collaboration: A critical review of

theoretical approaches to a multi-dimensional phenomenon. Journal of Destination Marketing and Management, 1(1–2), pp. 10–26.

Gretzel, U., Sigala, M., et al. (2015). Smart tourism: foundations and developments. Electronic Markets, 25(3), pp. 179–188. doi: 10.1007/s12525-015-0196-8.

IBM 2018. IBM, accessed 2 January 2018, <http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/smarterplanet/>

Jamal, T. B. and Getz, D. (1995). Collaboration theory and community tourism planning. Annals of Tourism Research, 22(1), pp. 186–204. doi: 10.1016/0160-7383(94)00067-3.

Johnson, A. and Samakovlis, I. (2019). A bibliometric analysis of knowledge development in smart tourism research. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology, Vol. ahead-of-print.

Li, Y., Hu, C., Huang, C. and Duan, L. (2017). The concept of smart tourism in the context of tourism information services. Tourism Management, 58 (2017), pp. 293- 300.

Mitchell, R. K., Wood, D. J. and Agle, B. (1997). Toward a theory of stakeholder identification and salience : defining the principle of who and what really counts. Academy of Management Review, 22(4), pp. 853–886. doi: 10.5465/AMR.1997.9711022105.

Ostrom, E. 2008. Governing the commons- the evolution of institutions for collective action, Cambridge University Press, New York.

UNWTO (2017) United Nations World Tourism Organisation [online] Available at: http://www2.unwto.org [Accessed 2 January 2018].

Wood, D. J. and Gray, B. (1991). Toward a Comprehensive Theory of Collabration. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 27 (2), pp.139- 162.

Zervas, G., Proserpio, D. and Byers, J. W. (2017). The Rise of the Sharing Economy: Estimating the Impact of Airbnb on the Hotel Industry. Journal of Marketing Research, p.687- 705.


16

Factors Influencing the Successful National Destination

Management System Implementation In Vietnam

Le Thi Phuong Anh

Taylor’s University, Malaysia

[email protected]

Abstract

Vietnam tourism website is one of the first three websites that have been launched when the country started connecting to the Internet in 1997. However, the level of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) adoption in Vietnam tourism is still lagging behind in terms of developing a comprehensive Destination Management System (DMS) for the country. Therefore, this study focuses on how to successfully implement a DMS. By integrating three theoretical models of ICT and conducting a survey, this study explores and investigates factors that influence various stakeholders to accept and adopt national DMS in Vietnam. This study contributes to the literature by proposing comprehensive model of successful DMS implementation that includes inter-organisational adoption, organisational acceptance of innovation and information system success in a single diagram. It is also a potential referral source to tourism organisations that want to develop DMS and tourism businesses that are eager to adopt technological innovation in Vietnam.

Keywords: Destination Management System, technology adoption, tourism

destination, Vietnam


17

Technology Adoption


18

Blockchain-based Sharing Economy

Ikram Nur Muharam

University of Surrey, UK

[email protected]

Abstract

This study aims to conceptualise, develop, and test a blockchain-based sharing economy system for the travel and hospitality sector. The objectives are threefold: (i) to develop the conceptual foundation for the blockchain-based sharing economy system by conducting a systematic literature review on the characteristics of blockchain technology and the sharing economy; (ii) to establish the concept of blockchain-based sharing economy and assess its potential impacts on consumer behaviour; (iii) to develop the prototype of a blockchain-based sharing economy system and measure the actual behaviour of its users through a series of experiments. This study will utilise both qualitative and quantitative approaches to achieve its objectives. It is expected that the findings of this research will benefit scholars in the areas of travel and tourism, services management, information systems, and applied information technology, as well as businesses and governments in charge of tourism development and sharing economy stakeholders.

Keywords: Sharing Economy, Blockchain, Consumer Behaviour


19

Marketing Visitor Attractions in the Digital Age:

A Study of the E-marketing Adoption in the Visitor

Attraction Sector

Giancarlo Fedeli

Glasgow Caledonian University, UK

[email protected]

Abstract

With the emergence and diffusion of the Internet and its rich digital array, tourism marketing has been drastically transformed by the advances in Information and Communication Technology (ICT). This is particularly relevant in a context of Visitor Attractions (VAs), a sector which appears to lag behind in terms of embracing the multi-faceted spectrum of digital marketing tools, particularly in medium and small-sized organisations. With this in mind, the supply-side viewpoint of the VA sector is poorly understood, with scarce empirical evidence relating to digital marketing practices. The proposed study offers an overarching model to empirically investigate E-marketing adoption in the VA sector. The main aim of the research is to systematically examine the complexity and extent of E-marketing forms and the causal relationship of the factors affecting the adoption of E-marketing and the continued adoption of E-marketing in the VA sector.


E-marketing has been identified as an essential activity for organisations globally as it

presents the opportunity to increase market exposure, reach prospective customers

and, ultimately, gain competitive advantage in a context of increasingly challenging

market conditions. There are several benefits organisations can benefit from E-

marketing, including; increased sales, improved value and enhanced communication

capacity to users, costs saving and extended reach of the brand (Chaffey, Ellis-

Chadwick, Mayer, & Johnston, 2009). Several studies have investigated the concept

and the role of E-marketing (Brodie, Winklehofer, Coviello, & Johnston, 2007;

Chuang, 2018; El-Gohary, 2012; Gilmore, Gallagher, & Henry, 2007; Sheikh,

Shahzad, & Ishak, 2016). It has been stated that only firms employing E-marketing

have the potential to change their business model (Coviello, Milley, & Marcolin,

2001; Krishnamurthy, 2006). E-marketing is defined here as “…the use of

information technology for the marketing activity, and the processes for creating,

communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers,

clients, partners, and society at large.” (Strauss & Frost, 2016, p. 23). It is recognised

evidence that E-marketing has experienced an increasing application compared to

fewer use of traditional marketing methods by organisations, denoting that E-

marketing “… can be seen as an established practice in most companies and no longer

a novelty.” (Barreto, 2016, p. 198). Numerous studies have examined the antecedents

and consequences of ICT implementation (for instance, in manufacturing) although

limited research has been undertaken to directly examine the forms of and the reasons

for ICT implementation in the service industry, especially by tourism-related

businesses (Wöber and Gretzel 2000, in Yuan et al. 2003). Although a well-

established theoretical literature on new technology adoption and diffusion exists, it


20

has been recognised that empirical evidence at organisational level on ICT adoption is

limited (Duffy 2010). In particular, secondary research has showed this is expressly

the case regarding the Visitor Attraction (VA) sector. Visitor attractions (VAs) are a

vital component of any country’s tourism and entertainment industry as they can

function as a stimulus to travel to destinations. A VA is defined as:

“a permanently established excursion destination, a primary purpose of which is to

allow public access for entertainment, interest, and education; rather than being

primarily a retail outlet, or a venue for sporting, theatrical or film performances. It

must be open to the public, without prior booking, for published periods each year,

and should be capable of attracting day visitors or tourists as well as local

residents.” (VisitScotland, 2004, p. 8)

2 Literature Review

The review of the literature in this area has revealed the complications related to the

concept E-marketing due; to the lack of a common terminology; a fragmentation in

the demarcation of the E-marketing definition and purpose in the extant body of both

applied and academic literature, impeding a unified view and accepted definition in

order to compare E-marketing with traditional marketing (Chaffey & Smith, 2013; El-

Gohary, 2010a). This has led to the need for developing a current E-marketing

conceptualisation and classification of the tools E-marketing entails, in particular with

reference to VA marketing. As identified through the relevant literature, technologies

employed in E-marketing can be clustered in the following six groups: Web

marketing; Mobile marketing; Social media marketing; E-customer relationship

management (E-CRM) marketing (includes E-mail, E-loyalty programmes and

Intelligent CRM solutions); Intranet marketing; and Extranet marketing.

Although there is a significant interest in E-marketing, very little notable research

specific on the adoption process with related technology adoption theories has been

formed. Furthermore, despite the popularity of E-marketing and the potential for VAs

to support marketing activities to create competitive advantage, research into VAs E-

marketing is limited and focuses largely on the consumer in a B2C domain,

neglecting other dimensions such as B2B and B2G. To date, there is paucity of

systematic research on how E-marketing is used and adopted by VA organisations.

Apart from individual case studies of specific ICTs employed for the marketing of

individual VAs, or specific VA categories (e.g. museums in, Katsoni, 2014) or

marketing tools (e.g. social media in, Belenioti and Vassiliadis, 2018), it has been

identified by the author that an inadequate amount of research has been conducted in

academia on the subject of E-marketing in the VAs sector when compared to other

components of the tourism industry such as accommodation and transport. Low levels

of E-marketing activity among VA operators have also been suggested (

Benckendorff et al., 2014). This evidence constitutes the need to conduct in-depth

studies to examine the potential causes affecting E-marketing behaviour to explain

adoption (or non-adoption) decisions. Therefore, due to the relevance of the matter for

the industry, a comprehensive approach for investigating E-marketing adoption, its

antecedents and potential for the sector is considered necessary.


21

A multitude of studies and factors have been used to evaluate and assess the

relationships and the effects of adopting technology on businesses and organisations

(Dahnil, Marzuki, Langgat, & Fabeil, 2014). Many theories that deal with technology

adoption are not specific to E-marketing adoption, yet they are relevant to E-

marketing due to their contextual contribution to technological adoption. As E-

marketing makes use of these same technologies of E-business and E-commerce in

many ways, as a logical extension to achieve the traditional market practices of

creating, communicating and delivering value to customers (Gilmore et al., 2007), the

literature search was also extended to some related domains in order to investigate the

different methodologies and factors applied in the E-Marketing literature and, more

specifically, in connection with the VA context. Although being recognised as a vital

activity for the success and longevity of VA operators, marketing represents a

neglected topic in VA research (Leask, 2016). By combining the relevance of E-

marketing with the lack of research in the area of VAs, this research aims to fill an

important gap in both praticioners’ and academics’ realms.

Based on the empirical evidence combined with relevant analyses recently conducted

(Chatzoglou & Chatzoudes, 2016; Hatta et al., 2015), this study hypothesises the main

factors believed to influence E-marketing adoption in VAs. Therefore, the factors

identified can have either a positive or negative influence on the technology adoption

process, representing either drivers or barriers depending on their value to the

organisation (Gilmore et al. 2007). These factors are structured according to the

Technology-Organisation-Environment framework (TOE; DePietro, Wiarda and

Fleischer, 1990) and strengthened by the concurring theories of Diffusion of

Innovation (DOI; Rogers, 1995) and Institutional theory (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983).

Drawing on the above mentioned organisational-focused theories, the factors

identified in the literature are therefore divided into three contexts, namely: 1)

technological; 2) organisational; and 3) environmental.


The formulation of the research questions build upon the gap in the literature

identified by the author. Thus the following research questions are articulated:

1. What is the current state of E-marketing in the VA sector?

1.1. What is the level of adoption (forms and level) of E-marketing in the VA

sector?

2. What are the factors affecting the adoption extent and continued adoption of E-

marketing in the VA sector?

2.2. What are the causal relationships between the factors identified and the

adoption and continued adoption of E-Marketing in the VA sector?

The shortage of research into the overarching adoption of E-marketing in VAs

provided the impetus for this research study which addresses the gap revealed and

contributes to the academic literature in the following ways. Firstly, it explores the

state of the sector in regards to E-marketing. Secondly, the study provides insights

into the level of use and how the VAs employ E-marketing. Thirdly, the study


22

identifies and examines the factors affecting VAs adoption (and non-adoption) of E-

marketing through the development and test of a theoretical framework. Fourth, it

further examines the influence of factors to determine differences across VAs, for

instance among the different product categories, areas and organisational groups.

Specifically, E-marketing adoption will be investigated through the validation of

hypotheses constructed upon twelve antecedents of adoption (independent variables)

organised in three areas (technological, environmental and organisational), and two

measures of adoption (dependent variables), namely:

• E-marketing extent, intended as the depth and breadth of E-marketing

application by an organisation (Lin, 2014; Hsu et al., 2006);

• E-marketing continued adoption, measured by the degree of intention to

switch over to the E-marketing or increase its use in the future (Liao and Lu,

2008).

A theoretical framework is proposed in order to facilitate the understanding, as shown

in Figure 1 below.


The majority of the studies identified on E-marketing adoption are charatcterised by

the employment of quantitative methods (see, e.g., AlSharji et al., 2018; Eid & El-

Gohary, 2013; Teo & Pian, 2003), therefore, neglecting aspects such as the

construction of views and validation of findings through triangulation (Siamagka et

al. 2015; Picoto, Bélanger, and Palma-Dos-Reis 2014). With reference to the VA

sector in particular, several researchers have called for more empirical work, opposed

to descriptive and case studies (Leask, 2016) and the triangulation of qualitative and

quantitative methods as research method to enable moving beyond the definition of

aspects (Richards and Munsters 2010). Applying a post-positivism perspective, a

quantitative dominant, mixed-methodological approach is anticipated for the study.

Sequential exploratory design is utilised to complement qualitative views with

statistically relevant data elicited from VA E-marketing informants. The unit of study

is the Scottish VA sector, a diverse, rich setting which represents a suitable

background for the implementation of the research. In the first stage, exploratory

qualitative research is conducted via semi-structured interviews aimed at a selection

of key-informants (n=13). This is followed by a quantitative phase aimed to reach the

wide majority of the VA population in Scotland (n= 860; approx. 80% of total VAs)

by means of a structured web-based questionnaire to measure the variables of the

study, i.e. the dependent, independent and control variables. The combined work

undertaken based on the review of technological adoption and VA marketing

literature, complemented by the qualitative phase of interviews, identified a total of

factors as potential determinants of E-marketing adoption. Subsequently, Structural

Equation Modelling (SEM) is operationalised through the data collected among

Scottish VAs in the second research phase to perform the data analysis.


23

Figure 1. Conceptual framework of the study

5 Expected results

In response to the call of scholars for more research to investigate the potential

influence of institutional pressures moderators (Heugens and Lander, 2009, in Liu et

al. (2010), and combining this with the lack of application of Institutional theory in

tourism research, this study aims at both theoretical and practical contributions.

Therefore, Institutional theory in tourism emerges as a potential and novel tool to

explain technology adoption and use among VAs. Furthermore, by reviewing the

literature it is noticed that there are a limited number of studies that have implemented

TOE, DOI and the Institutional theory in the field of E-Marketing, in particular with

reference to the tourism context and VAs. Therefore, this research suggests an

original approach by combining the three theories to provide a comprehensive

framework to study the adoption of E-marketing in VAs. Practical implications are

also anticipated. One of objectives is developing a clear picture of the context VAs

are facing in Scotland by determining the effects of several factors affecting E-

marketing current and continued adoption. The study is expected to support both local

tourism businesses, by offering practical guidance, and the wider Scottish tourism

industry, with the potential of informing policies to facilitate the adoption and

exchange of E-marketing practices in the VA sector.

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Lin, H. (2014). Understanding the determinants of electronic supply chain management system adoption : Using the technology – organization – environment framework. Technological Forecasting & Social Change, 86, 80–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2013.09.001

Liu, H., Ke, W., Kee, K., Gu, J., & Chen, H. (2010). The role of institutional pressures and organizational culture in the firm’s intention to adopt internet-enabled supply chain management systems. Journal of Operations Management, 28(5), 372–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jom.2009.11.010

Moscardo, G. (2014). Interpretation, tourism. In Encyclopedia of Tourism (pp. 1–2). Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-01669-6_114-1

Rogers, E. M. (1995). Diffusion of innovations. Free Press. Sheikh, A. A., Shahzad, A., & Ishak, A. B. K. (2016). THE MEDIATING IMPACT OF E- MARKETING ADOPTION ON EXPORT PERFORMANCE OF FIRMS: A CONCEPTUAL

STUDY. Journal of Technology and Operations Management, 11(1), 48–58. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2336703

VisitScotland. (2004). The 2003 Visitor Attraction Monitor. Glasgow, UK. Yuan, Y.-L., Gretzel, U., & Fesenmaier, D. R. (2003). Internet Technology Use by American

Convention and Visitors Bureaus. Journal of Travel Research, 41(3), 240–255. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287502239032


26

Analysis of Inter-Relations Between Sustainable

Technology Adoption, Legitimacy and Reputation in the

Market Based on Institutional Theory

André Luiz Vieira Soares

Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil

[email protected]

Luiz Mendes Filho

Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil

[email protected]

Ulrike Gretzel

University of Southern California, United States

[email protected]

Abstract

The tourism industry continues to be impacted by new technologies. Technology is also responsible for connecting the sustainable perspective with smart use of resources resulting in development of the organization combined with tourism macro development. This is a rich case to be explored verifying the adoption of sustainable technology by the sector. Institutional Theory discusses isomorphism as a result of the institutional pressures/forces of the institutional environment that can affect organizations in the adoption of some practices and has been used to explain the adoption of technologies in several industry sectors but in the tourism literature has not been considered. The study wants to establish a connection between sustainable technology adoption in search of the legitimacy present in institutional theory, linking with the reputation of the enterprises in the market. The main purpose of the proposed study is thus to identify factors that result in isomorphism in tourism organizations’ patterns of sustainable technology adoption. It will seek to understand how tourism organizations’ quest for legitimation in the market influences its technology use patterns and whether this kind of legitimacy seeking also leads to isomorphism.

Keywords: Sustainable Technology Adoption, Institutional Theory, Legitimacy,

Reputation in the Market, Tourism


27

The Comparative Study of 3D Cooking Science and

Online Cooking Science Video for Students’ Learning

Achievement

Nai-Yun Hsu

National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Taiwan

[email protected]

Ching-Hsu Huang


[email protected]

Abstract

The main purpose of this study is to compare students’ learning achievements of two online learning platforms, including 3D of cooking science (3DCS) system and online cooking science video (OCSV). In addition, this study will explore the modified TAM model in terms of using those two online learning systems. The survey research will collect 1068 samples. The freshmen taking cooking courses will be the populations in this study. The 1068 subjects will be selected by stratified random sampling. The descriptive analysis, independent t-test, and structural equation model will be used. The results will be expected to be the reference for teaching cooking courses and curriculum designs.

1 Introduction

For the last couple of decades, the culinary, cooking and hospitality management

education have become the vital part of educational legend. Cooking science had

brought attention by Harvard University. They provided the series of cooking science

basics for all the undergraduate students. In addition, the cooking science courses had

been designed as requirement courses in Westminster Kingsway College at London

and Gastrolab at the University of Southern Denmark at Odense (Christensen &

Stuart, 2019). However, only Harvard University allowed the cooking science series

to be accessed all around the world. They also designed the courses, Science and

Cooking Public Lecture Series, 2010-2018, and everyone can find the courses through

the internet. The main purposes were not only to provide learning opportunities for

students but to promote the cooking as knowledge of basic science (Sörensen &

Mouritsen, 2018).

Cooking science became a vital element of creative culinary for chefs. Unfortunately,

there are still no class or resources for providing cooking science basics in Chinese,

including online learning. At this moment, this study will develop a 3D simulation

platform and cooking science courses for 3D of Cooking Science (3DCS) and Online

Cooking Science Video (OCSV) in Chinese for students became important.

Recently, AI research developed and improved dramatically, and we can detect and

recognize objects and design learning course by using AI technology, 3D or virtual

reality, VR (Brock, Donahue & Simonyan, 2018). Gao, Gong, Shu, Xie, Wang & Zhu

(2019) indicated that 3D simulation or virtual reality can inspire students’ learning

efficiency. The reason is 3D simulation or virtual reality is much more real and it is


28

easy for students to understand the procedure and process of cooking. Unfortunately,

they didn’t examine the statistical differences of learning outcomes between 3D

simulation and traditional on-line learning. This study will regard both 3D Cooking

Science and online Cooking science video as online learning methods and examine

the differences of students’ learning achievements.

In general, there will be three phases in this study. In the first phase, this study will

modify 6 subjects of cooking science series in Chinese and build up two learning

platform. One is OCSV platform will be put on Learn Mode for accessing. The other

is 3DCS platform will be developed by VRKitchen of Gao et al., (2019). Following

by second phase, the research instruments of modified TAM models and learning

achievements for two online learning systems will be developed well. In addition,

SEM will be conducted to test the significant relationships between all the variables.

In the third phase, this study will compare the differences of two online learning

systems in terms of TAM models and learning achievement.

2 Literature review

2.1 Cooking Science

McGee (2004) asserted in the book, On Food and Cooking, that cooking and science

were found to be together tightly since human being found the fire. However, there

was no one to do the research the relationships of cooking and science until Kurti and

This on the late 70s to early 1980s. They created the Molecular gastronomy and be

the pioneer of cooking science (Pérez-Lloréns, 2019).

2.2 Hospitality in e-learning

There are many online learning courses in hospitality education and lots of researches

studied students learning effectiveness and efficiency by using e-learning strategies

(Lee, Sun, Law & Lee, 2016; Abbas, Jones & Hussien 2016; Lin& Cantoni, 2018).

Shih, Hsin, Huang& Cheng (2015) indicated that taking advantage of APP can inspire

learning motivation for students and stimulate learning interests. Nevertheless, the

MOOCS and e-learning platforms are still the mainstreams in the hospitality

education. Specifically, there is only Gao et al., (2019) designed VRKitchen as 3D

simulation VR courses. Therefore, developing hospitality VR courses still need a lot

of work to do.

2.3 Technology Acceptance Model (TAM2)

TAM model includes five dimensions: Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use,

Attitude toward Use, Intention to Use, Actual System Use. The theory indicates the

perceived usefulness is a moderator of perceived ease of use and attitude toward use.

Many researchers indicated the users became the accepted indicators of information

technology and it means a lot to further research and practitioners (Szajna ,1996;

Baturay, Gökçearslan & Ke, 2017; Scherer, Siddiq & Tondeur, 2019). Shin, & Kang

(2015) proved the TAM model did impact learning satisfaction and learning

achievement. In order to understand students’ learning achievements further, this

study will merge TAM model, learning satisfaction and achievement to the dependent

variable of student learning achievement.


29

3 Conceptual framework

The survey research will be conducted to explore the influence of cooking science in

two online learning systems on students’ learning achievements of cooking science.

The conceptual framework was shown as Figure 1. The independent variable is online

learning systems, including 3DCS and OCSV, and the dependent variable is the

student learning achievement. Based on the literature reviews, student learning

achievement was constructed from TAM model, LS and LA.

Figure 1. Conceptual framework

According to Figure1, five hypotheses are developed as followings.

H1：There are significant differences of students’ learning achievement between

3DCS and OCSV.

H2：TAM model of 3DCS significantly influences learning satisfaction.

H3：Learning satisfaction of 3DCS significantly influence students’ learning

achievement.

H4：TAM model of OCSV significantly influences learning satisfaction.

H5：Learning satisfaction of OCSV significantly influence students’ learning

achievement.

4 Proposed methodology

This study will develop two online learning platforms. One is OCSV platform will be

put on Learn Mode for accessing. The other is 3DCS platform will be developed by

VRKitchen of Gao et al., (2019). The survey research will collect 1068 samples

which was calculated under the 95% confidence level and 0.1 error. The freshmen

taking cooking courses will be the populations in this study. The 1068 subjects will be

selected by stratified random sampling. Both 3DCS and OCSV online learning

systems will be manipulated by selected subjects. All the subjects in both systems will

receive 6-week online learning during the courses. The pretest will be conducted at

the first week of the semester. Both data of TAM model and learning achievement

will be collected at third week and the final week. The research instrument will be


30

also examined the validity and reliability. The descriptive analysis, independent t-test,

and pair t-test. The research framework was developed from the TAM and behavior

intention theories, so the structural equation model will be used to examine the

differences of students’ learning achievement with a whole by group comparison.

5 Anticipated results

The anticipated results will conclude implications for the generalization and designing

e-leaning cooking science teaching module and training programs will be suggested

for the hospitality educational training management, curriculum revolution and

teaching quality assurance.

Note: This study is a completed proposal, but two platforms are not developed

completely, and the study does not collect data.

References

Abbas, T. M., Jones, E., & Hussien, F. M. (2016). Technological factors influencing university tourism and hospitality students’ intention to use e-learning: a comparative analysis of Egypt and the United Kingdom. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education, 28(4), 189-201.

Baturay, M. H., Gökçearslan, Ş., & Ke, F. (2017). The relationship among pre-service teachers' computer competence, attitude towards computer-assisted education, and intention of technology acceptance. International Journal of Technology Enhanced Learning, 9(1), 1-13.

Brock, A., Donahue, J., & Simonyan, K. (2018). Large scale gan training for high fidelity natural image synthesis. arXiv preprint arXiv:1809.11096.

Christensen, M., & Stuart, R. E. (2019). Teaching science to chefs: The benefits, challenges and opportunities. International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science, 16, 100-133.

Gao, X., Gong, R., Shu, T., Xie, X., Wang, S., & Zhu, S. C. (2019). VRKitchen: an Interactive 3D Virtual Environment for Task-oriented Learning. arXiv preprint arXiv:1903.05757.

Lee, P. C., Sun, S., Law, R., & Lee, A. H. (2016). Educational technology in hospitality management programs: Adoption and expectations. Journal of Teaching in Travel & Tourism, 16(2), 116-142.

Lin, J., & Cantoni, L. (2018). Decision, implementation, and confirmation: experiences of instructors behind tourism and hospitality MOOCs. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 19(1).

McGee, H. (2004). On food and cooking: The science and lore of the kitchen (2nd ed). New York: Scribner.

Pérez-Lloréns, J. L. (2019). Cooking-Science-Communication (CSC): The ideal trident to enjoy the dining experience. International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science, 16, 100-134.

Scherer, R., Siddiq, F., & Tondeur, J. (2019). The technology acceptance model (TAM): A meta-analytic structural equation modeling approach to explaining teachers’ adoption of digital technology in education. Computers & Education, 128, 13-35.

Science and Cooking Public Lecture Series2010-2018. ⟨https://www.seas.harvard.edu/ cooking⟩ (Accessed 24 August 2019).

Shih, R. C., Hsin, H. T., Huang, H. C., & Cheng, Y. M. (2015). The Development of a mobile App for a Hospitality and Tourism course at technological universities. Paper presented at the In 2015 Third International Conference on Robot, Vision and Signal Processing (RVSP), 252-255.


31

Shin, W. S., & Kang, M. (2015). The use of a mobile learning management system at an online university and its effect on learning satisfaction and achievement. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 16(3), 110-130.

Sörensen, P. M., & Mouritsen, O. G. (2018). Science education and public understanding of science via food, cooking, and flavour. International journal of gastronomy and food science.

Szajna, B. (1996). Empirical evaluation of the revised technology acceptance model. Management Science, 42, 85–92.


32

Destination Metrics


33

Spatial Patterns of Tourists Preferences in Romanian

Cities Using TripAdvisor

Lupu Cristina

Faculty of Geography and Geology, Department of Geography, Romania

[email protected]

Oana Mihaela Stoleriu

Faculty of Geography and Geology, Department of Geography, Romania

[email protected]

1 Problem statement

Social media data is a crowdsourced open data regarding human activity choices,

which provides an authentic and advanced angle to emphasize people's spatio-

temporal preferences in order to model human mobility patterns (Chen et al., 2019).

The importance of tourist activity in urban destinations has been increasing for

several years and has become a global trend, raising new challenges for planners and

destinations managers. The digital footprints left by tourists after their tourist

experience to the destination represents a way to built more paths of collecting

aggregate information about visitors´ activities in urban and tourism studies. The

spatial distribution of visitors and the density of the digital footprints leave behind

reflect the attractiveness of a place (Girardin et al., 2008) hence the use of social

media in tourism research represents a way of identifying the tourists spatial patterns

they choose during their travel planning formed by their preferences regarding the

tourist destination/

This research aim of this paper is to identify the online attractiveness of the existing

Romanian cities on TripAdvisor platform. TripAdvisor is one of the largest world

social media platforms dedicated to travel (Zhao et al., 2019). The website is widely

used for data collection aim from travelers' online reviews and ratings (Chang et al.,

2017), hence it is important to work with popular online travel community websites,

such as TripAdvisor in order to identify travelers' behavior and preferences being an

excellent instrument for understanding traveler’ satisfaction too (Gao et al., 2018; Liu

et al., 2017).

The research method proposed are the clustering analysis using ArcGis 10.2 software

in order to identify the main tourist clusters of tourist destination in Romania, the

spatial location are concentrated more, and the type of tourist attractions preferred by

tourists based on TripAdvisor categories.

The research objectives are:

1.to identify the spatial patterns of the tourists choice and preferences in the tourist

cities of Romania existed on TripAdvisor;

2.to emphasize the overall attractiveness of the Romania as a tourist destination using

online resources;


34

The paper aim is twofold: to emphasize the tourists destinations and attractions

preferences and choices in Romania, to identify the overall attractiveness of Romania

as a tourist destination using TripAdvisor platform.

Research question:

a.Which are the most attractive cities of Romania based on TripAdvisor number of

reviews and rating?

b.Where are spatial concentrated the main categories of TripAdvisor typology of

tourist attractions in Romania (Historic Sites, Ancient Ruines, Nature and Park,

Religious Sites , Castles, Monument and Statues).

c.Which are best and low evaluated cities based on tourists rating?

2 Literature review

Social media allows people to add timestamps and geocoordinates as tags, making

easy to upload files and to be shared, searched, indexed and interpreted based on time

space information (Kou et al., 2015; Luo et al., 2011; Majid et al., 2015). Social

Media Network Sites that include location information are called Location based

Social Networks (LBSn). These online networks display geographic information on a

map or as a list of status updates ordered by geographic proximity as opposed to the

traditional concept (Gordon & de Souza e Silva 2011). The use of geographic

information systems (GIS) to approach socio spatial user behaviour through location-

based social networks (LBSN) platforms is increasingly, in particular by means of

check-in data (Foursquare) or reviews linked to geo-tagged venues (Foursquare,

Tripadvisor or Yelp) (Stock, 2018; Zhou et al., 2015).

Destination attractiveness is based on physical attributes of a destination which is

kind of an inventory if tourism resources (Formica & Uysal, 2006). The second

stream of destination attractiveness addresses this topic on the basis of tourists’ image

perception of a destination.

Mayo and Jarvis (1980) define attractiveness as, ‘the perceived ability of the

destination to deliver individual benefits’. The attractiveness of a destination reflects

the feelings and opinions of its visitors about the destination’s perceived ability to

satisfy their needs This ability is enhanced by the attributes of a destination, i.e. those

components that makeup a destination. Oftenly, the attractiveness of a tourist

destination encourages people to visit and spend time at the destination.

In the online medium, tourists leave more and more digital footprints on different

UGC platforms (Litvin et al., 2008; Munar & Jacobsen, 2014). The traces left behind

on the Internet by users are called digital footprints (Onder et al., 2016) and represent

sources of data that can be used for conducting research in tourism. Next to the fast-

growing field of studies analysing topics and trends in UGC (O’Connor, 2008; Wang

et al., 2017), analysing the digital footprint geographically can also give an indication

on how tourists perceive, experience and use the destination (Ganzaroli et al., 2017;

García-Palomares et al., Girardin et al., 2008; Kádár, 2014; Koerbitz et al., 2013) and

which experiences they shared online in different platforms (Leung et al., 2016). The

geo-tagged places are always personally satisfying, and people upload the information


35

not only for their own memory of the enjoyable destinations but also to gain

popularity and build reputation. It is feasible to assume that the places preferred by

the tourists are those that are densely geo-photographed (Girardin et al., 2009; Majid

et al., 2015; Paldino et al., 2015).

Users can link the shared content of a post to a location by using place names within

the text, linking the post to a pre-defined point-of-interest (POI), or by sharing the

coordinates of their device, also they share the same content via multiple platforms

(for example, sharing an Instagram post via Facebook). All sources of social media

data are not the same, as platforms differ in purpose, popularity, user profiles, and

terms of usage regarding data retrieval and sharing.

Zheng et al. (2011) analyzed GPS traces of users and concluded that the movement of

tourists and residents are different, and the behavior of tourists is influenced by their

traveling experience and their personal relationships. Vu et al., (2015) found different

travel behaviors between western tourists and Asian tourists in Hong Kong. In

addition, the movement of travelers and local people may also exhibit different

patterns.

A starting work on determining points of interests (POIs) from social media has been

mainly based on analyzing the coordinates of geotagged data hence Crandall et al.,

(2011) used Mean Shift to cluster the locations of geotagged Flickr photos to detect

POIs. On the basis of point of interest (POI) and social media check-in data,

Cranshaw et al. (2012) implemented the spatial partition of urban areas to study the

“social dynamics” of cities. Using the same type of data, Yuan et al., (2012) explored

the main functions of a city's different regions. Hollenstein and Purves (2015)

explored the inner-city and border of cities across the USA using user-generated

Flickr data. Hu et al. (2015) extracted urban areas of interest which attract people's

attention in a city space. The spatial distribution of TripAdvisor reviews over a

destination can indicate the presence of clusters of often-reviewed places (‘hot spots’)

and rarely reviewed places (‘cold spots’). These geographic patterns inform us on the

degree of clustering within different parts of the destination, which might be seen as

an indicator for the level of ‘tourismification’ of (parts of) the destination (Van der

Zee and Bertocchi (2018).

Zhou et al. (2015) demonstrated the applicability of geospatial analysis based on

cloud computing in their urban tourist hotspot identification based on Flikr geotagged

photos, as well as the feasibility in the obtaining of popular associated tags and

keywords of such clusters. García-Palomares et al. (2015) mapped visually attractive

POIs in several European cities and analysed the spatial distribution differences

between tourist and residents georeferenced photographs activity. They concluded

that the geodata distribution radius is more concentrated in the case of tourists’, but

that there is a spatial overlap in the case of the city’s most representative sites.

Salas-Olmedo et al. (2018) conducted a study outlining the Madrid tourist AOIs

(areas of interests) that emphasises the possibilities of combining multiple SNS

(Social Network Sites) data in the analysis of tourists’ digital footprint. Their study,

based on Panoramio, Twitter and Foursquare data, concludes that central urban spaces

tend to be more multifunctional than peripheral ones, as tourists’ use of the city is

temporally and spatially limited. Popescu et al., (2009) examine photos of 183 cities


36

on Flickr to determine the attractiveness of various places according to the number of

photos uploaded and, additionally, to identify the places visited, the duration of stay,

and the panoramic spots of each destination.

Zhai et al. (2015) revealed the popularity of restaurants in cities from social media

data. Liu et al. improved the classification of land use in city space by introducing the

spatial interaction pattern analysis of mobile phone users from

different places. Hot spots of tourism destination inside the city space have also been

detected through social media data (Crandall et al., 2009, Liu et al., 2014, García-

Palomares et al., 2015, Zhou et al., 2015).

Lin et al. (2014) use geotagged photos from photo-sharing communities to create

tourist maps showing tourist attractions that are rated as better than maps generated by

similar methods and that are comparable to hand-designed tourist maps . Other

possibility of creating tourist maps using geotagged photos is by clustering photos

using Flickr or other source based on their locations and identifying the popular tags

for those places (Chen et al. 2009).


The data source used was TripAdvisor platform. From the 320 cities of Romania on

TripAdvisor there were only 87 existed online, mainly the biggest cities of Romania.

The data was collected during three months (April-June) in 2018 year. The cities with

significant number of reviews and photos are concentrated mostly in Transylvania

region (i.e Brasov, Sibiu, Sighisoara) and the Bucharest.

The data collected was represented by the number of reviews for each city, number of

photos, number of TTD (Things-to-Do), number of hotels, number of restaurants,

travelers' rating (the quantitative rating includes the following categories: 1 = terrible,

2 = poor, 3 = average, 4 = very good and 5 = excellent) and the categories of tourist

attraction. The categories of tourist attractions existed on TripAdvisor are the

following: Historic Sites(N=15), Ancient Ruines(N=1), Nature and Park (N=6),

Religious Sites (N=15), Castles (N=6), Monument and Statues (N=7). The data was

sorted and pre-processed in Excel software.

The properly method used would be clustering. Clustering is an important method

used to detect group of locations people would like to visit on a given criteria. K-

means is a popular type of unsupervised locational clustering technique (Ahern et al.,

2007; Kennedy and Naaman, 2008).

4 Expected results

The results may include clusters of positive or negative preferences (clusters and

outliers) of tourists choices regarding tourists visit in romanian cities. The preferences

and choices of tourists in which concern the quality of the tourist experience they had

on the destination is outlined by the rating given by tourists and how they evaluated

the overall experience they had.

Mapping the types of tourist attractions with the highest rating may give insights

about the kind of tourism option of tourists.


37

5 Relevance of research for local tourism development

The spatial clustering of user generated content (UGC) within destinations and tourist

attractions give insights to the stakeholders implicated at the local level which can be

informed about the current state of their destinations. Also, this kind of knowledge

about tourist attractions in a certain destination has particular importance for public

administration and local authorities, as it provides information on how tourists move

and behave in the destination and how the tourist activities are spread in the area.

Other benefit could be to implement measures in order to redistribute the flow of

tourists in alternative paths to reduce the influx of visitors to certain resources and to

encourage the activity in others.

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Indicators for Sustainable Smart Heritage

Rafael Almeida de Oliveira

Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil

[email protected]

Abstract

The thesis aims to develop and test a model of indicators for world cultural heritage, connecting the concepts of intelligence and sustainability, since no study that combines both definitions theoretically and practically has yet been found. To date, a literature review has been conducted allowing the choice of two indicator models to be compared descriptively. In conclusion, the International Council of Monuments and Sites from United Kingdom (ICOMOS-UK) model suggested equity indicators that take advantage of sustainability and intelligence indicators proposed in the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) model. However, for this model to be truly elaborated and monitored, it needs further theoretical basement and practical testing. The thesis is expected to result in the construction of a model of indicators that helps managers and society to work intelligently with the benefits of information technologies for more sustainable environments.


With the advancement of information and communication technologies (ICTs),

society has been able to store a large amount of data (of different formats and speed)

enabling advances in the development of "smart cities". This rapid development has

raised concerns among public managers and society about ensuring that the

technologies employed guarantee environmental, economic and social sustainability

for cities. Further, it has led to debates about the need to combine sustainability

concepts in studies and projects for smart cities.

To unite both theories and reduce conflicts between them, several authors have

proposed a new concept called "sustainable smart city". To monitor the results and

success of sustainable smart cities’ projects, it is necessary to elaborate performance

indicators that classify the most relevant points to obtain positive results for

sustainable smart cities, as well as enable to compare initiatives among several cities,

generating possible experience exchanges and project improvement.

Cultural heritage is known to play an important role in the context of cities.

Understanding how these structures are viewed within the discussion of intelligence

and sustainability may help design strategies and the creation of indicators that enable

efficient monitoring of heritage development (Chianese, Piccialli, & Valente, 2015).

Therefore, the following question has arisen; how to develop a model of indicators for

the heritage that makes it possible to combine both concepts of intelligence and

sustainability?


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2 Literature Review

2.1 Sustainable smart cities

To Martin, Evans and Karvonen (2018) smart cities are places where social and

environmental problems, such as social exclusion and climate change, are solved by

the development of digital technologies. Thus, an intelligent city would envision the

convergence of the development of a digital city, an entrepreneurial city and a

sustainable city.

The idea of a smart city is often criticised by scientists and researchers who question

whether digitalisation of society may be related to the concepts of sustainability

(Martin et al., 2018). Most studies on the subject criticise some projects in practice

that focus on themes such as information and communication technology, data use

and urban entrepreneurship, but leaves aside topics related to sustainability (Haarstad,

2017; Höjer & Wangel, 2015).

Combining the concept of sustainability with intelligence is a response to the criticism

that smart cities contradict sustainability (Huovila, Bosch, & Airaksinen, 2019).

While there are several definitions of terms considering the smart and sustainable

aspects of cities, the combination of both is still poorly explored (Höjer & Wangel,

2015). Thus, the challenge is knowing how to combine both concepts for the better

development of cities.

Höjer e Wangel (2015) define the term ‘sustainable smart city’ as ‘a city that meets

the needs of its present inhabitants without compromising the ability for other people

or future generations to meet their needs, and thus, does not exceed local or planetary

environmental limitations, and where this is supported by ICT’. (p.342). Only when

the three aspects are combined (smart technologies, cities and sustainability), the

concept of sustainable smart cities can be used (Höjer & Wangel, 2015). It must be

considered that different spaces make up city structures, such as museums, libraries,

parks and other public and private spaces. Therefore, seeking solutions for the

development and use of these spaces from the intelligent and sustainable point of

view directly assists in the evolution of cities as a whole. The cultural heritage is one

of the spaces that can interactively combine the use of technologies for the best visitor

experience, whether they are a citizen or a tourist (Chianese et al., 2015).

2.2 Cultural heritage in a smart sustainable environment

The concept of heritage has always been shaped by changes in society, especially in

the resurgence of the state as an instance of power and social legitimacy. Thus,

heritage is no longer simply a physical artifact, a space of memory and documentation

but a process of cultural practices and an instrument of cultural power (Harvey, 2001).

The heritage has an intrinsic relationship with sustainable development (Hribar, Bole,

& Pipan, 2015), especially in places considered as World Heritage (Labadi, 2017).

Heritage can help not only empower a region economically but also socially,

environmentally and culturally (Hribar et al., 2015). Therefore, balancing the

development of these potentials becomes a challenge. Culture, for example, once it is

appreciated by tourists, it has positive economic impacts but can pose a risk to locals,


42

especially if the activities are carried out by investors outside the community (Hribar

et al., 2015).

The concept of heritage can also be observed from the logic of the technological

development of cities. The capacity of storage, articulation and production of data

also made possible the increasing of the number of documents and monuments

considered as heritage (Harvey, 2001). Also, ICTs enable greater interaction between

people and the spaces in which they live as well as their heritage. Following this

logic, cultural heritage has become a major showcase for ICT applications in recent

years (Chianese et al., 2015) and an essential element within the concept of

sustainable smart cities.

The elements presented indicate the importance of heritage insertion as the axis of

sustainable and smart development of cities. Thus, monitoring indicators enables the

understanding of how heritage can assist in the development of cities, and becomes

fundamental for the management of spaces.

2.3 ETSI indicator for sustainable smart cities

Ahvenniemi et al., (2017) conducted a study in which they concluded that the

indicator models presented by smart cities focused largely on social and economic

aspects, but excluding environmental aspects. Sustainable city indicators covered

topics such as environmental development, water management, waste and transport,

but had gaps in economic development, ICT use and entrepreneurship.

Another study by Huovila et al. (2019) compared six indicator systems for sustainable

smart cities. It evaluated each of the 413 indicators available and also concluded that

even in the analysed models for monitoring intelligence and sustainability data, most

systems did not have a balanced relationship between the two terms. Only two

systems proved to be more efficient: the first, being created by the European

Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) and named ETSI 103463 and the

second, by the International Communication Union (ITU) called ITU 4903. The ETSI

model presents explanatory sheets for each of the proposed indicators, containing

description, calculation, strengths and weaknesses, measurement source, collection

interval, expected availability, reliability and accessibility. The ITU model presents

only a description of each indicator. Thus, the ETSI model is more complete for the

study proposed in the thesis.

ETSI's model outlines a series of indicators that make it possible to monitor a city's

progress toward becoming intelligent. Although the main focus is the smart city

concept, the model is based on concern for sustainability from five main themes:

people, planet, prosperity, governance and propagation. The model enables

application in cities of different sizes and stages of development. Therefore, 73

indicators were proposed and the recommendation is to work with percentages and

not absolute values, facilitating the comparison between different cities and realities.

2.4 ICOMOS-UK indicator for heritage

There are no methods in the literature that propose monitoring effective indicators for

smart and sustainable cultural heritage, especially focusing on humanity's heritage.

The main model used is still defined by the International Council of Monuments and


43

Sites from United Kingdom (ICOMOS-UK) based on the management of heritage

spaces.

ICOMOS is an international non-governmental organization dedicated to the

conservation of monuments and historical sites worldwide, composed of professionals

dedicated to the subject. Besides, it is the international advisory body of World

Heritage that assesses and issues opinions on the processes of nominating the cultural

heritage of humanity. Its mission is to promote the conservation, protection, use and

guarantee of heritage appreciation (Oliveira, Baracho, Castriota & Araújo, 2019).

From this mission, the ICOMOS-UK proposed in 2006 a model of indicators for

monitoring cultural heritage that still serves as a reference for various countries and

regions of the world (ICOMOS, 2006). Indicators aim to assess the state of

preservation and interpretation of a site during a given year and provide data details

so managers can improve the site (ICOMOS, 2006).

The indicators cover four main dimensions: conservation, use and preservation,

environmental quality and management. In addition, the model also proposes a list of

secondary key indicators such as conservation measures, list of endangered

characteristics, list of protected species, map of protected habitats, tourist satisfaction

level, tourist spending, traffic volume on site and number of parking lots. Finally, it

still lists 30 possible optional monitoring indicators totalling 69 indicators.

Importantly, ICOMOS works on principles that secure the interpretation and

preservation of cultural heritage and ensuring the use of ICT in an efficient and

sustainable manner is an ongoing concern (Brizard, Derde, & Silberman, 2007). Thus,

it is relevant to elaborate proposals of indicators that facilitate the monitoring of

heritage, especially in the context of sustainable smart cities.


Figure 1. Research framework


44


The thesis is at an early stage and proposes to deepen the study of indicator models

focusing on the definitions of intelligence and sustainability to elaborate a conceptual

model. This model should contain relevant dimensions or categories to group the

performance indicators of cultural heritage of society. The model should enable the

comparison of results between different heritages.

In a practical way, it is intended to apply the model in cultural heritages located in

different realities in the world. As a case study, we intend to apply it in attractions in

Switzerland and Brazil, checking the viability and reliability of the model. This

choice of countries was due to the possibility of conducting on-site practical tests by

the researcher through an exchange programme between educational institutions in

both countries.

So far, it has been possible to compare two indicator models: the model for

monitoring sustainable smart cities, ETSI, and the model for monitoring indicators of

cultural heritage of humanity presented by ICOMOS-UK.


From the analysis of the proposed models, it is clear that ICOMOS-UK indicators

focus more on the structural part of the heritage and its relationship with the

collection, both for safeguarding and for contact with visitors. It also stands out in the

list of indicators aimed at the understanding of the concept of heritage by the

surrounding society and, more indirectly, with a closer relation to sustainability based

on suggestions for data on organic consumption, alternative transportation or

measurement of environmental impacts. At first, in the ICOMOS-UK model, there is

no indicator focusing on information and communication technologies in the concept

of smart cities. There are some similarities with the ETSI model, mainly in the

indicators for education, transportation, economic performance, however it does not

present any point about innovation or what was considered most deficient by analysis:

governance. Heritage, as it is considered a social asset, should count on the effective

participation of society in the monitoring of actions and even in management, a very

common feature in the concept of sustainable smart cities.

In the case of the ETSI model, despite having a balance between sustainability and

intelligence indicators (Huovila et al., 2019) it is not clear which indicators are in the

item ‘diversity and social cohesion’, pointing to a bottleneck regarding the proposal of

sustainable smart cities. In addition, indicators are considered more broadly (covering

the entire city structure), but at no time they discuss points of relevance in today's

society, such as the number of tourists in a given space or the use of local raw

materials in the city's economy (both monitored by the ICOMOS-UK model). The

strengths lie in the wide range of options for environmental indicators and city

organization, as well as participatory governance monitoring proposals. Finally, the

division of indicators into four dimensions (people, planet, prosperity and

governance) makes it easier to understand the goals pursued by smart sustainable

cities, making it clearer to managers. The four divisions proposed by ICOMOS-UK

(conservation, use and preservation, environmental quality and management), while


45

helping to understand the main points to be considered for heritage monitoring, do not

characterise a broad vision of long-term objectives, neither integrate the proposal in

the environment outside the heritage space, that is, the city and its inhabitants and

visitors.

Research is still ongoing and new references are needed to strengthen a comparative

model analysis, helping to build the solution for smart sustainable indicators for

assets. Topics such as information security, data privacy and tourism indicators are

fundamental for the evolution of the proposal and strengthening of the methodology

for the final results. It is hoped that the final research will assist not only in the

construction of a specific concept for sustainable and intelligent heritage, but also of a

model of indicators to be used globally by space managers that are considered as

cultural heritage, facilitating the monitoring of data and comparison of results

between assets.

Financial support

This study was financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal

de Nível Superior - Brasil (Capes) - Finance Code 001.

References

Ahvenniemi, H., Huovila, A., Pinto-Seppä, I., & Airaksinen, M. (2017). What are the differences between sustainable and smart cities? Cities, 60, 234–245.

Brizard, T., Derde, W., & Silberman, N. (2007). Basic Guidelines for Cultural Heritage Professionals in the Use of Information Technologies: How can ICT support cultural heritage. (H. Gottlieb, Ed.), The Interactive Institute. Stockholm.

Chianese, A., Piccialli, F., & Valente, I. (2015). Smart environments and Cultural Heritage: a novel approach to create intelligent cultural spaces. Journal of Location Based Services, 9(3), 209–234.

European Telecommunications Standards Institute (2017). ETSI TS 103463 key performance indicators for sustainable digital multiservice cities. Technical specification V1.1.1 (2017-07).

Haarstad, H. (2017). Constructing the sustainable city: examining the role of sustainability in the ‘smart city’ discourse. Journal of Environmental Policy and Planning, 19(4), 423–437.

Harvey, D. C. (2001). Heritage Pasts and Heritage Presents: temporality, meaning and the scope of heritage studies. International Journal of Heritage Studies, 7(4), 319–338.

Höjer, M., & Wangel, J. (2015). Smart Sustainable Cities: Definition and Challenges. ICT Innovations for Sustainability, 310, 333–349.

Hribar, M. Š., Bole, D., & Pipan, P. (2015). Sustainable Heritage Management: Social, Economic and Other Potentials of Culture in Local Development. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 188, 103–110.

Huovila, A., Bosch, P., & Airaksinen, M. (2019). Comparative analysis of standardized indicators for Smart sustainable cities: What indicators and standards to use and when? Finnish Association of Civil Engineers RIL.

International Council on Monuments and Sites (2006). ICOMOS. Tool kit for World Heritage Site monitoring indicators - Draft - (15 September 2006). https://urbact.eu/sites/default/files/import/Projects/HERO/projects_media/Tool_kit_for_World_Heritage_Site_monitoring_indicators.pdf. Accessed date: 10 August 2019.


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Martin, C. J., Evans, J., & Karvonen, A. (2018). Smart and sustainable? Five tensions in the visions and practices of the smart-sustainable city in Europe and North America. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 133(December 2017), 269–278.

Oliveira, R., Baracho, R., Castriota, L & Araújo, G. (2019). Diagnóstico da formação superior relacionada ao patrimônio: um projeto piloto. In: 3º. Simpósio Científico ICOMOS/Brasil: Autenticidade em risco. Belo Horizonte.


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Measuring Tourism Destinations with Tracking Data

Janika Raun

University of Tartu, Estonia

[email protected]

Abstract

Destination is the fundamental concept in tourism research and functional unit in tourism development and marketing. Nevertheless, there are several different definitions for the term and lack of homogeneity among them. Several authors have pointed out the need to study tourism destinations more thoroughly using different datasets to give some empirical grounding to the term. Regardless few studies have been made because there has been a lack of spatially and temporally precise data. Due to the rapid advancements in information- and communication technologies new possibilities are emerging that allow to collect data about human movement, including tourists. The aim of this PhD thesis is to use mobile positioning data and GPS data to analyse the spatio-temporal behaviour of foreign tourists in respective destination countries, Estonia and Israel. Thus, using this kind of spatially and temporally precise datasets creates a new opportunity to reconceptualise the concept of destination based on the actual visits tourists have made. This kind of empirical knowledge is particularly important in destination management, marketing and planning, to understand which places act together as destinations for tourists themselves. Therefore, this knowledge helps to reconceptualise the idea of tourism destination from something static or intangible to empirically measurable unit.

Keywords: tourism destination, tracking, GPS, mobile positioning, Estonia, Israel


48

The R Programming Language Study of Online Reviews

of Service Failure by Using Data Mining

Chien-Yi Li


[email protected]

Ching-Hsu Huang


[email protected]

Abstract

The purpose of this research is to investigate the service errors that happen on online reviews around Asia’s three to five stars hotels. Most customers will evaluate the opinions on food or travel websites before reservations for restaurants or hotels. They may even give out their thoughts and rankings of the facilities after the experiences for other customer’s reference. Travel website Tripadvisor provides a well-organized platform for customers to browse the reviews. According to former research, online comment plays a significant role on customers’ choice. The study will collect the comments on Tripadvisor as big-data resources, using Text Mining, R Programming Language, and Ubuntu Linux to arrange the data, next up using Word Cloud, Word Cluster, Word LDA, Word Association, and Sentiment Analysis to analyze the results for illustration.

Keywords: Text Mining, Big Data, Online Reviews, Service Failure, R programming

language


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Digital Experience


50

Sustainable Digital Enterprises

Reaching the Sustainable Development Goals Through

E-Tourism in Tourism Enterprises

Ida Marie Visbech Andersen

UCL University College Denmark

[email protected]

Abstract

Digitalisation is a growing factor in the tourism industry and the concept of smart tourism destinations is emerging in academic research. Digitalisation is becoming a growth factor for many enterprises in a time when the focus on sustainability is increasing and more attention has been placed on the topic with the publication of the United Nations 17 sustainable development goals. There is, however, a lack of knowledge about how e-tourism and digital tools are interlinked with sustainability. Researchers agree that both areas are of importance but limited research has been conducted in how e-tourism can help deliver and achieve the sustainable development goals in the tourism industry, especially in the context of small-medium sized enterprises. Through a pragmatic mixed methods approach, this PhD project seeks to investigate how e-tourism influence the ability of small-medium sized tourism enterprises in contributing to the sustainable development goals.

Keywords: Sustainability, Sustainable development goals, e-tourism, digitalisation &

small medium sized enterprises.


51

Transmedia Tourism: Analysis, Evaluation and

Characterisation of Transmedia Experiences for the

Design of New Tourist Spaces

Silvia Casellas

Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona

[email protected]

Abstract

The starting point for this research is the impact of transmedia storytelling or TS (Jenkins, 2003) on tourist experiences (Ferreira, 2015). In this context, the participation, interaction, and engagement (Huang, 2017) of real or potential visitors with a tourist destination and its promotions can be improved by the comprehensive communication concept that TS represents. If we also enhance TS with the new capabilities of information and communication technologies (Neuhofer et al. 2012), these can be a powerful dual aid both to propose and design the products, activities and tourist destinations for the new, 21st century travellers, as well as to understand the tourist phenomenon in its current reconfiguration. We propose to call both this understanding and design capacity ‘Transmedia Tourism’, drawing the name from the terms in Jenkins' convergence culture (Jenkins, 2006). Convergence has changed mass media, as well as the function of integrated tourism corporate communication (Sančanin, 2018).

1 Problem definition

The design of tourist spaces has evolved over time, according to the technologies used

to build them. The emergence of new technologies enables new interactions with our

environment and a constant connection with sources of information, in addition to

geo-location and augmented reality. These are technologies that are re-configuring the

tourist space and, therefore, opening up new possibilities. This provides us with new

capacities for experience and meaning to know, interpret, discover, and relate with the

environment. These tools allow the design of hitherto unknown spaces (the

combination of location and communication) for cultural experiences (and leisure)

which are articulated around new narratives, placing value on emerging assets and

opening up a field that must be explored and defined (de Villasante, Casellas, 2017).

Especially in urban and cultural tourism, the narratives and possible interactions

between the space and the visitor affect the visitors' satisfaction of the experience

(Hester, 2010). Narratives are a pathway to success for tourist destinations (the soul of

the tourist experience) and have the capacity structure them. As Hjortegaard

highlights (2010): “Narratives play a significant role in the construction of place

brands that consumers use to create meaning, order and purpose in their lives” (p.

278). In fact, we could say that the tourist space is any public space that has narratives

to share with its visitors. The design of these spaces has been marked by the evolution

of the technologies (Nóbrega, Jacob, Coelho et al. 2017) that the creators have had

within their reach, and they base part of their success on the capacity to transmit

narrative messages and adapt them to the physical space to generate engagement

(Kim, Youn, 2016). The emergence of new technologies, in particular mobile

technologies, is re-configuring the tourist space and offers us new design capabilities

mailto:[email protected]


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(Jacob & Coelho, 2011), mobile apps (Dorcic, J., Komsic, J., Markovic, S., 2019),

augmented reality (Liestøl, Ritter, Ibus, 2019) mixed with IRL (in real life)

storytelling (Hjortegaard, 2010) and gamification (Bulencea & Egger, 2015), while

social networks are tools (Lund, Cochen, Scarles, 2017) with which to fascinate

tourists. Furthermore, tourism consumers are increasingly demanding, they seek more

personalised tourism products and smart services that provide them with high quality,

individualised information, any time, anywhere and in real time. This is especially

true for digital natives, who demand the tourist space to be that which we already

have on our devices that take us from the symbolic to the virtual, from the liturgy to

the experience (de Villasante, Casellas 2017). Not all tourists are the same, nor do

they all seek the same intensity of information and knowledge. Technology allows us

to adapt to each style of visitor, to incorporate stories, games, rigour, anecdotes, etc.

according to demand.

In 2006, Jenkins describes convergence in the following way: “Convergence

represents a paradigm shift – a move from medium-specific content that flows across

multiple media channels, toward the increased interdependence of communications

systems, toward multiple ways of accessing media content, and toward ever more

complex relations between top-down corporate media and bottom-up participatory

culture” (Jenkins, 2006, p. 243). In 2007, he defined transmedia storytelling as “a

process where integral elements of a fiction get dispersed systematically across

multiple delivery channels for the purpose of creating a unified and coordinated

entertainment experience. Ideally, each medium makes it own unique contribution to

de unfolding of the story”. This conception of a story that flows through different

platforms with their respective codes fits within the current overview of tourist, socio-

cultural and heritage promotion (Pérez-Martínez, Motis, 2018). If the cultural

convergence is the environment, I believe that transmedia narratives are a powerful

instrument to design tourist experiences in this new space of meaning.

Therefore, the thesis poses the need to analyse, evaluate and characterise a concept

which allows for transmedia storytelling to be applied to tourist communication and

to draft a model of recommendations so that the directors of tourist destinations,

developers, and academics can propose sustainable tourism models based on the

advantages of transmedia storytelling. I propose to flesh out this concept using a

methodology, elements and categories (Identikit), metrics, and indicators so that

projects can be developed in the sphere of tourism “designed with transmedia in

mind” (Scolari, 2013, p. 295). This will help to activate tangible and intangible

heritage and make it available by designing new spaces for tourist experience and

participation that forge a better connection between the destination, tourists, and

residents, binding both groups together with the local tourist options and identity.

Concerning the stage of the thesis, I will enter the second year in September 2019. I

have dedicated the first year to the literature review and to starting the theoretical

framework as well as to establishing a selection of case studies. My interest in this

topic is due to my professional career since I have my own company (Iternatura) that

specialises in enhancing the value of the territory through narratives and technology

and I want to deepen the subject from the academic point of view.


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2 Literature review

In the field of tourism, transmedia storytelling techniques have just begun to be used

and its results remain to be studied (Ferreira, 2015). To define a systematized review

of the literature, a careful selection has been made of a corpus of investigations

pursuing similar objectives as the present study. The literature review had three main

objectives: (1) To identify the most recently written papers with a main focus on

transmedia storytelling, tourism, gamification, communication, new technologies,

engagement, pervasive games; (2) To explore the advances made since the term

“location based transmedia-storytelling” that was defined (Ferreira et al., 2012); and

(3) To identify and analyse the different transmedia storytelling case studies both in

the academic and professional field.

I collected all the papers published between 2010 and 2019 in social sciences

concerning the subject, using a search on the SCOPUS and Web of Knowledge

bibliographic databases. In the first stage, the research included the words

“Transmedia tourism” though the result was very poor, with a total of 20 related

papers. I then expanded the scope of the search including the term “location based

transmedia-storytelling” that was defined as “the art of telling stories based on a

specific location through multiple platforms with audience participation, where each

storyline makes a valuable and distinctive contribution to the story” (Ferreira et al.,

2012). This increased the result to 84 articles. Finally, I conducted a search using

Google Scholar that gave an initial result of 2,100 articles. The extensive results of

this search were due to the fact that it included the transmedia concept related to other

areas. A first selection reduced the number of articles to a total of approximately 200

articles. These articles have allowed us to create a database of about 50 case studies

that will be analysed throughout this second year. Finally, a new review of the articles

collected in the different bibliographic databases provided us with a total of 50

relevant papers, 3 doctoral theses and 15 books.

In the past decade, location-based tourism experiences have flourished as a research

topic and several projects have explored the association of digital media with physical

movement (Dionisio et al, 2016). I have found a notable number of case studies (50

up until now), mainly from the academic field and presenting pilot projects. The use

of technology in the sphere of tourism has led to a growing interest and, in particular,

concerning the use that Destination Marketing Organizations (DMOs) make of these

(Sammy, Robinson, Oriade, 2017). In addition to the professional sector, augmented

and virtual reality is now interesting the academic sphere (Khoo, Lattimore, 2017).

The same has happened with the experiences of relating with the surrounding that

have been given the name 'pervasive games', such as Geocaching and Pokémon Go,

which represent, according to Arango-López, J., et al. (2017), “a radically new game

form that transfers gaming experiences out into the physical world, weaving ICTs into

the fabric of players’ real environments”.

3 Conceptual development

A context in which we could say that communication obeys new laws and

participation and networks have acquired an extraordinary role, means that this has to

be taken into account in order to take up the challenge and use new ways of


54

communicating and interacting. Our approach is based on transmedia storytelling, the

technique of communicating and explaining an experience across multiple platforms

and formats using current digital technologies. That is, they (1) use diverse

communication tools (website, app, augmented and virtual reality…), (2) use story

and play as tools of involvement and (3) induce or favour participation. “Transmedia

tourism ”aims to contribute to the construction of tourist destinations based on

communication, stories and technology, understanding by building destinies the

ability of a territory to make itself available to its visitors, activate assets and generate

economic activity. We proposed designing a model that identifies the characteristics

and proposes metrics to reconfigure the tourist space by applying communicative

forms and technologies that better relate the destination with tourists and residents,

linking both and activating assets to design new tourist and participation spaces. To

that end, we have proposed 3 research goals: (1) To analyse the principal initiatives in

Europe which incorporate elements regarding transmedia communications in the

sphere of tourism, (2) to draft a model of recommendations so that the directors of

tourist destinations can propose sustainable tourism models based on the advantages

of transmedia storytelling, and (3) to define, evaluate and characterise the concept of

‘Transmedia Tourism ’based on the experiences analysed in the study sample.


This research project intends to employ a qualitative methodology derived from the

theoretical framework that will combine different analytical techniques in line with

the 3 research goals. The methodology will include creating an Identikit with the

objective and subjective elements that identify and define the projects and their

principal elements, as well as make these aspects comparable. In the end this research

project will select a total of 10 European projects that meet the main requirements

concerning transmedia communication in the sphere of tourism. These projects will

be taken as a reference and we will identify the sponsor, designer, users and other

aspects in order to collect information using the following techniques: polls and open-

ended interviews and virtual ethnography (end user). Based on this information, we

will establish a set of indicators to consider or measure the effect of the projects

designed for this purpose on the territory according to the proposed challenges. We

will utilise the matrix and the results to draft the conclusions and recommendations

that will define and characterise the concept ‘Transmedia Tourism ’as well as the

chapters and measurement systems.

The sources to obtain these data comes from: (1) academic articles which propose and

develop pilot projects and which are available in the main academic databases

(Scopus and Web of Knowledge), (2) projects developed by DMOs, Museums and

other cultural/heritage institutions and (3) projects coming from the private sector. In

other cases, the information is obtained based on a review of public tenders,

attendance to congresses and workshops in which practical cases are presented and

based on the doctoral student's own professional experience.


55


Regarding the potential implications of the research and the expected benefits for the

domain of tourism, ‘transmedia tourism’ aims to help build tourist destinations within

the new environment of cultural convergence, as Jenkins defined it, where the tools of

communication also take on a leading role in the relationship between visitors and the

tourist destination. Transmedia narratives can be an instrument to promote tourism

and a powerful ally to awaken the visitor's interest and make interaction and

participation possible. In short, they can be used to compete with the saturation or the

lack of tourists in the destination. Improved tourist flows, greater sustainability and an

enhanced tourist experience will improve the barely sustainable practices of mass

tourism and the ephemeral and fleeting behaviours of 'fast look' tourism (Donaire et

al, 2015). Additionally, the design of a transmedia franchise that includes metrics and

indicators must be able to obtain measurable results of the project's impact on the

tourist destination's parameters (data). The results of the study can also help to refute

the perception that technology has minimal use that remains among DMOs

(Fernández-Cavia et al., 2017).

References

Arango-López, J., Gallardo, J., Gutiérrez, Francisco L., Cerezo, E., Amengual, E., & Valera, R. (2017). Pervasive games: giving a meaning based on the player experience. In Proceedings of the XVIII International Conference on Human Computer Interaction (Interacción '17). ACM, New York, NY, USA, Article 9, 4 pages.

Chaney, D., Lunardo,R., Mencarelli, R. Consumption experience: past, present and future. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, Emerald, 2018, 21 (4), pp.402-420.

Bulencea, P. & Egger, R. (2015). Gamification in tourism. Designing memorable experiences. DoD-Books on Demand, Norderstedt.

De Villasante, R. & Casellas, S. (2017). Tourism, technology and narratives: Reflections for the design of tourist spaces. Elisava, Temes de Disseny: 74-87.

Dionisio, M., Nisi, V., Nunes, N., & Bala, P. (2016). Transmedia storytelling for exposing natural capital and promoting ecotourism. In Lecture Notes in Computer Science (including subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics) (Vol. 10045 LNCS, pp. 351–362). Springer Verlag.

Donaire, J.A.; Galí, N.; Royo-Vela, M. (2015). «El uso del GPS para el análisis del comportamiento espacio-temporal de los turistas pre-test en el Valle de Boí» Cuadernos de Turismo, 35, (2015), 117-131.

Dorcic, J., Komsic, J., Markovic, S. (2019, February 4). Mobile technologies and applications towards smart tourism – state of the art. Tourism Review. Emerald Group Publishing Ltd.

Ferreira, S., Alves, A., Quico, C. (2012). Location based transmedia storytelling: The TravelPlot Porto Experience Design. Journal of Tourism and Development [Revista Turismo & Desenvolvimento], 17/18(4), 95-99, 2182-1453. Ferreira, A., Liberato, P., Liberato, D., Rocha, A. (2019). Information and Communication

Technologies in Creative and Sustainable Tourism. 91-100. Ferreira, S., Alves, A. & Quico, C. (2012). Location based transmedia storytelling: The

TravelPlot Porto Experience Design. Journal of Tourism and Development. [Revista Turismo & Desenvolvimento], 17/18(4),95-99,2182-1453.

Ferreira, S. (2015). Location Based Transmedia Storytelling: Enhancing the Tourist Experience. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Porto, Porto.


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Fernández-Cavia, J., Marchiori, E., Haven-Tang, C., & Cantoni, L. (2017). Online communication in Spanish destination marketing organizations: The view of practitioners. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 23(3), 264–273.

Gravili, S., Rosato, P., Iazzi, A. (2017). Managing DMOs through Storytelling: A Model Proposal for Network and Value Co-creation in Tourism. International Business Research, 10(7), 8.

Hester, G. (2010, October 1). The Neuroscience Behind Stories. Direct Selling News. Retrieved from http://directsellingnews.com/index.php/view/the_neuroscience_behind_stories#.UUde_KXA6Gh

Hjortegaard, R. (2010). The narrative nature of place branding. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy. Macmillan Publishers Ltd. Vol. 6, 4, 268–279

Huang, S. (2017). Tourist Engagement: conceptualization, scale development and empirical validation (Doctoral dissertation). University of Guelph, Ontario.

Jacob, J.T.,Coello, A.F. (2011). Issues in the Development of Location-Based Games, International Journal of Computer Games Technology, vol. 2011, Article ID 495437, 7 pages, 2011. https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/495437.

Jenkins, H. (2003). Transmedia Storytelling. Moving characters from books to films to video games can make them stronger and more compelling. Technology Review, January 15.URL: http://www.technologyreview.com/biomedicine/13052/

Jenkins, H. (2006). Convergence Culture. Where Old and New Media Collide, New York University Press, New York.

Kim, J-H, Youn, H. (2017). How to Design and Deliver Stories about Tourism Destinations. Journal of travel research. SAGE PublicationsSage CA: Los Angeles, CA.

Liestøl G., Ritter,C.S., Ibrus, I. "Audiovisual Industries and Tourism: Forms of Convergence" In Emergence of Cross-innovation. Systems. Published online: 20 Mar 2019; 165-172.

Li, S. C. H., Robinson, P., & Oriade, A. (2017). Destination marketing: The use of technology since the millennium. Journal of Destination Marketing and Management, 6(2), 95–102.

Lund, N.F, Cohen, S.A, Scarles,C. (2017). The power of social media storytelling in destination branding. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management (8): pp. 271-280.

Neuhofer, B., Buhalis. D., Ladkin, A., (2012). Conceptualising technology enhanced destination experiences, Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, Volume 1, Issues 1–2, pp. 36-46.

Nóbrega, R., Jacob, J., Coelho, A., Weber, J., Ribeiro, J., & Ferreira, S. (2017). Mobile location-based augmented reality applications for urban tourism storytelling. In EPCGI 2017 - 24th Encontro Portugues de Computacao Grafica e Interacao (Vol. 2017-January, pp. 1–8). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc.

Pérez-Martínez, V.M., & Motis Dolader, M. Á. (2018) Narrativa transmedia y turismo experiencial: relatos sobre el patrimonio y la herencia judía en Aragón Sefarad, Church, Communication and Culture, 3:3, 389-407.

Scolari, Carlos A. (2013). Narrativas transmedia, cuando todos los medios cuentan. Deusto:pp. 295.

Sančanin (2018). The impact of media convergence on the development of integrated corporate communication in tourism. Journal of Economics, Management and Informatics. Volume 9, Number 2: 81-102.

Takeuchi, Y., Perlin K. (2012) ClayVision: the (elastic) image of the city. CHI '12 Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems: 2411-2420.

Yung, R., & Khoo-Lattimore, C. (2017, December 29). New realities: a systematic literature review on virtual reality and augmented reality in tourism research. Current Issues in Tourism, pp. 1–26. Routledge.


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Analysing the Affective-Cognitive Sides of Virtual and

Augmented Reality in Tourism

Sergio Ibáñez-Sánchez

University of Zaragoza, Spain

[email protected]

Carlos Flavián


[email protected]

Carlos Orús


[email protected]

Abstract

Virtual and augmented reality are altering the way customers and companies interact. Despite the increasing interest of these technologies in tourism, there is a lack of empirical research analysing their impact in this area. Therefore, the aim of this doctoral thesis is to analyse the affective and cognitive processes that take place in virtual and augmented reality experiences in the tourist decision making processes. Results from two lab experiments allow us to shed light on this emerging topic, highlighting the role played by technological embodiment and presence to foster positive affective and cognitive processes that results in more favourable behaviours.

Keywords: virtual reality, augmented reality, customer experience, technological

embodiment.


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Authenticity and Augmented Reality in Heritage Sites

Emmy Y M Yeung

Leeds Beckett University, UK

[email protected]

Abstract

The debates around authenticity within tourism continue. This research adds to this discussion by investigating 1) which type of authenticity tourists value, 2) to what extent tourists find inauthenticity acceptable (or even desirable), and 3) how this affects their experiences. Through an exploration of the application of augmented reality in a heritage site, this research also allows us to understand the concept of inauthenticity, in the binary tradition of authenticity, and as a connotation for negative and undesired elements. Inauthenticity has generally been overlooked and is therefore under researched within tourism studies.

Keywords: Authenticity, Inauthenticity, Heritage Site, Augmented Reality


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Current Issues


60

Social Media Influencers for Destination Marketing –

Application of the Self-Congruity Theory on

Generational and Cross-Cultural Comparison

Yi Xuan Ong

Hokkaido University, Japan

[email protected]

Abstract

Social media influencers (SMIs) have been faces and voices of recent marketing campaigns for not just brands and products, but also destinations. While there is a growth in research related to SMI marketing in the tourism industry, it is still insufficient to understand the extent of its impact on consumers. This study aims to shed light on the impact of SMIs on their followers, typically Generation Y and Generation Z consumers. Applying the self-congruity theory, the study would like illuminate how SMI-self congruity would affect one’s processing of SMI marketing campaign. Moreover, the study would like to compare results between consumers of different generation in several East Asian countries which rank low in the individualism-collectivism orientation of Hofstede’s (1980) cultural dimensions.


The use of Social Media Influencers (SMIs) as a form of marketing has been growing

steadily since the evolution of technology has provided users with a platform to share

their consumption experience. Despite a recent growth in SMI literature in both

marketing and tourism field, existing studies focused on the effectiveness of SMI

marketing on destination image and travel intention with the application of various

concepts such as source credibility and self-congruity (Magno & Cassia, 2018; Ong &

Ito, 2019; Xu & Pratt, 2018). While Xu & Pratt (2018) highlighted that the SMI-

consumer congruence and SMI-destination congruence positively affect consumers’

intention to travel to SMI-marketed destination, recent studies have yet to delve into

the consumers’ cognitive processing of SMI campaigns, which could provide deeper

understanding on the impacts of SMIs and their campaigns on their target audience.

With the main target audience of SMI marketing being consumers aged 18-35 (Salem

& Twining-Ward, 2018), it is vital to understand complexities within this specific

group of consumers. As such, this study would like to employ the generational theory

to investigate, whether if there is a generational difference between the Generation Y

consumers (born in 1985-1994) and Generation Z consumers (born in 1995 and after)

(Chee & Siddique, 2019). Additionally, this study would like to examine whether the

influence of individualism-collectivism orientation introduced by Hofstede’s (1980) is

still at play in the current landscape of globalisation of cultures and social media.

Insights gained from a cultural and a generational approach would provide multiple

practical contributions for tourism destinations, as well as marketers. With the above

discussion, the study has the following research questions:

RQ: How would generational and cultural differences affect consumers’ self-image

congruity to a social media influencer (SMI) destination marketing and influence their

information processing of the SMI campaigns?


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2 Literature Review

2.1 Social Media Influencers in marketing

Freberg et al.’s (2011) research defined SMIs as “a new type of independent third-

party endorser who shapes audience attitudes through blogs, tweets, and the use of

other social media” (p.90). Unlike opinion leaders, SMIs take the perspective of a

consumer, sharing information of products and services, as well as his/her own

experience through a dynamic interaction with the followers, and consequently

influence the followers to a certain action – from brand loyalty, engagement and even

purchase (Uzunoğlu & Kip, 2014). Despite the recent growth in SMI marketing

research in the tourism and travel industry, research on the impacts of SMI and their

campaigns on followers, is still underexplored in the tourism field (Magno & Cassia,

2018).

2.2 Self-congruity in consumer behaviour

Defined as “the match between consumers’ self-concept and the user’s image of a

given product, brand, store, etc” (Kressmann, Sirgy, Herman, Huber, Huber & Lee,

2006, p. 955), the self-congruity theory postulates that consumers are driven by their

psychological motivation to express their own self by purchasing a product or service

that is a match between their self-image with product-user image of a product or

service (Sirgy, 1985). Self-congruity have four different facets which corresponds to

the four different self-concept dimensions: actual self-congruity, ideal self-congruity,

social self-congruity and ideal social self-congruity (Sirgy & Su, 2000). These four

components are directed by self-concept motives such as the need for self-consistency

(Kang, Tang & Lee, 2015, Kressmann et al., 2006; Sirgy, 1986), motivating

consumers to protect their own identity through consuming products or services

which are congruent, or in other words, consistent to their self-image (Sirgy, 1985).

Despite the extant studies on self-congruity, research related to how self-congruity is

influential in information processing is still insufficient.

2.3 Generational Theory

Defining generation as an “aggregate of all people born over roughly the span of a

phase of life who share a common location in history and, hence, a collective

persona” (Strauss & Howe, 1997, p.61), consumers of each generation tend to have

similar life experiences due to sharing similar socio-economic and cultural events in

their formative years (Li, Li & Hudson, 2013). Recent literature on Generation Y

consumers, illuminated their reliance of social media and the Internet for travel

information, and their growing spending power in the tourism sector (Xu & Pratt,

2108). Yet, little has been done to compare the two recent generations which are

representative of the digital millennium. Thus, this study hopes to provide an

empirical perspective to a generational comparison on online travel information

processing and consumer behaviours.

2.4 Influence of national cultural differences

Hofstede’s (1980) individualism-collectivism orientation (ICO), has been frequently

employed in cross-cultural and multi-national comparison. However, it has been

brought to question whether ICO is still a strong influence in consumers’ online


62

decision-making in the current globalised media landscape. Extant studies focused on

insights regarding effects of ICO of national cultures on self-congruity to satisfaction

of destination (Litvin & Kar, 2004) and self-congruity on destination personality and

visit intention (Matzler et al., 2016). While Hofstede (1980) did not specifically

indicate the possibility of using ICO to compare generational differences, future

research should investigate this possibility in an ever-changing global society which

could be present at a more micro level.


This study would like to employ the use of Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

introduced by Petty & Cacioppo (1986) to evaluate the impacts of SMI destination

marketing on consumers. As a relevant social psychology theory which aims to

evaluate one’s information cognitive process, the ELM posits that information is

processed by two routes: the central route of persuasion via argument quality, which

requires high involvement and ability of the consumer to scrutinise the content, and

the peripheral route via source credibility, which focuses on source cues of the

information provider (Zhang et al., 2016). Extant literature illuminated that self-

congruity positively and significantly heightens consumers’ product involvement as a

motivation of human behaviour, since consumers would be motivated for their need

of self-consistency (Hung & Petrick, 2013; Kang et al., 2015; Kressmann et al., 2006;

Sirgy, 1986). Thus, the self-congruity theory can be applicable in the context of SMI

destination marketing campaigns due to its significant role in purchase motivation,

which could possibly predict consumers’ information adoption process using ELM.

With the two routes of processing via ELM postulated to vary with one’s motivation,

it is feasible to include self-congruity as a predictor of the ELM (H1, H2).

While the central and peripheral routes of persuasion within the ELM seem to be

distinct of each other, the persuasion process can take place via both routes

consecutively (Kang et al., 2015). Consumers can form attitude toward the product,

service or information via the peripheral route, which enhances the personal relevance

and involvement, then decide to scrutinise information in the central route based on

increased motivation and ability or even consistency to one’s self-concept generated

as a result of the peripheral route (Braverman, 2008; Kang et al., 2015) (H3).

The integration of Sussman & Siegal’s (2003) information adoption model (IAM)

with the Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986) by Filieri &

McLeay (2013) provided a model to examine how a piece of information is perceived

with various cues of central and peripheral routes of travel information processing,

then form intention to adopt the certain piece of information (Filieri & McLeay,

2013). Furthermore, as a destination marketing outcome, the study would like to

introduce travel intention to the SMI marketed destination to understand consumers’

behavioural intention after adopting the information from a SMI campaign. With the

above discussion, the study would like to introduce the hypothesised model as shown

in Figure 1, along with the hypotheses as shown in the model.


63

Figure 1. Hypothesised Model


A web-based questionnaire will be distributed among Millennials and Generation Z

from countries of collectivist cultures (Singapore, Korea, Japan and China) via

random sampling through of local market research firms. Samples are retrieved based

on the target audience of SMI marketing, consumers aged 18-35 in the year of 2020.

Samples would consist of at least 300 respondents per country and are stratified

equally according to age and gender quotas to produce samples that are representative

of Generation Y and Z followers of SMI marketing in each country (Goodrich & de

Mooji, 2013). Instruments will be developed from instruments of existing literature

with the use of a seven-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree).

Self-congruity will be measured with holistic processing based on the four separate

tenets of self-congruity (Sirgy & Su, 2000). Scales of influential power of SMI will be

adapted from Ohanian (1990), while the extent of informational influence of the SMI

campaign will be measured by items in argument quality (Filieri & McLeay, 2013;

Petty & Cacioppo, 1986). The attitude scale and measures for behavioural intention

will be adapted from Ong and Ito (2019), and Sussman and Siegal (2003). A pre-test

will be executed to 50 Singaporeans (25 Generation Y and 25 Generation Z

consumers) to test the appropriateness of the questionnaire items. Hypotheses will be

tested using structural equation modelling (SEM) and multigroup analysis.


This research aims to explore consumers’ information processing, adoption and

behavioural intention during and after interacting with SMI destination marketing

campaign. Results of the study is expected to indicate a significant difference between

Generation Y and Generation Z consumers in information processing. Particularly, an

increase in individualism within Generation Z consumers as compared to Generation

Y. This would result in actual self-congruity and ideal self-congruity having a greater

influence on Generation Z consumers’ information processing, whereas social self-

congruity and ideal social self-congruity influence Generation Y consumers more

significantly. This differing effects of self-congruity is translated to affect information

processing, anticipating results where Generation Y consumers would be more likely

to undergo the peripheral route, as compared to Generation Z consumers.

Additionally, generational differences is expected to be more impactful than national

cultural differences on consumers information processing. Consequently, the results


64

aim to provide empirical support for destination marketers in their future strategies on

targeting Generation Y and Generation Z consumers.

References

Braverman, J. (2008). Testimonials versus informational persuasive messages: The moderating effect of delivery mode and personal involvement. Communication Research, 35(5), 666-694.

Chee, C. H. & Siddique, S. (2019). Singapore’s Multiculturalism: Evolving Diversity. Routledge.

Filieri, R., & McLeay, F. (2013). E-WOM and accommodation: An analysis of the factors that influence travelers’ adoption of information from online reviews. Journal of Travel Research 53(1), 44-57.

Freberg, K., Graham, K., McGaughey, K., Freberg, L. A. (2011). Who are the social media influencers? A study of public perceptions of personality. Public Relations Review 37(1), 90-92.

Goodrich, K., & De Mooij, M. (2014). How ‘social’ are social media? A cross-cultural comparison of online and offline purchase decision influences. Journal of Marketing Communications, 20(1-2), 103-116.

Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.

Hung, K., & Petrick, J. F. (2012). Testing the effects of congruity, travel constraints, and self-efficacy on travel intentions: An alternative decision-making model. Tourism Management, 33(4), 855-867.

Kang, J., Tang, L., & Lee, J. Y. (2015). Self-congruity and functional congruity in brand loyalty. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 39(1), 105-131.

Kressmann, F., Sirgy, M. J., Herrmann, A., Huber, F., Huber, S., & Lee, D. J. (2006). Direct and indirect effects of self-image congruence on brand loyalty. Journal of Business research, 59(9), 955-964.

Li, X., Li, X. R., & Hudson, S. (2013). The application of generational theory to tourism consumer behavior: An American perspective. Tourism Management 37, 147-164.

Litvin, S. W., & Kar, G. H. (2004). Individualism/collectivism as a moderating factor to the self-image congruity concept. Journal of Vacation Marketing 10(1), 23-32.

Magno, F. & Cassia, F. (2018). The impact of social media influencers in tourism. Anatolia 29(2), 288-290.

Matzler, K., Strobl, A., Stokburger-Sauer, N., Bobovnicky, A., & Bauer, F. (2016). Brand personality and culture: The role of cultural differences on the impact of brand personality perceptions on tourists' visit intentions. Tourism Management 52, 507-520.

Ohanian, R. (1990). Construction and Validation of a Scale to Measure Celebrity Endorsers’ Perceived Expertise, Trustworthiness, and Attractiveness. Journal of Advertising 19 (3), 39-52.

Ong, Y. X. & Ito, N. (2019). “I Want to Go There Too!” Evaluating Social Media Influencer Marketing Effectiveness: A Case Study of Hokkaido’s DMO. In Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism 2019, 132-144. Springer, Cham.

Petty, R., & Cacioppo, J. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 19, 123-205.

Salem, T. M. & Twining-Ward, L. D. (2018). The Voice of Travelers: Leveraging User-Generated Content for Tourism Development 2018. Retrieved October 15, 2018 from http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/656581537536830430/The-Voice-of-Travelers-Leveraging-User-Generated-Content-for-Tourism-Development-2018.

Sirgy, M. J. (1985). Using self-congruity and ideal congruity to predict purchase motivation. Journal of business Research 13(3), 195-206.

http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/656581537536830430/The-Voice-of-Travelers-Leveraging-User-Generated-Content-for-Tourism-Development-2018

http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/656581537536830430/The-Voice-of-Travelers-Leveraging-User-Generated-Content-for-Tourism-Development-2018


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Sirgy, M. J. (1986). Self-congruity: Toward a theory of personality and cybernetics. Praeger Publishers/Greenwood Publishing Group.

Sirgy, M. J., & Su, C. (2000). Destination image, self-congruity, and travel behavior: Toward an integrative model. Journal of Travel Research 38(4), 340-352.

Strauss, W. & Howe, N. (1997). The Fourth Turning: An American Prophecy. Broadway Books, New York.

Sussman, S. W. & Siegal, W. S. (2003). Informational influence in organizations: An Integrated approach to knowledge adoption. Information Systems Research 53(9), 1689–1699.

Uzunoğlu, E. & Kip, S. M. (2014). Brand communication through digital influencers: Leveraging blogger engagement. International Journal of Information Management 34(5), 592-602.

Xu, X. & Pratt, S. (2018). Social media influencers as endorsers to promote travel destinations: an application of self-congruence theory to the Chinese Generation Y. Journal of travel & tourism marketing 35(7), 958-972.

Zhang, J., Ito, N., Wu, W., & Li, Z. (2017). “Don’t Let Me Think!” Chinese Adoption of Travel Information on Social Media: Moderating Effects of Self-disclosure. In Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism 2017, 639-653. Springer, Cham.


66

Cruising with a Conscience: Navigating Moral Identity

and the Ethics of Sustainability in the Online Cruise

Community

Judith Römhild-Raviart

University of Brighton, UK

[email protected]

Abstract

This PhD project explores how cruise tourists reflect on and negotiate the sustainability of their holiday by engaging with fellow cruise tourists online. The extensive growth of the cruise industry in terms of passenger numbers, new ship builds, and destinations has prompted concern about the industry’s environmental and societal impacts. Nevertheless, little is known about how cruise tourists position themselves in relation to these impacts. As tourists increasingly engage in conversations about their holiday experiences on the Internet, discourses within online communities may offer valuable insights into how cruise tourists negotiate the complexities of being a responsible tourist. In order to address these questions, preliminary findings based on a thematic analysis of threads relating to the social and environmental dimensions of sustainability in the world’s largest online cruise community suggest that some cruise tourists consider the economic well-being of cruise ship employees but do not share much concern about the ecological footprint of their holiday. Furthermore, cruisers exhibit varied strategies to reconcile their moral identities with their decision to take a cruise.

Keywords: Cruise Tourism, Sustainability Discourse, Moral Identity, Social Media,

Online Communities


67

Is There Life Beyond Airbnb? Dynamics of Peer To Peer

Accommodation Platforms in Spain

Vivian C. Medina-Hernandez

University of Lleida

[email protected]

Abstract

Airbnb has been declared the most important peer-to-peer (P2P) accommodation platform in the tourism sector. For 10 years, this platform has been progressively changing the rules of the accommodation landscape, taking to users to be part of this change and creating new dynamics for the economy. Researchers have mainly focused on the study of this platform, analysing especially, its evolution and impact. However, in this rising accommodation sharing sector, Airbnb is not the only P2P accommodation platform. Others have arrived with different approaches for users and possibly, with particular impacts in the tourism sector. This Doctoral dissertation aims to create a new understanding of how the ecosystem of the P2P accommodation platforms currently works, by combining qualitative and quantitative research methods that allow to know the possible added values and the impact on society of other non-Airbnb P2P accommodation platforms, through its user’s (guests and hosts) experiences.

1 Introduction and problem definition

The Sharing economy is a phenomenon that has arrived to stay and has attracted

researchers’ attention from different points of view. One of them is the peer-to-peer

(P2P) accommodation platforms sector. Researchers have studied how they are

transforming the tourism industry and its continuous growth along with the impact of

technology on trust and social connection (Turkle, 2012). Belk (2010) defined

“sharing” as a non-reciprocal distribution of resources given without expectation.

However, there is some scepticism in academia, related to what does the concept of

“sharing” actually implies, and some authors question the value proposition of some

P2P accommodation platforms based on this concept. For example, Schor and

Attwood-Charles (2017) in their literature review on for-profit platforms, question

whether sharing is an accurate term for those platforms which involves monetary

exchange. As Schor and Attwood-Charles (2017) argue “The platforms' discourse

emphasizes the common good claims” (pp., 5) such as sustainability, social

interaction, authentic experiences and low cost. However, research has found that the

most prominent incentive for customers to use this type of accommodation is

financial.

The vast range of literature based on accommodation sharing has mainly focused on

Airbnb without exploring the ecosystem of other P2P accommodation platforms,

especially non-profit platforms. This gap in literature provides unique research

opportunities to create a new framework for understanding the value created by other

P2P accommodations platforms, as well as to examine how it differs from the value

proposition of Airbnb and traditional accommodation. The possible alternative

experiences that other P2P accommodation platforms may offer, their users’ specific

needs, their users’ behaviours, sustainable issues and how they could be transforming

and impacting the industry and the destinations are yet to be explored. Thus, this


68

thesis aims to go beyond existing Airbnb studies and to generate a new and up-to-date

understanding of P2P accommodation platforms’ landscape, from different

perspectives. The main objective includes the following specific objectives, which

will be analysed separately as an article each of them, integrating the entire Doctoral

dissertation: a) To do a systematic literature review of P2P accommodation platforms,

in order to know what has been studied and found about monetary but specially, non-

monetary P2P accommodation platforms models; b) To analyse users’ opinions (of

both guests and hosts) of P2P accommodation platforms (including monetary and

non-monetary platforms) in order to know the key issues that encourage users to

choose one or another type of P2P platform in Spain; c) To compare users’

sustainable behaviour between P2P accommodation platforms and traditional

hospitality with the purpose of knowing the environmental impact of each form of

accommodation; d) To carry out a web comparison analysis between P2P

accommodation platforms and traditional hospitality platforms, such as Booking.com,

in order to determine the extent to which each platform adds value for its users.

2 Literature review

In the past years, research has investigated P2P accommodation from different

perspectives: sustainability (Chenoweth, 2009; Böcker & Meelen, 2017), regulatory

issues (Nieuwland & van Melik, 2018 ), marketing (Lee & Kim, 2018; Tussyadiah &

Sigala, 2018), engagement (Huber, 2017; Johnson & Neuhofer, 2017), host and guest

perspectives (Roelofsen & Minca, 2018; Tussyadiah & Park, 2018), and pricing

(Chen & Xie, 2017; Wang & Nicolau, 2017). There is a large volume of literature

focused on user’s experience and socio-economic impact in the tourism industry.

However, most of the research has been mainly focused on Airbnb. Researchers have

paid minimal attention to other types of P2P accommodation platforms, such as co-

housing or home swaps (Huber, 2017; Prayag & Ozanne, 2018). The existing

literature is mainly conducted to study the performance of P2P accommodation

platforms with a for-profit business model. As Andriotis and Agiomirgianakis (2014)

argue in the case of tourism scholarship, research has been focused primarily on the

commoditized aspects of guests-hosts interactions resulting from the production and

consumption of tourism products and services and only a relatively small number of

studies have explored aspects of non-monetary exchanges. The few studies related to

non-profit accommodation sharing platforms paid special attention to Couchsurfing,

and the majority of these studies are focused on the host and guest behaviour-

interaction (Ronzhyn, 2018; Kunz & Seshadri, 2015; Zuev, 2012). Nonetheless, there

is very little research beyond Airbnb and Couchsurfing, and about how other

accommodation sharing platforms are impacting users, tourism industry and society.


In a general search of articles in the Web of Science related to Airbnb since 2008 (the

year of its creation) until June 2019, more than 500 articles were found. However, in a

similar search on other P2P accommodation platforms, in the same period, results are

incomparable. There are less than 220 articles regarding other types of

accommodation sharing platforms, and most of them are conducted on Couchsurfing.


69

If academia wants to create a framework of how P2P accommodation is transforming

the tourism industry it is important to study other P2P platforms apart from Airbnb,

and mostly, users’ motives to choose them instead of Airbnb. Niche platforms such as

HomeExchange, or platforms where hosts must be present to ensure the local

interaction like Homestay, are some examples.

Table 1. P2P accommodation platforms beside Airbnb.

Platform Creation Main activity *Operates

in

*Followers on Facebook

(sp)

Recent posts

Couchsurfing 2008 Free accommodation

among its users. +200 K cities

899.659 ✓

HomeExchange 2011 Home exchanging

between peers (points system)

+ 187 countries

969.892 ✓

Homestay 2013 Booking a room in another person’s

home.

+ 160 countries

101.651 X

* Information found on their websites.

Fig. 1 shows the conceptual framework this doctoral dissertation seeks to create

beyond Airbnb. It allows researchers and practitioners to better understand the other

side of the coin in the sharing accommodation sector.

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework.


To address the four research aims of the doctoral dissertation, a mix of methods will

be used. To respond to the first objective, drawing from Prayag and Ozanne (2018), a

systematic literature review of P2P accommodation platforms will be conducted, in

order to find the main gaps in the existing literature about profit and non-profit P2P

platforms. The resulting information will be analysed using quantitative content


70

analysis based on keyword frequency (Marine-Roig & Ferrer-Rosell, 2018). This

method allows identifying the most common words and topics in research about P2P

accommodation platforms. Results will enable us to find out how researchers have

addressed studies about P2P accommodation and therefore the possible existing gap.

To answer the second and third objectives, two content analysis techniques will be

performed. On one hand, user-generated content (UGC) will be analysed. Host and

guest reviews will be collected from both profit and non-profit P2P accommodation

platforms and their social media. The data is planned to be collected from the main

tourist cities in Spain (Barcelona, Madrid, Seville and Valencia) through the “Inside

Airbnb” platform. UGC data will be treated through a computerized methodology

based on Marine-Roig & Anton Clavé (2016). On the other hand, a qualitative

approach will be included. In-depth interviews will be conducted to guests and hosts

of P2P accommodation platforms, in order to get information about their experiences,

motivations, benefits and personal opinions. These in-depth interviews are planned to

be carried out in the city of Barcelona and based on the accommodation offer in the

city. The interviews will also have behavioural questions which are also intended to

get a clear understanding of some environmental practices of both, guests and hosts,

like cleaning, recycling, efficiency spending, among others. Finally, a web

comparison analysis will be used, to answer the fourth objective of the thesis. This

analysis seeks to collect data related to the functionality and usability of P2P

accommodation platforms' websites: information available, engagement structure,

pricing structure, qualification structure, and user’s interaction. Data will be

quantitatively treated.


This doctoral dissertation will create a new conceptual framework for the hospitality

sector which considers the role of both, profit and non-profit P2P accommodation

platforms, and will apply it to one of the main tourist destinations worldwide (Spain).

It will also contribute to a better understanding of how different kinds of P2P

accommodation platforms models, generate added value not only to guests but also to

hosts and to the hospitality sector in general. It will also help to identify some gaps in

academia about other forms of collaborative accommodation. Furthermore, this

research will create a profile of users (guests and hosts) based on their opinions and

considering their experiences. This is going to be helpful in order to develop new

business strategies, for both, monetary and non-monetary platforms, and for

destination management organizations to implement specific marketing strategies. It

will also contribute to the knowledge of sustainability in the tourism industry, by

giving an understanding of how users of both traditional hosting and P2P

accommodation behave. And finally, this study will highlight some areas of future

research, mostly in non-profit accommodation sharing platforms.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and

Competitiveness [Grant id.: TURCOLAB ECO2017-88984-R].


71

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