Philosophy 224Philosophy 224

Karl MarxKarl Marx

Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy and and The German IdeologyThe German Ideology

Karl MarxKarl Marx (1818-1883) (1818-1883)

• MarxMarx''s life spanned the s life spanned the bulk of the 19th century.bulk of the 19th century.

• Originally interested in Originally interested in the law, he shifted his the law, he shifted his attention to philosophy, attention to philosophy, in which he received the in which he received the doctorate.doctorate.

• He spent the bulk of his He spent the bulk of his career as a journalist, career as a journalist, moving around Europe as moving around Europe as his political activities and his political activities and writings led to his writings led to his expulsion from a number expulsion from a number of different cities and of different cities and countries.countries.

• The focus of his work was The focus of his work was on economics and on economics and politics.politics.

An Anti-DualistAn Anti-Dualist

• As becomes clear in the brief selection from the As becomes clear in the brief selection from the ContributionContribution, , Marx’s perspective on human nature is fundamentally anti-Marx’s perspective on human nature is fundamentally anti-dualist.dualist.

• This anti-dualism is a product of Marx’s metaphysical and This anti-dualism is a product of Marx’s metaphysical and ontological commitments, which go by the label of ontological commitments, which go by the label of Historical Historical MaterialismMaterialism..• There are two aspects of this view: 1)There are two aspects of this view: 1)metaphysical materialismmetaphysical materialism

(everything is matter, everything is caused by material (everything is matter, everything is caused by material processes); 2)the economic structures of society condition the processes); 2)the economic structures of society condition the ideas and forms of life exhibited by its citizens.ideas and forms of life exhibited by its citizens.

• Thus, unlike Descartes, for whom our being as minds is Thus, unlike Descartes, for whom our being as minds is independent of (and ultimately more significant than) our independent of (and ultimately more significant than) our being as bodies, for Marx, human beings are fundamentally being as bodies, for Marx, human beings are fundamentally material creatures determined by material forces.material creatures determined by material forces.• ““It is not the consciousness of men that determines their being, It is not the consciousness of men that determines their being,

but, on the contrary, their social being that determines their but, on the contrary, their social being that determines their consciousness” (140).consciousness” (140).

Production is the KeyProduction is the Key

• This helps us understand why Marx believes that the This helps us understand why Marx believes that the traditional starting point of economics and political traditional starting point of economics and political theory is faulty.theory is faulty.

• Rather than start with human beings defined as Rather than start with human beings defined as consciousness, or spirit, we have to begin with, “…consciousness, or spirit, we have to begin with, “…the physical organization of these individuals and the physical organization of these individuals and their consequent relation to the rest of nature” their consequent relation to the rest of nature” (141), the recognition that life determines (141), the recognition that life determines consciousness (146). consciousness (146). • The alternative view (that consciousness determines The alternative view (that consciousness determines

life) is the “Ideology” which Marx is targeting)life) is the “Ideology” which Marx is targeting)

• Though we can, looking back, identify a number of Though we can, looking back, identify a number of features that distinguish humans from animals, what features that distinguish humans from animals, what marks this difference is that humans produce, make marks this difference is that humans produce, make things, determine the shape of their lives by things, determine the shape of their lives by producing the goods by and through which they live producing the goods by and through which they live (141-2).(141-2).

Homo FaberHomo Faber

• On the basis of this analysis, Marx offers a very different theory of On the basis of this analysis, Marx offers a very different theory of human nature than that of Descartes.human nature than that of Descartes.

• The key to his account is the recognition that in labor (working) The key to his account is the recognition that in labor (working) human beings make the material they work with part of human beings make the material they work with part of themselves, transforming nature into an extension of themselves.themselves, transforming nature into an extension of themselves.

• Labor is thus a form of self-knowledge. You come to know yourself Labor is thus a form of self-knowledge. You come to know yourself by experiencing the results of your own labor. In experiencing the by experiencing the results of your own labor. In experiencing the product of your labor, you are aware of both it and yourself.product of your labor, you are aware of both it and yourself.

• Writ large, this self-identification in objectification is history Writ large, this self-identification in objectification is history revealing himself to us, not only through the material results of revealing himself to us, not only through the material results of our work, but through all of our creations: art, law, religion, our work, but through all of our creations: art, law, religion, technology, society itself. In all of these endeavors, we technology, society itself. In all of these endeavors, we externalize ourselves and in the process become more self-externalize ourselves and in the process become more self-consciously human.consciously human.

The Starting PointThe Starting Point

• For Marx, the only adequate starting point for For Marx, the only adequate starting point for a concept of history is the actual, concrete a concept of history is the actual, concrete existence of living individuals.existence of living individuals.

• What this means, as the account of human What this means, as the account of human beings as beings as Homo FaberHomo Faber suggests, is that suggests, is that history starts with the history starts with the ""material conditions material conditions determining their production,determining their production,"" ""both with both with whatwhat they produce and with they produce and with howhow they they produceproduce"" (142). (142).

• This is true for individual history and that of This is true for individual history and that of nations, which can be distinguished, one from nations, which can be distinguished, one from the other on the way in which labor is divided the other on the way in which labor is divided in them.in them.

A genealogy of Human A genealogy of Human ExistenceExistence

• When Marx examines the history of the When Marx examines the history of the development of human social forms, he finds that development of human social forms, he finds that there is an intimate connection between the there is an intimate connection between the division of labor and property.division of labor and property.

• In the In the IdeologyIdeology, we get a developmental account of , we get a developmental account of this connection, from this connection, from ""tribal ownershiptribal ownership"" through through ""communalcommunal"" and and ""feudalfeudal"" up to (implicitly) the form up to (implicitly) the form that ownership takes in the modern era: that ownership takes in the modern era: ""capitalist.capitalist.””

• He insists that, we have to grasp the essential He insists that, we have to grasp the essential connection between private property, greed, and connection between private property, greed, and the separation of labor, capital and landed the separation of labor, capital and landed property…property…""

• What we find in this connection the key concept of What we find in this connection the key concept of Marx’s diagnosis: estrangement or alienation Marx’s diagnosis: estrangement or alienation

The Pin FactoryThe Pin Factory

• Marx completely reconceives the Marx completely reconceives the significance of the example that was first significance of the example that was first employed by Adam Smith: the pin factory.employed by Adam Smith: the pin factory.

• ItIt''s truth is that it assumes the standpoint s truth is that it assumes the standpoint of the capitalist, forgetting the effects of of the capitalist, forgetting the effects of the division of labor on the worker.the division of labor on the worker.

• In the factory, the process of becoming In the factory, the process of becoming self-consciously human by way of self-consciously human by way of externalization through labor has been externalization through labor has been undermined.undermined.

Estrangement Pt. 1Estrangement Pt. 1

• This undermining takes four distinct This undermining takes four distinct forms:forms:

1.1. Product AlienationProduct Alienation: because they have no stake in : because they have no stake in what they produce, workers no longer experience what they produce, workers no longer experience the product of their work as themselves. The the product of their work as themselves. The product of their labor doesnproduct of their labor doesn''t belong to them, but t belong to them, but to the capitalist. All the workers have are their to the capitalist. All the workers have are their wages.wages.

2.2. Self AlienationSelf Alienation: because they do not organize their : because they do not organize their own productive activity, the workersown productive activity, the workers '' relationship relationship to their work, the actual activity they engage in, is to their work, the actual activity they engage in, is now also one of alienation. They experience it as now also one of alienation. They experience it as an alienation from themselves. They no longer an alienation from themselves. They no longer express themselves in their work; they lose express themselves in their work; they lose themselves in it.themselves in it.

Estrangement Pt. 2Estrangement Pt. 2

1.1. Species AlienationSpecies Alienation: By ": By "species beingspecies being,,"" Marx means our Marx means our existence as a human being, considered in the aspects existence as a human being, considered in the aspects in which it differs from the existence of other animals. A in which it differs from the existence of other animals. A unique character of human beings is that they are unique character of human beings is that they are capable of working to produce things that arencapable of working to produce things that aren''t needed t needed for survival (e.g. art, which is produced for the sake of for survival (e.g. art, which is produced for the sake of beauty). Working for wages is work thatbeauty). Working for wages is work that''s necessary for s necessary for survival -- and so workers lose whatsurvival -- and so workers lose what''s distinctively s distinctively human about themselves and thus become alienated human about themselves and thus become alienated from themselves as human beings.from themselves as human beings.

2.2. Social AlienationSocial Alienation: because, as a result of the other three : because, as a result of the other three forms of alienation, workers are all in competition with forms of alienation, workers are all in competition with each other, they are alienated from each other. Love and each other, they are alienated from each other. Love and trust are replaced by bargaining and exchange. Human trust are replaced by bargaining and exchange. Human beings cease to recognize in each other their common beings cease to recognize in each other their common human nature; they see others as instruments for human nature; they see others as instruments for furthering their own egoistic interests.furthering their own egoistic interests.

Against Private PropertyAgainst Private Property

• MarxMarx''s assumption that humans are s assumption that humans are Homo Homo FaberFaber together with his analysis of the together with his analysis of the inevitable alienation resulting from private inevitable alienation resulting from private ownership of the means of production, ownership of the means of production, serve as a basis from which Marx criticizes serve as a basis from which Marx criticizes private ownership of property.private ownership of property.

• Private property is not only the source of Private property is not only the source of this alienation, it is also the necessary this alienation, it is also the necessary consequence of alienated labor, of the consequence of alienated labor, of the external relation of the workers to nature external relation of the workers to nature and to themselves.and to themselves.

The PrescriptionThe Prescription

• Private property sets up a negative feedback Private property sets up a negative feedback situation. The only property owned by workers is what situation. The only property owned by workers is what they buy with their wages, so they donthey buy with their wages, so they don''t own anything t own anything that theythat they''ve had a direct hand in producing. However, ve had a direct hand in producing. However, the need for further possessions generates the need the need for further possessions generates the need for more wages, and thus more alienated labor.for more wages, and thus more alienated labor.

• This results in increasing greed: "Man becomes ever This results in increasing greed: "Man becomes ever poorer as man, his need for money becomes ever poorer as man, his need for money becomes ever greater if he wants to overpower hostile being." greater if he wants to overpower hostile being."

• His strategy for curing alienation was radical: to His strategy for curing alienation was radical: to eliminate labor within the capitalist system, the wage eliminate labor within the capitalist system, the wage system, and private property, i.e., to institute system, and private property, i.e., to institute communismcommunism..

The UpshotThe Upshot

• The significance of Marx’s genealogy is to lay the The significance of Marx’s genealogy is to lay the groundwork for an account of consciousness which groundwork for an account of consciousness which grounds it in specific forms of material existence.grounds it in specific forms of material existence.

• What might be labeled What might be labeled ""capitalist consciousnesscapitalist consciousness"" is not a is not a ""naturalnatural"" condition, but the result of a certain ordering of condition, but the result of a certain ordering of material conditions, including the forms of work specified material conditions, including the forms of work specified and required by private ownership of the means of and required by private ownership of the means of production.production.

• This This ""orderorder"" has the effect of limiting human ideas and has the effect of limiting human ideas and understanding, in effect blinding us to other possibilities.understanding, in effect blinding us to other possibilities.

• The point of this The point of this ""ideology critiqueideology critique"" is to open the is to open the possibility of recognizing other forms of consciousness, possibility of recognizing other forms of consciousness, "Communism differs from all previous movements in that "Communism differs from all previous movements in that it overturns the basis of all earlier relations of production it overturns the basis of all earlier relations of production and intercourse, and for the first time consciously treats and intercourse, and for the first time consciously treats all natural premises as the creatures of hitherto existing all natural premises as the creatures of hitherto existing men…men…""