philosophy notes 2

7/31/2019 Philosophy Notes 2

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The goodness of God

People could use religion as a comfort blanket.

Marx: religion is the opiate of the people

Freud: religion was wish fulfilment

Plato and the Euthypho dilemma: is something good because God made it good before. If it was

good before God; is there a higher power than God?

Why do Judaeo/Christians believe God is good?

Because of heaven belief in the after life Because of teaching of Jesus Because of sacrifice of Jesus so that all humans can be forgiven Because he provides solace/comfort answers prayers Even though Adam and Eve sinned, God provided a way back to the first perfect relationship. Bible- Ten Commandments.

The Concept of God

God as a creator:

2 creation accounts within Bible Genesis 1 +2o 1: 7 day account.o 2: Adam and Eve

Creation is purposeful it isnt the result of an accident order structure increation.

Adam and Eve are a special of Gods creation God made man in thisimage

They have dominion over animals/plants but are stewards of that creation.God is ultimate authority.

God keeps the world going. He is distinct from creation though. He doesntrely on humans because God is omnipotent.

So you shouldnt worship creation but the creator God. Creation out of nothing ex nihilo. Until God started creating there was no

time. He made not Earth but the spiritual realm of angels.

Creation is good; God saw that it was good. God creates by command.

The nature of God as revealed by creation

God is omnipotent. Psalm 115:3 He does whatever he pleases God is fair He warned Adam and Eve not to eat the fruit. God is omniscient Job 28:24He sees everything under the heavens. He

knew Adam and Eve had sinned.


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God is omnibenevolent all loving he cares about creation created alovely place.

o Created a partner for everything. God is omnipresent everywhere. Psalm 139:7-8 where can I flee your

presence if I go to the heavens you are there if I make my bed in the depths

you are there.

God is a designer or craftsman. Psalm 8:3 the work of Gods fingers themoon and the stars that God set in place. Psalm 147:8-9 God covering the

sky with clouds to supply the earth with rain, to make grass grow so the

cattle can have food.

o All this indicates design. Christians prefer to use the word artist rather than sculptor because to

sculpt something implies there was something there to begin with and

Christians believe creation is ex nihilo.

God is involved in creation immanent and transcendent.o The bible is full of examples of God involving himself with creation.

The goodness of God

Biblical evidence Gods goodness is revealed in the act of creation. God is the source of moral authority.

o Fits with natural law theory Thomas Aquinas recognises primary precepts throughhuman reason but that ability to reason comes from God.

Even though Adam and Eve sinned because God is good and loving he provides a way forhumans to get back that perfect relationship. Send down prophets and rules to follow The

Ten Commandments.

The Ten Commandments might be straight but done because God is loving in the same waythat parents set rules to protect their children.

Jesus is sent by God to allow all to atone for their sins and enter heaven.o Jesus died on the cross so man could be forgiven.

Contrasting the Judaeo/Christian God with the prime mover.

Similarities Differences

Aristotle doesnt explain where theprime mover comes from and the

Christian tradition just says that God

exists. He is a necessary being.

Things are drawn towards the primemover to help achieve their final

purpose or actuality. Christians are also

drawn towards God. (Worship.)

Both are eternal. Both are transcendent. No confirmed evidence for either. They both lead to a chain reaction.

The prime mover is disinterested in theworld but God is involved with the

creation.

God created the world ex nihilo howeverthe prime mover created out of matter

that was already there.

God is a designer or craftsman. Theprime mover just starts off creation as a

first cause.

The prime mover is more of a forcewhereas God is considered more as abeing.


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Evil and Suffering

Atributes of the concept of God

Omnipotent Omnibenevolent Omniscient Omnipresent

Two types of evil

Natural evil Moral evil (man-made)

Possible problems if evil and suffering exists

God cannot be all knowing, or all powerful or all loving.Possible solutions

Part of Gods plan Epistemic Distance We need opposites So can value good Test of faith

Theodicies

The theodicy is an argument used to defend the attributes of God in the face of evil.Augustine

Augustine argued that the Bible shows that God is wholly good and that according to

Genesis 1, created a world perfectly good and free from defect, evil and suffering; God saw all that

he had made, and it was very good Genesis 1:13.

o God created all things goodo Evil is not goodo Therefore God did not create evil

Privation lack of something

Evil is the privation of good, just as darkness is the absence of light. Augustine said that evil didnt

come from God, whom is all-good, but from those entities which had free will angels and humans

who turned their backs on God, the supreme good and settled for lesser goods. As a consequence,

the start of perfection was ruined by human sin and the delicate balance of the world was

destroyed.


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AugustineEvil has no positive nature; but the loss of good has received the name evil Natural evil came about through the loss of order in nature, due to human sin. Moral evil came from knowledge of good and evil which humanity had discovered through

their disobedience.

It would not be right for God to interfere to put a stop to suffering. God is just therefore he has to allow for us to face the punishment of sin, which is death. Augustine concludes that if God was simply just everyone would get their full and rightful

punishment in hell.

However in his infinite love and grace he sent down his one and only son, Jesus Christ, totake punishment for all of our sin and to die on the cross so that all those who believe and

accept can be saved.

Augustinesince there is happiness for those who do not sin, the universe is perfect and itis no less perfect if there is misery for sinners, the penalty for sin corrects the dishonour of

sin

Soul-deciding theodicy.Weaknesses

Schleiermacher (1768-1834) argued that it was a logical contradiction to say that a perfectlycreated world had gone wrong. Either the world was not perfect to start with or God made it

go wrong. If so then God is to blame and not humanity.

Augustines view that the world was made perfect and damaged by humans is contrary tothe theory of evolution, which asserts that the universe began as chaos and has been

developing continually.

Suffering is essential to survival things must die in order that other things might eat andlive God must be responsible for this.

The existence of hell as a place of eternal punishment seems a contradiction for an all lovingGod. If hell was part of the design then did God plan that the world would go wrong?

A God who cannot get rid of evil cannot be called omnipotent; because he is not all powerfulenough to make freewill and a perfect world work hand in hand.


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Irenaeus

Irenaeus also suggested that evil could be traced back to human free will. However hediffered from Augustine by saying that God did not make a perfect world and that evil has a

valuable part to play in Gods plan for humanity.

He thought God created humans imperfectly in order that they could develop perfectionover time.

Goodness and perfection had to be developed by humans themselves through willingcooperation with God. This meant God had to give humans free will and such freedom

requires the possibility of choosing evil over good.

Irenaeus thinks evil allows us to develop virtues such as compassion and mercy, which areneeded for perfection.

how if we had no knowledge of the contrary, could we have instruction in that which isgood

Evil and suffering will be overcome and humanity will develop into Gods perfect likeness andlive in heaven, where all suffering will end forever and Gods plan will be completed.

John Hick supported the Irenaean theodicy. If God made humanity perfectly, then we would have the goodness of robots, which means

that we would automatically love God without thought or question.

Such love would be valueless and if God wanted humans to genuinely love, and then he hadto let us have the freedom to develop this love for ourselves.

To achieve this, God had to create humans at an epistemic distance from him a distance inknowledge or dimension, by which God is not so close that humans would be overwhelmed

by him and have no choice but to believe and obey. By keeping a distance God allows

humans to freely choose.

Soul making theodicy. Humans have to strive to meet challenges in order to gain perfection.

Weaknesses

Irenaeus suggested that everyone goes to heaven. This doesnt seem just; it contradictsreligious texts of many religions and suggests that there is ultimately no reason for good.

Challenges do not always result in positive human being development. They often seem tocause much suffering. Was the holocaust really necessary for human development?

D.Z Phillips: what are we to say if a child is dying from cancer> if this has to be done for apurpose planned from eternity that is the deepest evil. If God is this kind of agent, he

cannot justify actions and his evil nature is revealed Love cannot be expressed by allowing

suffering.


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Process Theodicy

Developed by David Griffin as a radical theory that suggests that God is not omnipotent. God did not create the universe because the universe is an uncreated process of which God

himself is a part.

God himself is a part of the universe and is bound by natural laws. He suffers when eviloccurshe is the fellow sufferer who understands

Gods role in creation was to start off the evolutionary process that led to the developmentof humans.

But God doesnt have total control and humans are free to ignore him. God cannot stop evilsince he lacks the power to change the natural process, yet he bears some responsibility for

it, having started off the evolutionary process knowing that he would not be able to control

it.

God is responsible for evil in the sense of having urged the creation forward to those statesin which discordant feelings could be felt with greater intensity

Gods actions are justified on the grounds that the universe has produced sufficient good tooutweigh evil in other words this universe is better than no universe at all.

Problems of process theodicy.

Traditional Christians wouldnt like it because it undermines Christian tradition of creation. How can God be powerful enough to create the world but not influence it and stop evil? Absence of evil = total good.

Strengths

Acknowledges that God has some responsibility over evil. Acknowledges evolution.


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Ontological argument

A priori argument which tries to prove the existence of God. Based on logic. This argument might be logically true but it doesnt mean it is true in reality. Ontos being. The ontological argument starts from the concept of God as a being and uses this to prove

Gods existence.

Circular argument.

Inductive this is where you infer the conclusion from the premise. E.g. twix example. Deductive if the premises are true then the conclusion has to be true. E.g. all girls like pink.

Kiah is a girl therefore she likes pink. So the ontological argument asserts that if the first 2

points about the concepts of God are true the conclusion has to be logically true. So they

think the argument about Gods existence to be conclusive.

Philosophers:

St Anselm of Canterbury.o Fools say in their hearts, there is no God Psalm 14:1

A predicate an intrinsic property or quality of something. Anselm claims:

o Existence is a predicate ofGod (it is a property or quality of Gods nature).o Proslogian 1:

1. God is the greatest possible being which can be conceived (thought of).2. God may exist either in the mind alone, or in reality as well.3. Something which exists in reality and in the mind is greater than something

which exists just as an idea in the mind alone.

o Conclusion:4. God must exist in reality and in the mind (or we have not thought of the

greatest possible being)

o Proslogian 2:o God is that being nothing greater than which can be thought of.o Something which cannot be thought not to exist is greater than anything

which can be thought not to exist.

Conclusion3. Therefore, it is impossible to think that this being (God) cannot exist.

Gaunilo challenges Anselm just because you can imagine a perfect island, itdoesnt mean it exists.

Plantinga islands are different to God there could always be a more perfectisland more dancing girls, lusher palm trees, twice the size, etc. idea of a greatest

possible island is incoherent. God on the other hand is maximally great nothinggreater is possible.


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Descartes

Background to Descartes argument: Wanted to get to first certain piece of knowledge that could be accepted. He found he could doubt everything apart from the fact he was thinking.

I think therefore I am. So he was a dualist, mind and body are two separate things what is this

thinking thing? The idea of God is firmly within this mind- because the idea

of God is here, God must exist God is a supremely perfect being.

Descartes ontological argument.

1. God is a supremely perfect being.2. Existence belongs to a supremely perfect being.3. Therefore God exists Descartes argues that existence is a predicate of God. In the same way that a predicate of a

triangle is 3 sides existence is a predicate of God.]

You cant think of a triangle without it having 3 sides. You cant think of God without thinkingthat he exists.

Kant challenges Descartes.

Kant argues that if you dont think about a triangle, you dont have to think about the 3sides.

So if you dont think about God, you dont consider the existence of god. So existence is not a predicate of God God (exists) does not exist.

Gottlob:

Argues that existence isnt a proper predicate as predicates should give informationabout the subject it describes. Existence doesnt really tell you anything about God.


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Teleological argument:

Inductive argument A posteriori (using the senses)

The design argument is a posteriori. It is built on our experiences of the world around us. (i.e. thatthere is evidence of design in nature etc.)

It is also inductive. The premises that the world seems designed could be true, but it may still be

false that God designed it.

Aquinas archer analogy. Paley watch analogy.

The meaning of telos:

Telos means goals, aim or purpose Design arguments put forward by philosophers refer to the sense of purpose we can find in

nature and biology.

God is a craftsman

How nature fits together:

Mutualistic relationship ox and bird Fish cleaning sharks/whales Food chain Pollination

Qua purpose and qua regularity

Paley argued that God designed the world. He said the proof was in the sense of purpose or telos we discussed earlier, but also in the

regularity of nature.

By regularity, he meant natures ability to order itself with the different aspects of our worldworking together seamlessly.

He therefore argued for:

Design qua purpose And design regularity This means that the evidence of God designing the world is in both the purposeful nature of

the world, and the regularity with which it meets that purpose.

Aquinas had also argued for design qua purpose.Aquinas teleological argument Five ways:

Heart of the argument is that non-intelligent material things produce beneficial order andtherefore require an intelligent being to bring this about God.


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It follows Aristotelian thinking about final cause the purpose for which the thing exists orwas produced.

Aquinas views about nature included thinking that things develop toward the realisation ofends that are internal to their own natures.

An archer must direct an arrow. In the same way God must direct nature. Aristotles God did not appoint the ends. They just were there. Aquinas argued that there

cannot be purposefulness without a guiding intelligence.

o There are beings without knowledge that act for an ends.o If a being without knowledge acts for an end then it must be because it is directed.o Therefore there must be a being with knowledge and intelligence God.

Criticisms of the design argument:

John Stewart Millo Argued against the design argument because of the evidence of evil within design.

E.g. ichneumon wasp. An all loving God would have not put such evil into the design,

but it is all just part of the cycle of life.

Charles Darwino Theory of evolution: origin of the specieso The Beagle Galapagos island tortoises and finches.

David Humeo In dialogues concerning natural religion he said the possibility that the universe was

designed does not necessarily mean that God designed it.

o The world is imperfect and infinite it is full of suffering.o It hardly suggests a good all perfect designing Godo No evidence universe needs a designer could have come into existence naturally.o We have no evidence to suggest that the universe is not just a result of pure chance.o Hume also rejected the idea and use of analogies in the design argument. He said

that analogies about design in the world bore no relation to design of the world. It is

making a massive jump to move from talking about the way things are designed in

the world to design of the world.

o Just because you have a mother it doesnt necessarily imply the world has to have amother.

Anthropic principleo This is the idea that the universe supports the concept of an intelligent designer. So

there is design in the universe but supporters wouldnt necessarily claim that this

was God.

o F.R. Tennant there is something about life their ability to be selfless and putothers before them, I and to be moral, that just cant be explained by the process of

evolution. Tennant argues that this suggests the work of intelligent designer.


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Cosmological argument

Inductive argument, A posteriori argument, First cause argument The universe has to have a first starting point which doesnt need explaining. Thomas Aquinassumma theologica

o The 5 proofs (ways) for the existence of God.o The first 3 from the cosmological argument.o Aquinas = theist

Classical beliefs about the attributes of God. Something cant come from nothing e.g. the world has to have a cause. There cant be infinite regress.

First waymotion movement and growth:

Aquinas argued that things cant move themselves. They need a cause to set them inmotion. There cant be infinite regress, so there has to be a first cause, which cant itself becaused. The only being this could be is God as a necessary being.

Refer to Aristotle and the prime mover.Second waycause

This is the idea that things cant cause themselves to exist. E.g. I am not the cause of myself.Wood has the potential to become fire, but it isnt actually fire. There cant be infinite

regress so there must be a first cause that isnt itself caused. The only being this can be is

God as an eternal necessary being. uncaused cause

oLink to Aristotle potentiality and actuality.

Third waynecessary being

World exists a posteriori. Contingent and temporary. So there might have been a point when nothing existed. However the world does exist, so it

must have a cause.

This cause cant have come from within the world. It must have come from the outside. Thecause must be God as the only necessary being.

Copleston vs. Russel radio debate 1948

Copleston religious supported Aquinas. Russel philosopher rejected the cosmological argument.

Copleston: everything that exists has to have an explanation for its existence. He called this the

principle of sufficient reason. He argued that there had to be something that could be explained in

itself. I.e. it contained its own sufficient reason for existence. This was God.

Russel: why cant the universe just exist? Does it really need to be explained?

You need to engage in the debate if you are playing a game of chess you need to move the pieces.


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Humes challenges:

We cannot know anything about cause.o Empiricist cannot be proved by senses.

Rejection of the idea of moving from individual causes to a cause for the totality.

The moral argument

Kant The basic idea is that because we have the ability to work out goodness there must be

something that rewards that behaviour. This being is God.

Two things fill my mind, the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me.1. This idea of morality within you leads to the conclusion of the existence of God. Kant

had rejected the other forms of argument for the existence of God, because they

used arguments/logic that we could not have knowledge of. At least we are aware of

the moral law within, so his argument is partly a posteriori.

2. Remember that Kant has already rejected Descartes ontological argument forclaiming knowledge or predicates of a God that we couldnt possibly be aware of.

Good will and sense of duty leads to morally good actions. if you keep on doing morallygood actions youll reach summum bonum.

Kant argues that we are autonomous beings. So you freely work out moral behaviour. Ifsomeone is coerced into an action it isnt moral. Humans can do this because we are all

rational.

The summum bonum means supreme happiness it is a combination of virtue and reward. Kant argues that the summum bonum cant exist here; because there are still evil actions

therefore it must exist in the afterlife. So humans must be immortal in that you live in the

afterlife.

If our sense of duty tells us that we ought to do something using our rationality, Kant arguedthat it must be possible to do this. ought implies can

Performing our duty (the categorical imperative) means that we can reach the summumbonum. Therefore this means that the summum bonum must exist.

Humans cant ensure that virtue reward and happiness coincide therefore God is required todo this.

There are 3 important features of Kants argument which are taken as a given:1. Freedom/autonomy.2. Rationality.3. Afterlife/summum bonum.

These are known as the 3 postulates of practical reason. A postulate is the term used to something that is a given in an argument.

Practical reason: how we rationalise.

Pure reason: concerns objects or concepts that we cannot change. They are the same regardless of

us.


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The moral argument challenged by Freud:

Freud explains our apparent moral awareness through the development of our psyche. Our moral

ability is not god given.

ID basic drives sleep, food, sex etc. selfish like a baby, Ego rational part that helps you function in society. Superego the internalisation of reaction to authority figures particularly according to freud

your father this makes you feel guilty.

Oedipus complex:

As a young boy you develop a feeling of wanting to sleep with your mother, but alsoknowing this is wrong. This leads to conflict and feeling hatred towards your father. This is

known as ambivalence. You internalise these feelings. This sublimation of feelings can lead

to religious belief.

Freuds theory of the development of religion:

Alpha male primal horde kill the alpha male. Replace alpha male with totem animism spirit worship

o Kill and eat the animal Replaced with human God this is the God of religion today. Pass down the guilt of primal crime Transubstantiation bread and wine because blood and flesh like totem meal.

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