photography as a participatory method
TRANSCRIPT
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Uniwersytetim.AdamaMickiewiczawPoznaniu
Wydzia Historyczny
InstytutEtnologiiiAntropologiiKulturowej
JonatanKurzwellyNr.albumu:340631
PHOTOGRAPHYASAPARTICIPATORYMETHODINVISUAL
ANTHROPOLOGYFOTOGRAFIAJAKOMETODAPARTYCYPACYJNAWANTROPOLOGIIWIZUALNEJ
Pracalicencjacka
napisanapodkierunkiem
drAgatyStanisz
Pozna 2012
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Pozna,dnia30maja2012
OWIADCZENIE
Ja, niej podpisany Jonatan Kurzwelly, student Wydziau Historycznego
Uniwersytetuim.AdamaMickiewiczawPoznaniuowiadczam,eprzedkadan
prac dyplomow pt: Photography as a Participatory Method In VisualAnthropology,napisaemsamodzielnie.Oznaczato, eprzypisaniupracy,poza
niezbdnymi konsultacjami, nie korzystaem z pomocy innych osb, a w
szczeglnociniezlecaemopracowaniarozprawylubjejczciinnymosobom,
aninieodpisywaemtejrozprawylubjejczciodinnychosb.
Owiadczam rwnie, e egzemplarz pracy dyplomowej w formie
wydruku komputerowegojest zgodny z egzemplarzem pracy dyplomowejw
formieelektronicznej.Jednoczenieprzyjmuj dowiadomoci,egdybypowyszeowiadczenie
okazaosi nieprawdziwe,decyzjaowydaniumidyplomuzostaniecofnita.
..............................................
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BAthesis
InstytutEtnologiiiAntropologiiKulturowej
AdamMickiewiczUniversity
Tutor:drAgataStanisz
Pozna,2012
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[AllthequotationsfromnonEnglishpublicationsaremydirecttranslation]
[Allpublishedphotographshavebeenmadewiththecooperationandagreementofpersons
presentedinthem]
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Content
Acknowledgments 6
Introduction 7
Vision.Differencesinperception 8
Perspectives.Multiplerealities 15
Photography.Truthandinformationalvalue.Language 14
Participation.Researchexamples 19
Viewsfrominsideproject(2010) 27
Conclusions 51
References 52
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Acknowledgments
IwishtothankmytutorAgataStanisz,theworkreviewerTarzycjuszBuliski;those
who gave me literature recommendations: Marcus Banks, Jorge Grau Rebollo and Paula
Gonzlez Granados; those who helped me with English grammar: Michael Kurzwelly and
EricaFontana;andallthestaffmembersoftheIEiAKforenablingmetostudyanthropology.
IalsowishtothankMariaLebiodaforoursharedworkwiththeviewsfrominside
project;JesusRuvalcabaMercadoandAleksandraIciekfortheirhospitalityandgreathelpin
partofour fieldwork;BarbaraKeifenheim,MarcinKozowskiand JacekSchmidt for their
advices and their help with the project organization; all the project sponsors: Adam
Mickiewicz University, SanDisk, KingCross Marcelin, Empik, QuickNet, Events Center, TD
Studio,GoblinandBiuroProjektoweJoannaStykaLebioda.
I want to especially thank Witold Jacrzyski for his generous hospitality and
pricelesshelpduringourfieldwork;andofcoursethemostimportantallourNahua,Tzotzil
andKaqchiquelhostsandfriends,whohavebeenreallygenerous,hostedus,gaveusfood,
talkedwithusandwillinglyparticipatedintheproject.
Manythankstoallofyou!
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Introduction
In this thesis my goal is to theoretically ground, and discuss the possible uses of,
participatoryphotography in socialand culturalanthropology.However,beforediscussing
photography,Iconsiderthesubjectivityofsightbypresentinganempiricaltheoryofvision
andmakingaclaimofmultiplicityofrealities.Iprovidesomeculturalandlinguisticevidence
ofthe lackofobjectivity inperceptionandthereby Ishowhow individualpeoplecanhave
verydifferentrealitiesandperspectives.The ideaofmultiplerealities isaconceptadapted
from Amazonianideasofperspectivism.
Ithenbrieflyoutlinesomepreviousstatementsonphotographyanditsconnectionto
realityand informationalvalue,startingwiththe initialclaimofphotographyasamirrorof
reality,asproposedbycritics CharlesBaudelaire,RolandBarthes,SusanSontag,andTom
Gunning. Then I propose a way of combining the theory of vision and perspectivism
described earlier with theories of photography to create a new understanding of the
informationalvalueofphotography.Iwillalsodiscusstheconnectionbetweenlanguageand
photography.
Thesecondpartofthisessayfirstdiscussesseveralexamplesofvisualparticipatory
projectsandsome issuesemergingoutofthem.Later Igivean introductiontotheproject
ViewsfrominsidewhichIconductedtogetherwithMariaLebioda.Idiscussseveralissues
ofparticipatoryphotographymethodologyand things thatneed tobe taken intoaccount
whileplanningsuchprojects.Iprovideexamplesofphotosmadeduringthisproject.
Thegoalof thisessay is to introduceacertainwayof thinkingaboutphotography,
and todiscusssomeaspectsof it. It isnotacompletemanual,and therearemany things
thatarenotdiscussedhere,butIhopethisessaymaybeusefultothosewhoareplanninga
participatoryphotographyproject.
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Vision.Differencesinperception.
Dale Purves (neurobiologist from DukeUniversityMedicalCenter) andBeau Lotto
(ophthalmologist from University College London) in Why We See What We Do Redux
(2011)presentthewhollyempiricaltheoryofvision,asolutiontotheinverseopticsproblem
theproblemofambiguitybetweenthesourcesofretinalstimulationandtheretinalimage.
Theyclaim that the sourcesof retinal stimuluscannotbedeterminedbyanoperationon
imagesassuch(PurvesandLotto2011:58).
PurvesandLottocriticizethepreviousapproachesinwhichthevisionisexplainedas
anaccuraterepresentationofthephysicalworld(definedaswhatweareawareofseeing)
(Ibid.:3).Analyzingallaspectsofvision (lightness,brightness,color,form,distance,depth,
andmotion),theyclaimthatdirectinformationabouttheworldisunavailable.(...)despite
ouroverwhelmingimpressionthatweperceivetheworldasitis,whatweinfactseeonthis
basis isnota facsimileof thephysicalworld that isoccasionallymisleading (causingvisual
illusions),butasubjectiveworld fullydeterminedbyassociationsmadebetween images
and successful behavior over the course of spacies and individual history (Ibid. ix). The
conceptofthesubjectiveworldofeveryindividualwillbecrucialinthisessay.
They underline that the physical context (physical parameters) is interpreted by
empiricalprocesseswhichlinkimageswithbehaviorbytrialanderrorinteractionswiththe
environment. In other words, what we see is a result of how we learned how to see.
Perceptionswecreatefromtheretinalimagesaresubjectiveconstructs.
(...)therearemanydifferencesbetweenretinalimagesandtheperceptionstheimages
ultimately give rise to. These differences include: (1) the perception of lightness,
brightness,andcolor,even though thesequalitiesdontexistassuch inobjects, their
illumination,or the light reaching the eye; (2) theperceptionofdistance anddepth
despitetheabsenceofthesefeaturesintwodimensionalprojections;(3)theperception
of objects as stationary despite continual movement of retinal images due to
movements of the eye, head, body; and (4) the perception of motion when objects
changeposition,even ifasequenceof images isstationary (as inmoviesandvideo).
(PurvesandLotto2011:3)
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They argue, giving evidence from laboratory experiments, that eachof those qualities of
whatweseeisdeterminedbyaccumulatedexperience,bybehaviorswhichhaveworkedin
thepast.Theyargue thatwhatwe see isnotanexact link to reality; it isdefinedby the
behavioralsignificanceofsensedata.
Iffeatureanalysisasamodeofoperationisruledoutinprinciplebytheimpossibilityof
apprehendingthephysicalworldbyoperations in imagesassuch,then it follows that
the information thatvisiondependsonmustbeofadifferent sort. [...]visual system
usesawhollyempiricalstrategy;therelevantinformation,andthereforewhatwesee,is
thehistoryofhumanand individualexperience.Accepting this idea requiresa radical
change in how one thinks about the structure, function, and ultimate purposes of
vision(Ibid.185).
What interests me is how much the realities (worlds) people perceive differ one from
another.Howmuchdifferentcantheworldsofpeoplebe?
Agreatexample isgivenbyColinTurnbull inthecaseofBaMbutiPygmiesfromhis
fieldresearchinCongo.Turnbull,togetherwithKenge,aPygmyyouth,droveoutsideofthe
forest inwhichKenge lived,throughplaceswithhighvisibilityatthefootoftheRuwenzori
Mountains.
Kenge lookedover theplainsanddown towhereaherdofaboutahundredbuffalo
weregrazingsomemilesaway.Heaskedmewhatkindofinsectstheywere,andItold
him theywerebuffalo, twice as big as the forestbuffalo known tohim.He laughed
loudly and toldmenot to tell such stupid stories, and askedme againwhat kindof
insectstheywere.Hethentalkedtohimself,forwantofmoreintelligentcompany,and
tried to liken thebuffalo to thevariousbeetlesandantswithwhichhewas familiar
(Turnbull1961).
Astheydroveneartotheanimals
[]herealizedthattheywererealbuffalohewasno longerafraid,butwhatpuzzled
himstillwaswhytheyhadbeensosmall,andwhethertheyreallyhadbeensmalland
hadsuddenlygrownlarger,orwhetherithadbeensomekindoftrickery.(Ibid.)
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LaterastheydrovefurtherthroughNationalPark,andKengewastryingtoguesswhatthe
animals theysawonthewaywere.TurnbullexplainsthatKengewasno longerafraidor
unbelieving;hewastryingtoadapthimself,andsucceeding,toatotallynewenvironment
andnewexperience(Turnbull1961).This isanexamplethatseeingdistanceanddepthis
notaninbornnaturalfeaturebutisgainedduetoexperience. Therearedifferencesnot
only inwhatwesee,butalso in thewaysofexplainingandunderstanding it.There isno
universalityinperception.
Marshall Segall, Donald Campbell and Melville Herskovits (1966), using several
geometricalandoptical illusions,1 investigatedwhetherperception is influencedbyculture
ornot(Segall,Campbell,Herskovits1966).Theycollecteddatain15societieswiththehelp
ofotherresearchers,makingananalysisof1.878peoplesresponses.Theypointedoutthe
importanceofphysicalenvironment:()plainsdwellerswouldprovemaximallysusceptible,
urbandwellersmoderatelysusceptibleandgroupsthatliveinrestrictedenvironments(e.g.,
equatorialforests)minimallysusceptibletothehorizontalvertical illusion (Ibid.:4).But in
addition to the determination by environmental factors, they also underline the cultural
differences: () certain classesof experiences aremore likely tooccur in some cultures
than inothers,differences inbehavioracross cultures, includingdifferences inperceptual
tendencies, can be great enough even to surpass the everpresent individual differences
withinculturalgroupings (Ibid.:5).Muchcouldbesaidaboutwhat isproblematic intheir
approachandtheirmethods,buttheimportantcorollaryis:whatpeopleseediffers.
TheTurnbullandSegall,CampbellandHerskovitsexplanationsaremainlyintermsof
features of living environment and functionality. Worth mentioning is the SapirWhorf
Hypothesisaconceptionclaimingthat languageshapesthoughtsandshapesthewaywe
perceiveandconceptualizetheworld(andthereforeshapeswhatwesee).Thishypothesis
hasbeentestedmanytimes(alsousingvisual,film,andparticipatorymethodsseeWorth
and Adair 1975), with some affirmative and other negative results. Lera Boroditsky,
psychologist from StanfordUniversity,describes a seriesofexperiments thathave tested
howthenotionofspace,time,shapes,substancesandobjectsdifferbetweenpeoplewho
speak different languages. They compared Korean and English speakers, and Tzeltal and
1These included the MllerLyer and Sander parallelogram illusions, two horizontalvertical illusions and a
perspectivedrawingillusion.
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Dutch speakers,and found that theyusedifferent terms todescribe spatial relationsand
spatiallocations.
Forexample,Englishdistinguishesbetweenputtingthingsintocontainers(theappleinthebowl, the letter intheenvelope)andputtingthingsontosurfaces(theappleon
the table, the magnet on the refrigerator door). Crosscutting this
containment/support distinction, Korean distinguishes between tight and loose fit of
attachment. Forexample,putting an apple in abowl requiresdifferent rational term
(nehta) fromputtinga letter inanenvelope (kitta),because the first isanexampleof
loosecontainmentandthesecoundanexampleoftightfit.Further,puttinga letter in
an envelope and putting a magnet on the refrigerator are both described by kitta
becousebothinvolveclosefit(Boroditsky2003:918).
Do those crosslinguistic differences have cognitive consequences? Laraine McDonough
showed to Korean and English speakers a series of visual examples of tight fit and one
exampleof loosefit (orviceversa), theKoreanscouldeasilypickouttheoddpicture,and
Englishspeakerscouldnot.(McDonoughin:Boroditsky2003:918)
Anotherexperiment tested thecognitiveresponseofspeakersofdifferent languages
to differentialgroupingofgrammaticalgenderofobjects.ItdoesnotprovetheSapirWhorf
hypothesis,butitshowsthatthereisarelationbetweenlanguageandperception.
SpanishandGermanspeakersascribemorefeminineormoremasculinepropertiesto
objectsdependingontheirgrammaticalgender.Forexample,askedtodescribeakey
(awordmasculineinGerman[derSchlssel],andfeminineinSpanish[lallave]),German
speakersweremore likelytousewords like hard,heavy,jagged,metal,serrated,and
useful,whileSpanishspeakersweremore likely tosay golden, intricate, little, lovely,
shiny,andtiny.Todescribeabridge,ontheotherhand,(awordfeminineinGerman
[dieBrcke],andmasculine in Spanish [elpuente]),German speakers said beautiful,
elegant, fragile, peaceful, pretty, and slender, while Spanish speakers said big,
dangerous,long,strong,sturdy,andtowering(Boroditsky2003:920).
Lera Boroditsky summarizes that the evidence available so far suggests that distinctions
made available by ones language may indeed impose important constraints on ones
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thinking. According to Boroditsky, languages influence many aspects of human cognition
(like the examples given above), and linguistic processes are pervasive in fundamental
domainsofthought.Althoughsheclaimsthatlanguageisapowerfultoolinshapingthought,
itdoesnotdetermineitcompletely.Ouranswertowhetheritistheindividualexperienceofphysicalenvironment,nature,
culture, and language or other factors that are causing the differences in perception
depends on the paradigm we with which we respond. Here I try to present those few
approachesfromdifferentfields,inordertoshowthemultiplicityoffactorsonwhichhuman
perceptiondepends.
Perspectives.Multiplerealities
As the visual perception of each individual can differ dramatically and similar
examples can be given forother senses than sight2 we can say that theworldof each
individualisdifferent.There isnoepistemologicallyobjectivereality,andit is impossibleto
definewithoursubjectiveperceptionwhetherthereisoneobjectiveontologicalreality.We
haveaccessonlytoourreality,throughourbody3.Nobodyisanoutsideviewer.Thatis
whyIwillspeakaboutamultiplicityofrealities.Eachperson,eachbody,hasitsownreality
or,inotherwords,itsownperspective.Theperceptionandunderstandingofobjectsandof
others will differ in different perspectives. Those realities, those perspectives, can have
many common points and similarities, which in terms of what is (the meanings) are
intersubjective agreements. The perspective is defined by the body and previous
experiences, aswell as by different processes and relations, which people establish with
objectsandotherpeople.
AgoodexampleofdifferentperspectivesisgivenbyTniaStolzeLima(1999),inthe
caseoftheJurunapeopleinsouthernAmazonia.ShehasbeentoldbyaJurunawomanthat
Thepeccaries [alsocalledskunkpigsorNewWorldpigs] live incommunitiesdivided into
2Idonotclaimthatsightisadominantsense;itisnotmyintentiontobeoculocentric.Asthisisashortpaper
onphotography,Iusesightinordertomakemytheoreticalpoint,comparehumaneyeperceptionwithcamera
andembedphotographyinperspectivism. Idobelivethatallsensesarerelated,andphotography isnotonly
visual, and canprovokeother sensual experiencesormemories. Elizabeth Ewart (2008)writes,usingas an
example thecaseof thePanarpeople,seeingalsomeansbeing seen (visionandvisibility),andbeingseen
involvesthewholebody.3Idonotdividebodyandmind.ThuswhatIcallbodyisanassemblageofthephysicalshapeandthewaysof
being(thatarealsorelatedanddependoneachother).
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families and organized around a chief endowed with shamanic power. They inhabit
subterranean villages andproducebeer,which, from ahumanperspective consistsofno
morenorlessthananextremelyfinewhiteclay.(StolzeLima1999:109)
Thisisanexplanationofthedifferentpointofview,thedifferentperspectiveofthepeccariesandacomparisonwiththeperspectiveofJuruna,whichisappliedintheirrelations
withanimals. Jurunapeopleknow thatdifferentbodieshavedifferentperspectives,which
are as valid for them as our perspectives are for each of us. In Amazonian perspectival
cosmologiesallbeingsthathavesoulsseethemselvesashumans,andtheyseeotherbeings
aseitherpreyorpredators(Ewart2008).
To give another, maybe easier, example of different perspectives (without the
cosmology aspect)we can think about thedifferentnotionsof some concreteobjectsor
places forexample,astaircaseinanapartmentbuilding.Usingrelativism,wecansaythat
thereisonestaircaseseeninadifferentwaybydifferentpeople.Foronepersonthesestairs
maybeanormalwaytocrossbetweendifferentlevelsinabuilding.Forachildthatlikes
toplaythere,itmightbeaplaygroundoraplaceofjumpingandslidingdownthehandrail.
Foranolderpersonwithwalkingdifficulties,itmightbeaninsurmountableobstacle.Butfor
amouseoranant,itmightnothaveafunctionatall.Sowhatrelativismmightdefineasthe
sameobject seen indifferentways,perspectivismwoulddefine ratherasamultiplicityof
objects and meanings in different realities connected with different bodies. In each
perspectivetherecanbeadifferentnotionofit,therecanbeadifferentunderstandingofit,
so in each perspective it will be a different thing.4 According to Tarzycjusz Buliski and
Mariusz Kairski, The body creates perspective, perspective creates the world, the body
verifiesitsauthenticityandassertsitselfinitthroughitsexperience.Entitieswithdifferent
bodies, have different perspectives, they see the world and other beings with different
bodiesintheirownway.Inotherwords,theyareindifferentrealities(2011:297).
Theexistenceofthestairs isalsodependentontheperspective,accordingtoTnia
StolzeLima:Pointofviewimpliesaparticularconceptionaccordingtowhichtheworldonly
existsforsomeone.Moreprecisely,whetheritisabeingoranevent()whatexists,exists
forsomeone.Thereisnorealityindependentofasubject.(1999:117)
4IuseasimplifiedmodificationofwhatiscalledAmerindianperspectivism. Formoreaboutperspectivismsee
ViveirosdeCastro(1996and1998)andStolzeLima(1999).
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And of course, it is important to mention that the individual perspectives change
constantlyasourbodieschangeandaswegainmoreexperiences.Thenweestablishnew,
processesandrelationsorwechangeexistingyetprocessesandrelations.Thestaircasemay
beperceivedsimilarly, ifsomeentitieswhosharesimilarexperiences,and intersubjectivelyagreeabout themeaning,establishasimilarrelation.Howeverafteradramaticchangeof
thebody,oraftersomenewexperiences,onemaychangeonesperceptionofthestaircase.
Moreover, we see ourselves through interaction with others. The others are like
mirrorstousandtoeachother.Byseeingthedifferentothers,webecomeconsciousabout
ourselves,andaboutwhatdistinguishesus.Butwedonotseeothersthesamewaytheysee
themselves.Weseethemonlythroughourperspective,andtheyseeusthroughtheirs.We
donothavedirectaccesstoothersortotheirrealities.Thatiswhyexperienceandmany
interactionsarenecessary inordertogettoknowothersandtofamiliarizeourselveswith
theirperspectives.Duringmoreintensiveinteractions,wechangeourperspectiveofothers,
andwe can try tounderstand theirs. In anthropology thebasic tools forgetting to know
others (and in this way getting to know ourselves) are participatory observation5 and
discussion(orassomesay: interviews).Weexperience(usingourbodiesoursenses)the
alterity,andwetrytospeak (usingdifferent languageswithallthecomplexityof linguistic
subjectivism)aboutthedifferencesintheworldswelivein.Whatparticipatoryphotography
canaddtothisprocessistryingtolearnbypicturesandtheirdescriptionswhattheworldof
theother is like.Ofcourse it isaverydifficulttool,too,and it isassubjectiveas language,
butasananthropologicalresearchmethoditcanbeuseful.
Photography.Truthandinformationalvalue.Language
Howcanwelocatephotographyinallthiscomplexityofperspectives?Inmyopinion
itcanhelpasatooloftranslationbetweendifferentrealities.Whatis,andwhatcanbe,the
informationalvalueofphotographicpictures?
At the very beginning of photographical techniques, when the first images were
created,therewasabeliefofcapturingobjectivereality.Photographywasseenasaphysical
and chemical process that can provide truth. The goal was to create images of nature,
5
Participatoryobservation isatermthatIdonot like.Weshouldnotonlyobserve,butbewiththepeoplewewant toknowbetter. Itshould involveourwholebodyandallsenses,notonly thescientificeyesand
brain.
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shownthatphotographycanbemodifiedinmanydifferentways,anddependshighlyonits
author.
Latermanycriticsofphotographyemerged,whoarguedinmanydifferentwaysthat
photographydoesnotreflectrealityandthatitissubjectiveandsusceptibletomanipulation.Discussionsemergedabouttheinformationalpotentialofphotography,andformanycritics
photographywasnotareliablesourceofinformation.Manyofthemrefertotheinabilityof
objective information inrelationtoasinglegivenphysicalreality(outsideofthesubjective
human).
OneofthemostfamousauthorswhowroteaboutphotographywasRolandBarthes.
AfterhismotherHenrietteBarthesdied,hewrotethewellknownCameraLucida(Barthes
1996 [1980]). It is a book that both shows his grief and at the same time discusses the
subjectivityofphotography.Ashe tries todealwith themanymeanings thatphotographs
canbegivenhe searches for thenatureofphotography.ForBarthes6 thephotograph is
alwayscarryingitsreferentwithitself(Ibid.).Tohimapipeisalwaysapipe,eventhoughit
might refer todifferent time (refer towhatwas), location,anddifferent feelings.Barthes
hadnotescapedtherelativistproblem,andisreferringtoonephysicalreality.Ifweemploy
theperspectivismtheory,wewillknowthatthepipe,whetherseendirectlyorinapicture,
mightnotalwaysbeapipe,justlikeintheaboveexampleofastaircase.Barthesalsoclaims
thatphotographyissomehowreproducingsomethingthathappenedonlyonce,andwillnot
happenagainexistentially(Ibid.).Inclaimingthisheacceptsthelinearnotionoftime,which
isproblematicasphotographsmayalsoreproducesomethingthatisorwillberepeated.
SusanSontaginherwritings(Sontag1986:140)alsoreproducestheideaofasingle
objective reality.Sheclaims thataphotograph isnotonlyan imageand interpretationof
reality,butalsoatrace,somethingthatisreflecteddirectlyfromtheobjectiveworld.She
separatespaintingfromphotography,claimingthatpaintingisalwaysonlyaninterpretation,
and photography registers the light waves reflected from objects. That is why for her
photography has got the trace in itself, a thin connection with the objective reality,
something that she compares toa footprintoradeathmask. Idisagree,asweknow the
photographicprocessisdeterminedbymanyfactors;weusedifferentlenses,whichmodify
6
Ionly focusonpartof thephotographyreality subjectdescribedbyBarthesand Sontag,and it isahugesimplification of their thesis. Iuse itonly toemphasize the one realityassumption,and Idonotwant to
underestimatetheirworksnortheircontributions.
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the qualities of light waves. We can use different mechanical and chemical or electronic
processes,which register the lightwaves indifferentways.Weusedifferentmethodsof
processing and editing the information registered in this process, and then we can use
differentmethodsofpresentingtheimage.AsDalePurvesandBeauLotto(2011)argue,allthe imagequalities are somethingwe learn to see,just aswe learn to seephotographs.
Photographyasaprocesshasnoconnectiontoanyobjectivereality.There isnotraceof
anobjectivereality.
TomGunning,cinematologistfromtheUniversityofChicago,inamuchmorerecent
publication (Gunning 2004) has written about the subject of indexicality7
. First he
demonstrateshowbothanaloganddigitalphotography,byactionon images (forexample
usingaPhotoshopprogram),canundermineorundotheindexical.Healsotellsusthatthe
recognition of a photographic image as an image of its object depends not only on the
indexicalitybutalsoontheviewersevaluationofaccurateness.Theimagemustbelegible
inordertobelikenedtoitssubject(Gunning2004:41).ForGunningthetruthclaimrelies
on both indexicality and visual accuracy. He gives the example of specific photography
manualswritten for crime scenepolicephotographers,whichdrawon constructsofboth
indexicality and accuracy. Howeverusing theempirical vision theory andperspectivism I
consider indexicality as a construct, a social agreement, about some certain belief of
truth that can be put into photographs. The relationship between the object
photographedandtheresultingimageisonlyanassumedrelationshipthatpeopleassignto
photography.Inthesamewayasthereisnoaccesstoobjectiverealityinhumaneyevision,
thereisnodirectaccesstoobjectiverealityinphotographs.Thepolicephotographymanuals
areanagreement (madeby thosewho created the rulesand thosewhoaccept them)of
which conditions of creating images will make them legally reliable; an agreement on a
specifiedprocessthatinvokessimilarrelationswiththosephotographs.Tomeindexicality
meansonlyanintersubjectiveagreementaboutthebeliefthatacertainphotographicimage
canbesomehowrelated(byexperience)topeoplesrealities,andthattherelationbetween
imageandrealitywillbesimilarfordifferentindividuals.However,thisdoesnotundermine
the informationalvalueofphotography,knowing thatall (notonlyphotographical)truth
claimswillbebasedonsimilarintersubjectiveagreements.
7Usingthetermindexicality byCharlesPeirce,hereferstotherelationshipbetweenthephotographed
objectandtheresultingimage.
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In this essay I propose to combine the aforementioned vision and perspectivism
theorieswithphotography.Forourpurposes,weshouldnotseephotographyasasubjective
tool that isprovidingsomeunreliable imagesofobjectivereality.Weshallsee itasa tool
that can provide information about various realities, a source of information inbetweenperspectivesandrealities.Photographymakingtechniquesorprintedimagesshouldnotbe
separatedfromtheauthor,orfromthemomentwhenthepictureistaken.
Theproblemofmanycriticsofphotographywasthattheycriticizedthephotographic
pictures themselves for lack of objectivity and for information manipulation. If we see a
photographic picture and consider it as a separate autonomic unit, we canonly see and
understand it through our perspective, through our experience and through our
understanding of what we see on the picture. What is important in order to use
photographicpicturesassourcesof informationaboutotherpeoplesperspectives is their
descriptionofthepicture,ofthepicturescontext,andaboutthemotivesandthemeanings
thepicturehasfortheauthorofthepicture(akindofadeixis,anindication).
AgoodexampleisthephenomenonofCatCam,whichhasbecomeveryfamouson
theInternet.ACatCamisasmallphotocamera,mountedontheneckofacat,continuously
taking pictures every minute. Some might think that the pictures as a result contain
informationabouttheparticularperspectiveofacat.Buttheretinalimagesthecatisgetting
differ greatly from the images recorded by the camera, and more important, we have
absolutelynoaccesstoinformationabouthowtheparticularcatunderstandswhatitseesor
whatrelationsithaswithobjectsorotherbeings.Withthismethodwecanonlylookinthe
samedirectioninwhichthecatisseeing,butweseealltheobjectsinthewaywelearnedto
see them, throughphotographs.Wecannotask thecatwhat it isseeingat thisparticular
moment,orwhat itseesat the images.Wecanonlyassume it,usingourknowledgeand
experienceaboutcats.Thatiswhy,inordertogetinformationaboutotherperspectives,the
explanation(combinedwithourownexperienceinteractingwithothers)playsacrucialrole.
AsIhavementionedabove,thewaysthatpeopleexplainanddescribephotographic
imagesplayacrucialroleinthevalueoftheinformationgivenbyparticipatoryphotography.
The strengthofusingbothphotographyand language (discussionor interview) lies in the
inability to fully define their relation. A great explanation is given by Franois Soulages
(2007:295301). At first it might appear that language by the use of acoustic symbols(signifiant) refers to a multiplicity or to one given thing (signifi), and that photography
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relatesalwaystoonegiventhing(thisexacttreeinthisexactpicture).Ifso,photographycan
share meaning through immediacy of image. But as Soulages explains, to be able to
understandphotographywealsousecertaincodes.Someartisticphotographscanbeseen
as symbols or allegories. Advertisingphotographs can give the (fake) informational valueaboutobjectsandprovoke imaginationandconsumption.Familyphotographycanprovoke
memoriesand feelings.Travelphotographycanprovideevidence (Iwas there).Passport
picturescanbeseenasanevidenceofwho Iamby referringdirectly tome;butnoneof
those categories are set anddefined. The perception andunderstandingofphotographic
imagesdependsontheviewer.Thesameportraitforsomeonecanhaveahighemotional
value (somethingunspoken),and foranotherperson itcanbeonlyadescriptionofsome
human,alegalproof.Inthiscaseaverbalexplanationcanhelptounderstandthemeaning
oftheportraittobothofthemtounderstandthepicturefromdifferentperspectives.Also
becauselanguageisnottheonlymeansbywhichcommunicationtakesplaceandknowledge
is transmitted, Ibelieve thatphotoscanenrichethnographicwritingsand shouldbeused
muchmoreoften.
Participation.Research
examples
Photography, an invention ascribed tobothDaguerre andTalbot, served from the
beginninginmanydifferentways.Itwasusedasatoolofshowingculturaldiversity,ofthe
others,givingevidenceoftheirexistenceorexplainingtheirwayofbeing(forinstancethe
famous photographs by Edward Curtis). It has been present in social and cultural
anthropology in many ways, from photographs that have been used as additions to
decorateresearch(asintheworkofanthropologistslikeBronisawMalinowski,FranzBoas,
Edward EvansPritchard and many others), to the use of visual techniques as a basis of
methodologies and the rise of the subdiscipline visual anthropology. In this essay I will
presentseveralexamplesoftheuseofvisualparticipatorymethods insteadoffocusingon
historyofphotographyorhistoryofvisualanthropology8.
8Thehistoryofphotography inanthropology isdiscussed inmoredetail in ElizabethEdwards (1994,2001,
2011). The history of visual anthropology is discussed in Banks and Ruby (editors, 2011). Contemporary
developments and methods are presented in Banks (2009 [2001]) and Pink (2009 [2001]). History ofphotographyingeneralandinconnectionwithartisdiscussedinmoredetailin BorisvonBrauchitsch(2004),
orinthecomprehensivevolumeeditedbyMichelFrizot(1998).
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Whatdoesparticipationchangeintheresearchsituation?Participatorymethodshave
often been praised for escaping from the authoritative position of the scientist, for the
attempt todecrease thepowerdifferentialbetween the researcherand the researched
(Packard2008:63).
Whenthephotographsaretakenasaresultofcollaboration,theycombinethe
intentionsofboth the ethnographer, aswell as the informant, and provide a
resultthatisaneffectofnegotiation(Pink2009:99).
The intentionsof theanthropologistandhisorher researchpartners shouldbe revealed
during discussions. In such a process the created pictures could serve both the
anthropologist (for his publications or exhibitions) as well as the participants (for family
albums,assouvenirs,orphotoswhichtheycanexhibittoothercommunitymembers).The
projectparticipantsmayaswellenjoythe ideathattheirpictureswillbe latershownasa
representationoftheirreality(seethefurtherexamplesinthe Viewsfrominsideproject).
Inthisapproach it isthey,theparticipants, whodecidewhattopresent theyaregiven
more authority. Does it really change the relationship between power and knowledge
creation?JoshPackard,asociologistfromVanderbiltUniversity,hasquestionedthis issue.
In order to equalize power relationships in a project, technical competencies must be
similar.Anunequalpowerdynamicisimmediatelyandirrevocablyestablishedthemoment
the researcher must instruct a participant on how to operate a piece of equipment
(Packard2008:64). Ontheotherhand,theresearchersarethosewhoaretaughtaboutthe
participants lives, so in this aspect the participants have the authority of knowledge.
Howeveritisstillwe,thescientists,whohavethepowertogiveauthority.Forusitisstill
aninvestigation;wewanttoobtainsomeparticularknowledgeanduseitforourpurposes.
Forallthosereasons,inmyopinion,theauthorityoftheresearcherdoesnotdecrease,but
theauthorityofresearchpartnersincreases.Thisisnotaruleanditmightdiffer,depending
on personal attitudes and the exact methodology. It can as well be used without any
concernaboutthepowerdynamics.Iwillgiveexamplesofsuchdifferences insomevisual
participatory projects in order to underline different partnership relations, but also to
brieflyexplain thedifferentmethodologiesemployed, the informationobtained, and thetechnologyused(filmmaking,drawing,paintingandphotography).
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OneofthefirstexamplesIwanttomentionistheparticipatoryfilmprojectledbySol
Worth and John Adair (1972)9, with Navajo in Southwestern United States. They asked
Navajopeopletomakemotionpicturesdescribingtheirculture.Theprojectthey led inthe
1960swas related toquestionsof languageandcommunication.Theywanted to findoutwhatpatternsof filmmaking thepeoplewoulduse,andassumed that thosepatternswill
reflecttheirculture.TheytestedwhetheritwouldbepossiblefortheNavajofilmmakersto
presenttheirculturewithouttheuseoflanguage.
Howdothepicturesonemakes thepaintings,thephotographs,thefilms work?How
doesafilmmakerknowhow,forexample,tosequenceasetofvisualeventsrecorded
on strips of film so that when the viewer sees them, he knows what the filmmaker
meant?Whatprocesses inhumanbeingsallow them to communicatevisually?What
happenswhenthefilmmakerandtheviewerdonotsharethesameculture?Arethere
things we can understand in pictures or film no matter how different our cultures
happen to be? Can we compare the structure of visual events such as paintings or
photographstostructuresofverbaleventssuchaswordsandlanguages?Canwelearn
somethingabouthowweknowourworldbystudyinghowweknowthingsthatothers
communicate to us visually? Can anyone make movies? Can anyone understand a
movie?(WorthandAdair1975:15)
Although the results of the Worth and Adair project do not provide explicit
conclusions, theprojects importance lies in theparticipatorymethods theyused.Project
participantsnotonlymadefilms themselves,butalsoeditedthemandpresentedthemto
othermembersoftheircommunity.Thevideosserved thepurposesoftheresearchers,but
theNavajopeoplealsolikedthemalotandweregladtoproducethem.Inthisproject,not
onlythefilmmakingprocess,thefilmscontent,andtheaudiencesresponsestoit,butalso
the performativity (the moment of filmmaking itself), were important. Although some
aspects of their methods may be questioned, it certainly has created a methodological
model.
Some importantaspectsthatemergedduringtheWorthandAdairprojectemerged
aswell inmy fieldwork. I call it the inadequacyof the technologybeingused.After the
9ItisalsopresentedinBanks(2009[2001]).
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Navajo films were finished, a premiere was organized at the community school dining
room10
.ApproximatlysixtyNavajocametowatchtheresults.Afterthepresentationofthe
film Adair interviewed some adults from the audience about their evaluation and
understandingof the films. Therewere two interesting responsesofpeoplewhodidnotunderstandthefilms:
Whenasked,Doesthatfilmtellyouanything?a44yearoldwomanwithoneyearof
schooling,whoneversawamoviebefore,replied:
I cannot understand English. It was telling all about it in English which I couldnt
understand.
Anotherresponsewas:
ThatpicturewasalsobeingexplainedinEnglish.ThereasonIdidntgetthemeaningis
becauseIcantunderstandEnglish.(Ibid.130)
Theywereallsilent films.WorthandAdair (Ibid.131)assume, thatwhensomeoneseesa
moviehedoesnotunderstand,hemightassume that it is inanother language.Since the
researchersspokeEnglish,eventhoughthefilmhadnosound,therespondentassumed it
wasinEnglish.Ithinkthereasonmightbealsoexplainedwithreferencetotheinadequacy
ofthetechnologybeingused.Films(andothervisualrepresentations)areatechnologythat
can be normal andunderstandable to usbut strange toothers. Readingof a filmor
photography requires previous experiences with this technology as well as with subjects
presentedinit.Ifthewomanindeedhadnopreviousexperiencewithfilms,thetechnology
wasstrangeforher,strangeasthepeoplewhobroughtitwiththem,shemayaswellcallit
inEnglishjustastheotherthingsshedoesnotunderstand.Film,cameras,projectors,and
filmshowingsbelongtotheEnglishworld,sothefilmitselfwasinEnglishforher.Thisis
onlyoneofpossibleexplanations,whichinordertoprovewouldrequiremoreknowledgeof
thecontext.Later Iwill return to theproblemof the inadequacyof the technologybeing
used.
Anotherproject Iwant to recall is Showme yourworld showme your school
(Vorbrich 2009), conducted by researchers and students from the Adam Mickiewicz
10Worth recommendation is a great film made by Barbara Keifenheim and Patric Deshayes Naua Huni
IndianerblickaufdieAndereWelt(1984),whichIwillnotdiscusshereduetothelimitedspace.KeifenheimandDesheyesrecordedKashinawa (endonym:NauaHuni)audience responses toa filmabout theRuhrgebiet (a
Germancoalminingandindustrialarea)
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UniversityamongDogonchildren inMali.Theyaskedschoolchildren,attheageof7to13
years,todrawandpaintpicturesonseveraltopicsandtheirgoalwastoseetheirworld11
from theperspectiveofachild.Artworkshops tookplace inthreeschools,wherechildren
paintedanddrewpicturesonsevendifferenttopics:(1)writeapostcardtoPolishchildrenaboutavisitinanAfricanvillage;(2)showmeyourschool;(3)whowouldIliketobecomein
the future?; (4)whatdoesmymother teachme,andwhatdoesmy father teachme?;(5)
funeralintheeyesofachild;(6)Imanadultnowinitiation;(7)howtheworldwascreated
(Ibid. : 21). Children were also asked to talk about their pictures in front of a camera.
Afterwardsexhibitionswereorganized,wherethepaintingsofallchildrenwerepresentedto
themand to theirparents. Ingeneralover500workshavebeencollectedandbrought to
Poland for further analysis. In this project the topics of images were created by the
researchers,andtheparticipantshavenotbeengiventhefreedomtotalkaboutwhatthey
consider important.AstrongrelationofpowerhasbeenmaintainedEuropeanscientists
fromdevelopedPolandcametoinvestigateandeducatechildrenindevelopingMali.
Differentdrawingandpaintingmaterialswereintroducedtothechildren,andasone
of the researchers mentions (Polaszewski 2009: 54), some of them were unknown and
causedconfusion. Intheschoolclasseschildrenmainlyusedgreypencilsandwhitechalk
theuseofcrayonsandcoloredpaintswasnewforthem.Especiallyinthecaseofcolors,the
technologywas an obstacle and the childrenneeded some time tobe able touse it. As
Polaszewskidescribes (Ibid.)many improper (by improperhemeansdifferent than in
nature12
) colors were used. This is what I earlier described as inadequacy of the
technologybeingused.Howewer itdoesnotmean that the informationwillbe invalidor
unimportant.The informationwillberatherofadifferentkind,andmoreexperimental.As
paints are something completely new, it may happen that more focus is given to the
11AnothergoaloftheprojectwastoprovidedevelopmenthelpbyconductingartworkshopsforchildrenandbygivingeducationalmaterialstothreeDogonschools(giftshavealsobeengiventoteachersandtochildren
directly).Theprojectunderlinestheimportanceofhelpgivenbythedevelopedcountriestothedeveloping
poorones.Itvaluesthegovermentalfoundingprogrammes(theprojectwascofoundedbythePolishforegin
helpprogram),theworkofNGOsandeventhegenerousworkofPolishmissionaries(Ibid.12).But itdoes
notdiscuss theproblematic issuesofdevelopment (seeEscobar1999),suchas therelationsofpower it is
creating, nor does it ask the Dogon people what kind of help they would prefer to receive. It takes the
positiveaspectsofdevelopmenthelpforgranted,andtherebyreproducesallthe issuesraisedbytheso
calledpostdevelopmentcritics.12Descola and Palsson (1996), deconstruct the culturenature dichotomy, by showing that the concept of
natureiscultural,andthatitisuseddifferentlyindifferentcontextsbydifferentpeople.
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materials than to thecontentofapicture. Insuchacase Ibelieve that thesituation itself
(theperformativity)providesmuchinterestinginformation.
Another example is a participatory photography project with children by Paula
GonzlezGranados,describedinherdoctoralthesis(2011).Sheconductedtwoworkshops,one in Shared Schooling Unit in Tarragona (Unidad de Escolarizacin Compartida en
Tarragona),and thesecond inaCommunityCenter inMexicoCity (CentroComunitarioen
MxicoDF)withchildrenandadolescents from10 to17yearsofage.Theworkshopsshe
conductedwereeachbetween3 and5months long,with1or2 sessions aweek.More
interviews have been conducted with all participants based on photographs made
individuallyoutsideof theworkshops.Asa resultpublicexpositionsofphotoshavebeen
organized(Ibid.150152).
Duringtheworkshopsthemainmethodologyconsistedofphotographicwalks,but
picturesofotherauthorsandcertainstyleswerealso introducedinordertofamiliarizethe
participants with photography, as well as to motivate them and introduce some level of
reciprocityof information (in return for the information theyprovided to the researchers
about their lives). The walk places were decided between the researcher and the
participants, leaving the children free to takephotosof the space,ofpeople in it,andof
eachother.DuringthewalksPaulawasthereonlytohelpwith technicalproblems,notto
suggestwhat tocapture inphotos.Therewerenocrucialproblemswith theuseofphoto
cameras,sincetheparticipantshadpreviousexperiencewithphotography,andthecameras
wereofaneasyuseautomatic type.Soherewecan say that the technologywaschosen
adequately. The anthropological goals of the walks were: to observe the dynamics and
reasons behind choosing a location that is good for photographing; to observe the
interactionsduringthewalksandthewaysoftakingpictures;toseewhattheparticipants
were interested in, including how they posed in front of the camera (their auto
representations); conflicts that arose while using the cameras; and finally to analyze the
outcomeoftheimagesinrelationtoallthepreviousinformation.(Ibid.195202).
Theparticipantsalsomadephotosbesidethewalks.Theyweregivencamerasfor27
days,withthegoaltoexplainwhotheyareandwhattheirdailylifeislike.Laterinterviews
wereconductedonthebasisofthosephotos (Ibid.202210).Those interviewsarecrucial,
because Paula Gonzlez Granados interpretations and valorizations of the photos weredifferentfromthoseoftheparticipants.Completelydifferentmeaningshavebeenrevealed.
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andcriticizedwithanthropologicalandpostcolonialist tools,but this isnot thesubjectof
thisessay.
Anotherexample is theprojectLandmarksofaNewGeneration (Afshar),created
by theGettyConservation Institute.Thegoalof theprojectwas toseehowyoungpeopleunderstandculturalheritagebyaskingquestions likeWhat isa landmark?Youngpeople
frommanycities(LosAngeles,CapeTown,Mumbai,MexicoCity,andParis)showedplaces
thatwereimportanttothemwiththeuseofphotocameras,.Afterwardstheprojectspread
toindependentinitiativesinDelaware,Sydney,andSalzburg.TheGettystaffmemberswere
sokind tosendmeacopyoftheSalzburgprojectoutcomebrochure(Kaindl1997). Inthis
project, young (919 years old) participants were trained in photography skills and
accompaniedbyFieldAssistantstheymadepictures inSalzburg.Thepictureswerechosen
bytheFieldDirector.Thepictureshavenotbeenfurtheranalyzed,andoneofthegoalsof
theprojectorganizerwastoteachyoungpeoplethevalueofculturalheritage(Ibid.10).This
isanotherexampleofaprojectinwhichtheparticipationisverylimitedandtheoutcomeis
mostlyimposedandgeneratedbytheprojectleaders.
Participatoryphotographyalsocanbeusedforarttherapy.Agoodexampleisthe
workofMarcPataut(PatautinSoulages2007:182196)inapsychiatricclinicinthesuburbs
ofParisinthe1980s.Hewantedtogobeyondasimplereportage,andatthesametimethe
clinicwantedtomakeaformoftherapywiththeuseofphotography.Hegavecamerasto
childrenwithoutany instructionsonhowtousethem.Theywereabletoexperimentwith
the camera, to play with it, to use it in their games. Afterwards Pataut observed the
fascinationof thechildrenwhen theysaw theappearanceof imagesonpaper in thedark
room,andhowthechildrenusedtheoutcomeimages(thewaytheymadepersonalalbums,
spoketothephotographs,ordestroyedthem).Lateranexpositionofthesephotosappeared
inthehospital.Patoutisanartistphotographerratherthanasocialscientist,andtherefore
hismethodsandgoalsaredifferentthanthoseofaresearcher. Theprojectprovidesmuch
information about those children and their relationswith what theyhavephotographed,
althoughparticipationoccursataverylimitedlevel.
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TheprojectViewsfrominside(2010)
Myideaofconductingaparticipatoryphotographyprojectdevelopedbeforestarting
myanthropologicalstudies,duringmysummerWorkandTravelvacationsinVenezuelain
2008. Irealizedhowdifferentlymyphotographsareperceivedbymyfriendsandfamily in
Polandandbypeople fromGranSabana.However,themain inspirationwasmycontact14
withCarlotaDuarte,thefounderofArchivoFotogrficoIndgena,aphotographicalprojectin
Chiapas (Mexico), in which local Maya people have been given the opportunity to use
photographybythemselves.AtthebeginningIwantedtocreateaparticipatoryproject,but
moreintermsofacollaborativeartprojectthanasasocialscienceresearchproject.NowI
would describe the first version of the project concept as a rather nave one. At the
beginningIplannedtocooperatewithCarlotaDuarte,buttheprojectdevelopedindifferent
ways (although the locationwaspartiallymaintained).During the very firstmonthofmy
studiesofculturalanthropology, Iwent todiscuss the ideaof thisprojectwithoneofmy
teachersdrJacekSchmidtandhehelpedmetochangethewhole idea intoaresearch
project using anthropological methodologies. Later, Maria Lebioda, another anthropology
student, joined the project, and we cooperated at all levels of preparation, including
fundraisingandlaterthefieldwork.
Withthehelpandadviceofourprofessors,wepreparedaresearchplan.Wewanted
todoanextensivefieldworkproject inChiapas.Weplannedthemethodology;wewanted
to create portraits from inside of the participants. Our methodology and our plans
changedalotoncewearrivedinMexico.Thefirstchangehappenedthroughtheinfluenceof
Jesus Ruvalcaba Mercado and Aleksandra Iciek (scholars at the CIESAS, Mexico), who
convincedus todoanevenmoreextensive researchproject and togowith them to the
regionLaHuasteca,wherewestayedinaNahuavillage(Hueycuatitla)andrealizedthefirst
partofourresearch.ThenwewentasplannedbeforetotheHighlandsofChiapas,wherewe
stayedataMayaTzotzilvillage(LasLimas).AfterwardswemovedtoGuatemalatoaMaya
KaqchiquelvillagecalledSanJorgelaLaguna,neartoLakeAtitlan.Atthosetwolocations,we
workedwithfriendsofWitoldJacrzyski(professoratCIESAS,Mexico). Theportraitsfrom
insideconsistedofageneral interviewwitheachoftheparticipantsabouttheirworkand
14WitoldJacrzyskicontactedmewithCarlotaDuarte.Witoldhashelpedwiththisprojectatallitslevels,and
withouthimtheprojectwouldnottakeplace.
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freetime,theirfavoriteactivities,theirlivingsurroundings,joysandsorrowsofdailylife,and
theirplans for anddreams about the future. In retrospect I think itwas amistake todo
questionnaire interviews,as this imposesourvaluesofwhat is importantand interesting.
Rather,we should have asked the participants to introduce themself, giving them a freechoice of what to talk about. However, at the beginning we followed the questionnaire
strictly,butmanytimestheanswersweredifferentthanwhatwehadexpected(forexample:
the idea of what is work was completely different). They did not understandwhat we
wanted to know, so we experimented with making the questions more open, more as
indications than concretedemandsof responses. However, itwas stillwewho indicated
what we want to know. All interviews were recorded and later transcribed. After the
interviews we explained the use of an automatic digital camera to the participants (we
explainedonlyhowtoturnthecameraonandoffandhowtotake apicture;wedidnotsay
anythingaboutcompositionoraesthetic issues).Thenweaskedthemtomakephotosthat
could introduce us to their joys and sorrows, to things they like or dislike in their
environmentaswellaswhatseemstobeimportanttothem.Weaccompaniedthemwhile
theytookthepictures,andunfortunately,wealsostartedtakingpictures.Ithinkthiswasa
mistake. By taking pictures ourselves, we unconsciously gave examples of what kind of
photoscanbetakenandfromwhichangles,andgenerallyhowacameracanbeused.After
thepicturesessionswe lookedatallthepicturestogetherwiththeparticipants.Weasked
themtodescribethepicturestheytookandtotelluswhytheytookthem.Weaskedthem
to show us which pictures they liked most. Then we invited each participant to take a
portraitphotoofthemselves inthesurroundingsandwiththepeopleoftheirchoice.After
conductingtheprojectineachvillageweprintedphotosofeachparticipantandgavethem
totheauthorsasasmallgift.
Thewholeprocesswitheachpersontookatmostseveralhours,whichwasamistake.
Iamsurethatifwewouldhavespentmoretimewitheachperson,ifwerepeatedthephoto
shootings,thequalityoftheobtained informationwouldhavebeenbetter. Itwasourfirst
fieldresearch(wewentthereduringsummervacationafterthefirstyearofstudies),andwe
mademanymistakes;wehad to confrontourexpectations and the little anthropological
knowledge we had, as well as the difficulties of communication between us and the
participants with their very different perspectives. We had to learn how to speak withpeople,and fortunatelyallpeopleweworkedwithwerevery friendlyandhadenormous
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patiencewithus.Ibelieve,however,thatthemistakeswemadewereusefulforthepurpose
ofthispaper,as Iamnowmoreconsciousaboutwhatcangowrongandwhattoavoid in
furtherprojectsofthiskind.
There are several methodological issues of participatory visual research I want todiscussherewiththeuseofexamplesfromtheprojectViewsfrominside.Oneofthefirst
things to do while planning such a project is to establish the purpose of it for both
researchersandparticipantsthelevelofparticipation.Forourproject,thepurposewas
toinvestigatethemethoditselfanditspossibleuseinethnography,andhowitcanbecome
a method of communicationjust as important as language. As I already mentioned, we
prepared themethodology, thequestions, and the subjectsofphotosbefore starting the
project. This is one aspect I want to critique. Inparticipatory methods, the researcher(s)
shouldworkfromtheverybeginningwiththepeopletheywanttogettoknowbetter.The
participantsshoulddecideabout thesubjectsofphotography,and the researchers should
only give propositions. This way, they are given a voice and the possibility for self
presentation. Ifweare interested inonespecifictopicorpartof lifeofourparticipants, it
should also be discussed with them. The authority of the researcher in the relationship
cannotbeeliminatedduringsuchactions,butIbelievethatthiswaymoreauthorityisgiven
to thepersons we work with.Although it was still us, the researchers,who initiated the
photographysituations,thepeoplemostlyseemedtoenjoyit. Theyliked theideaoftheir
photosbeingpresentedinfarawayPoland,andtheylikedthefactthattheyreceivedprints
afterwards.Ourpresencewasalsoespeciallyimportanttoourhosts,notonlyforeconomic
reasons (we paid for accommodation and food), and possible status increase (those
strangersstayatmyhome,andnotatmyneighbours),butalsosimplyforthefactofhaving
interestingstrangerstotalkto.Somepowerrelationswereunwillingly(andunconsciously)
maintained,eventhoughwealwaystriedtotreatparticipantsasfriends.
I further think we should prepare photos from our own life and environment to
maintainalevelofreciprocityofexchangedinformation.Weshouldgivethepeoplewework
with also thepossibility to get to knowus a littlebitbetter and to satisfy their curiosity
(although it isunderstandablethat,inmanycases,ourphotosshouldnotbeshownbefore
wehavefinishedourphotowork,asitcouldinfluencetheparticipants).
Animportant issueistheaforementionedinadequacyofthetechnologybeingused.Therewereseveralsituations inwhichprojectparticipantsdidnothaveanyexperience in
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takingphotos,usuallyinthecaseofolderpeople.Insomecasestheparticipantsmanagedto
usethecameraafterafewunsuccessfulattempts,andinothertheyuseditwiththehelpof
theirchildrenorgrandchildren.Oneofthosesituationswasespeciallycrucial,asaman(very
friendly)afteraninterviewrefusedtomakephotossayinghedoesnotknowhowtodoit.Iassumedthismeanthedidntunderstandmyexplanationsabouthowtotakepictures,soI
explained twiceagainhow topush the shutterbuttonof the fullyautomatic camera.But
againandagainheclaimedhedoesnotknowhowtodoit.ThenIunderstoodthatitwas
about the camera itself. It was an object thatdidnotbelong to his reality. It wasnot a
problem for me to take pictures. To him the camera was as strange as myself, so I was
allowed to take pictures of him and his wife. He was already used to the situation of
interviewandstrangequestionsbecauseof thepreviouspresenceofanthropologists in
this village, but taking his own pictures was something too strange. For this reason the
technology used in visual participatory projects should be either adjusted to previous
experiences,orprecisely taught (whichwouldchange thecharacterof research).Notonly
the technology, but also how much to teach about it, should be taken into account. In
teachinghowtousethecamera,wealsotransmitourunderstandingandourwayofusingit.
Theuseofphotographictechnologygivessomeadvantages;forexample,itiseasier
than video, requires less preparation time, and needs fewer explanations. However,
dependingonthecircumstances, itcanbetoodifficulttousephotography,for instance, in
cases where the technology is not adjusted to the knowledge and existence of the
participants (however, the experience of situations such as when the camera becomes
something too strange forparticipants might also provide some interesting information).
The photo shootings we arranged were rather short ones. We always accompanied the
photographers during their photo shooting. This provided us with information about the
performativity of taking photos, but it does not leave them free to photograph in more
privatecircumstances.Ithinktheidealmethodwouldbetodoboth(justlikeintheproject
ofPaulaGonzlezGranados)and leavethecamerastotheparticipantsforsometime.We
didnotdo thisbecausewehadonly two cameras for theparticipants. I consider it as a
mistake, in retrospect, not to have allowed time for individual (unaccompanied) photo
shootings.
An advantage of the method of participatory photography is the possibility ofgivingexplanationsofwhatweseeorunderstanddifferently.Manytimesparticipantsmade
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photos I understood in a completely different way than they did. It was a result of my
different experiences and, often, my stereotypical thinking. After explanations by the
participants,Idiscoveredcompletelydifferentconnotationswiththesubjectofthepictures.
Averygoodexampleisapicturetakenbyourfirsthost,oneofthefriendliestpersonswemetAlfredo,atailorandapossibleprospectiveshaman.Oneoftheveryfirstphotoshe
made,justafteraphotoofhisworkspaceandhisdaughter(theorderoftakingphotosalso
providesimportantinformationaboutparticipantspriorities),wasaphotographofthesmall
creekbehindhishouse.
(photo:AlfredoHernandezMaria)
Ithoughtthathewasemphasizingtheimportanceofhavingasourceofwaternearby,which
is used for cooking, cleaning, dishwashing and so on. But later, while talking about the
photos,Alfredomentioned thedangerandworries related to the creek.During the rainy
season, the levelofwater risesdramatically,and therehavebeen floods in thepast.The
watersupplywasonlyasecondaryreason.
OtherexampleswerephotostakenbyDoaMariaGuadalupe,a63yearoldwoman
fromthevillageofHueycuatitla.Shefirsttookpicturesofhergrandchildren.
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(photo:MariaGuadalupe)
Butwhen she started to speak about thisphoto, she immediatelybegan todescribeher
childrenandtheconditionsofobstetricsandmedicineduringhertimes.Shegavebirthto
11children,but5ofthemdiedduringthebirthorasinfants.Whatambiguityofemotionsis
provoked by the picture of her grandchildren? She treated them with care, and it was
obviousthattheyaredeartoher.However,atthesametimetheyprovokememoriesofher
own losses and pains. Here photography helped to provoke some very personal and
emotional utterance. I do not know if such experiences would have been discussed so
quicklyifshehadnotbeendescribingapicture.Anotherexampleofdifferentunderstanding
of imagesisthephotoshetookofwhatIthoughtwasherhouse.Later,sheexplainedthat
thesubjectwasthestreet,HERstreet.
(photo:MariaGuadalupe)
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Photos likethepreviousgrandchildrenofDoaMariaGuadalupeareunderstoodby
theparticipantsintermsofemotionsandfamily.Otherphotoshavethepurposeofshowing
aconcreteobject(asortofphotographicaldeixis)lookatthis,Iwantyoutoseethis.
Examplesarephotos takenbyMariaMagdalenaHernandez,averyhumorous65yearoldwomanfromthevillageofHueycuatitla.Beforetakingpicturesofherfamily,andlaterofher
religious artifacts, she took a picture of her own house and the house of the neighbour
acrossthestreet.
DoaHernandezhouse(photo:MariaMagdalena
Hernandez)Theneighbourshouse(photo:MariaMagdalena
Hernandez)
IdontlikemyhouseexplainedDoaHernandez,itisuglyandold.Andthenreferringto
the secondpicture, sheexplained,this is thehouse Iwould like tohave, if Ihadenough
money.Sheshowed thedifferingvalueofnewandtraditionalconstructionmethods,and
howtheneighborisinabettersituation.
IwillnowpresentthreeEnglishtranslationsofportraitsfrominsidecreatedduring
the project,just to give a glimpse of the final results. In total there are more than 40
portraits, and they can be found (in Polish) on the website of the project: www.od
wewnatrz.pl.Eventhoughthismethodfocusesonindividuals,onecangetsomeideasabout
thecommunityofpeopleafterlookingatthepicturesandcommentsofmanyindividuals.
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DonSebastianMartin
gender:Maleage:66
photographicexperience:none
region:LaHuasteca
placeofbirth:Hueycuatitla
placeofresidence:Hueycuatitla
education:twoyearsofprimaryschool
maritalstatus:married
children:6
DonSebastiandecidedtohavehisportrait
photowithhiswife.
Where(how?)doyouwork?
Inthefields.
Howdidyoulearntodoyouwork?AsasmallchildIlearneditfrommyparents.
Whatdoyoudoduringyourfreetime?
InmyfreetimeImnotdoinganything.Iliketoeatsugarcane.
Whichmomentsofyourlifedoyouconsidermoreimportant?
Theworkinthefields.
Whatmakesyouhappy?
Inmy life Ihavehadmuchhappinesswhen Iwasachild.Thebestmemoriesarewhen Iwasachild.Nownot.BecauseofmyageIhavenohappiness.
Whatusuallymakesyousad?
Itsthesamemyage.Icannotworkwellanymore.
Whatareyourfutureplans?
Idonthaveplansanymore.
Whatkindofdreamsorwishesdoyouhave?
Iwouldliketobecomeacarpenter,tomakefurnitureslikechairs,windowsordoors.Iwouldlikethat.
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Thisisthefencetokeep
chicken,andIlikechickenalot.
Comment:someother
peoplealsosaidthey
likechicken,andinall
casestheyreferredto
thetasteofmeat.
Thisisourbathroom.
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Iusedtoworkwithinstruments.
Comment:hereferredto
theinstrumenthanging
onthewall.
ItookthisphotobecausethereisaTV.
DonSebastianMartintalkedtomewhileIwastakingphotoswithanotherperson.Heaskedmeif
hecouldparticipateaswell.Heverymuch liked the ideaof takingpictures thatwillbeshown
latertothepeopleintheforeignlandofPoland.
Thenotionofworkwasveryproblematicinallthreeregionswewentto.Somepeopledidnot
considerworkonthefieldstobework(Spanish:trabajo).Thewordworkinmostofthecases
ofadultswasconnectedwithearningmoney.DonSebastianisanexception.
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We can observe a characteristic stiff pose that people in Hueycuatitla make in front of the
camera,whichissimilartostandingatattention.OnceIwasaskedtotakepicturesoffoursisters,
gatheredforafuneral. Itookpicturesoftheirwholefiguresaswellascloseupportraits.After I
gave them theprints, they toldme that thosepictureswith theirwholebodies in themweremuchbetter.
Examples:
photo: JonatanKurzwelly photo: MariaLebioda
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Benito
gender:Male
age:25photographicexperience:doesnotposessa
camera,buthastakenpicturesbefore
region:HighlandsofChiapas
placeofbirth:Chimtic
placeofresidence:LasLimas
education:highschool,stillastudent
maritalstatus:married
children:1
Benitodecidedtohavehisportraitphoto
withhiselectrickeyboardinstrument,which
hevaluesalot.
Where(how?)doyouwork?
Idontwork,Imastudent.LastyearIfinishedmyhighschoolandnowImdoingasocialserviceinahealthcenterasateacher.Iteachchildren,ingeneralsubjectslikemathematics.LaterIwant
togoandstudymedicineattheuniversity inGuadalajara.Imsearchingnowforapossibilitytodoso. IwanttogotoGuadalajarabecausetheeducation inSanCristobal istoocorrupt,and inGuadalajaratheprofessorsdonotacceptanybribes.Iwishtotakemywifeandmychildwithme.
Howisyourhouse?Howwouldyoudescribeit?
It'smyfathershouse.Thisisonlymyroom.Ilikehowitisconstructed.
Howmanypeopleliveinit?
Me,mywifeandmychild.
Whatdoyoudoduringyourfreetime?Iliketoplaychessverymuch,andIalsoliketoplaymykeyboard.
Whatisyourfavouriteactivity,whatdoyoulikemost?
I lookforwardtomystudies.Idon't liketowork inthefields,because inthefieldsyousufferalot.When Igotothefields,andobserveothersworking, Iseehowmuchtheysuffer... It isverydifficult towork in thefields.And I don't like it, because one does not earn anymoney, onlyproducesthefood.
Whatmakesyouhappy?
I'mhappywhenI'mnotsick,andwhenIseethatIamachievingmygoals.I'mhappytofinishmypreparatoryschool[highschool],andtofinishsoonmyhospitalsocialservice.
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Whatusuallymakesyousad?
Itmakesmesadtoseehowmydadisageing.WhenmyparentswilldieIwillbeleftalone.Andseeinghowheonlyworksinthefieldsmakesmesad...andIdon'tIdon'thelptheminthefields,becauseI'mastudent,andsometimeswehaveconflictswithmydad,becausehetellsme"you're
notworkinginthefields".Andthatmakesmeverysadsometimes...and...Noonehelpsme.
Whatareyourfutureplans?
Iwanttobecomeadoctor.Iwanttohelppeople,andearnmoneytosupportmyfamily.AndIwillbeabletogivehandtomymother,myfather,mybrother...becauseIhaveaplan!Andalsowhentheygetsick Iwillalreadyhaveexperienceand Iwillknowwhatmedicine toapply.This ismyplan.
Whatkindofdreamsorwishesdoyouhave?
Iwouldliketohaveacarandanicer,bigger,home.AndIwishtohelpmychild,whenhewillbe
6or7yearsold,withtheeducation.Iwishtosupporthimwithuniversitystudies,sohewillnothavetosufferlikeIdo.
PicturestakenbyBenito:
Thisismywife,Yolanda.Sheisverybeautiful.
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Teddybearslookverynice,andIlikethema
lot.
Commentary:those
teddybearsarenottoys
ofBenitoandYolandas
child theyaremorea
decorationandobjects
ofhighaestheticalvalue.
Idon'tlikethisbecauseitisugly,untidyanditisa
mess.
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Iliketoplayalot.
Comment:Benito
emphasisedmanytimes
hismusicalskills.
I'vedoneitbymyselfandIlikeitalot.
Comment:thiswas
displayedinacornerof
hisroom,butinsucha
waythateveryvisitor
couldseeitrightaway.
Benitoistheyoungestof9childrenofourhostinthevillageofLasLimas DonVictorio.Hewas
veryhelpful;hespentalotoftimewithus,andtranslatedthe interviewswemadewithpeople
whodidnotspeakSpanish.HewasalsoverycuriousaboutPolandandEurope.
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EustacioCorollonPos
gender:Male
age:75photographicexperience:none,buthe
wantedmetoteachhim
region:MunicipioSolola
placeofbirth:SanJorgelaLaguna
placeofresidence:SanJorgelaLaguna
education:none
maritalstatus:widower
children:9
(62grandchildrenand28great
grandchildren)
Eustaciodecidedtohavehisportraitphoto
withthestaffthatisasymbolofthe
municipalmayor.
Where(how?)doyouwork?ThisyearIstoppedtowork.Icantbearitanymore.ButIamaconstructor.Imaforeman.Imaforeman! Im theonewhomakesplans. Ihavehadworkersworkingforme. Im theonewhomanages. Ibuilt3houseshere [inSanJorge laLaguna].But Ialsoworked inGuatemala [city],SololaandinPanajachel.Imadehouseswith3levels! IstartedtoworkwhenIwas17yearsold,firstasstonemason.ThenIworkedandworkedandIbecameaforeman!Butnotanymore.Imafraidofclimbingtheconstructionsitenow.AndtobeamayorThatisnotwork,youonlyhavetotalkwithpeople.Youonlytalk,thereisnowork,thereisnomovement,thereisnothingyoujustsitaround.
Howdidyoulearntodoyourwork?
I learned itallmyself. Ibuiltahousehere,withoutknowinganything,Iwasntevenamason. IstudieditmyselfandthenImadeahouseoftwolevels.Imalsoahewerandaplumber.Ihavenotstudiedatall,butIknowhowtoreadalittlebit.
Howwouldyoudescribeyourhouse?Itsaone levelhouse. Ihavefourflats.Theotherflatsaresmaller. Igavethemtomychildren,and Ihaveaquarterofthehouseformyown.We livefouratthishousemeandthreeofmysons.Andtheyliveherewiththeirchildren.Butmyflatisseparated,sonoonedisturbsme.
Whatdoyoudoduringyourfreetime?
Nothing.Irest.Isleep,orIdosomethinginthehouse.SoIrest.OrIgotoseethefields.Ihavefields,andworkersthatworkthere.ButIdontworkinthefields.
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PicturestakenbyEustacio:
Iwanttohaveareminderofyouboth.
Comment:Eustacio
passedthecamerafirst
tomeandthentoMaria,
andaskedustotake
photoswithhim.
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Iseethischurcheveryday,andyoudont.SoImadethisphotoforyou.
Comment:Eustacio
askedMariatoposein
frontofthechurch.Itis
theoldestandbiggest
buildinginthevillage.
Thisisourlandscape.Imadeapictureofthelakeforyou,totakeitto
Poland.
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Thisismyhome...
WhenwecametoSanJorge laLaguna,wewenttoasktheauthoritiesforpermissiontodothe
project(thisisanimportantactofrecognitionofauthority).ThatshowwemetEustacio.Hewas
happytowelcomeus,andtoshowusthevillageandhishouse.
Duringtheproject,wealsogavethecamerastochildrenplayinginthevillages.Itwas
nottpartoftheprojectplan,andunfortunatelywedidnotpayalotofattentiontothisissue.
Nevertheless, Imadea fewobservationswhichmergewithFranois Soulagesanalysisof
Marc Patauts project (Soulages 2007: 182196). When we gave cameras to groups of
children(situationsinwhichanindividualchildwasgivenacamerawerealittledifferent),it
became an object of games and interactions. Thejoy and emotions of making pictures
appearedmore importantthanthe imagesthemselves.Makingpicturesofotherscouldbe
compared,recallingSoulages,toatoypistolshootingIshotyou,Icapturedyou asa
matterofprovokinginteraction,wherethemomentofshootingismoreimportantthanthe
result.Iseeyou!Dosomething!Childrenalso interactedwithadultswhopassedthrough
theplacewheretheywereplaying.The interactionaspectwasthemost important.That is
whyall thepictures takenby themarepicturesofotherspassingbyorofotherchildren,
includingmanycloseupsoftheirfacesorofbodyparts therewerenopicturesofplacesor
things.
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buttonwaspushedaccidentally,orbytwochildrenatthesametime.Inthesecasesitisnot
possibletodefineoneauthor,asthepicturesareresultsofthewholegroupsinteraction.In
thiscaseIdobelievetheauthoriscollective.
Inthissituationthecamerahasbeenpassedtothechildrenby
me.Thepersonwithcamerawasaskedtomakeaphotoofthet
shirt,onechildinstructedtheotheraboutthecompositionofthe
frame,andfinalythethirdboypushedtheshutterbutton.The
wholesituationwasaresultoftheplayofalloftheboystogether.
(photo:JonatanKurzwelly)
Anexampleofanimagewithcollectiveauthors.This
pictureandthesituationinwhichitwasmadeprovideus
informationabouttheidolsofNahuachildrenfromthis
village,aboutthevalueofthisconcretetshirtanditsrole
inselfrepresentation.
(photo:ChildrenofHueycuatitla)
(photo:JonatanKurzwelly)
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Conclusions
Thereisnoobjectivity inperception.Everypersonhashisorherownuniquereality
(perspective).Oneobjective realitydoesnotexist.Even ifanontologicallyobjectiveworld
exists,wedonothaveproofof itandnoaccessto it. Itdoesnotexistforus.Noone isan
outsideviewer.Ourbodiesandexperiencesdetermineourperspectives.
Manypreviousdiscussionsaboutphotographyhavetriedtodescribetheuniqueness
of this technique to establish its particular relationwith reality.Butphotography isno
magicindexicaltrace.Itisassubjectiveaslanguageorpainting.Truthclaimsmadeonthe
basisofimagesareagreementsaboutmeanings.Howewerthisfactdoesnotunderminethe
informational value of photographs. Individual meanings ofphotographicpictures canbe
transmitted by explanations. That is why taking pictures for purposes of communication
requireslanguage.
Insocialandculturalanthropologythequalityofobtainedknowledgeaboutothers
depends on experience. Tarzycjusz Buliski and Mariusz Kairski (2011) propose the
evaluative term thick experience. The thickness of experience depends on time spent
interacting,partnersofinteraction,andintensityofinteraction.Iagreewiththemthatlong
term interactions with high frequency and with many partners provide more experience
than short term research. The thirdqualityof thick experience is intensityof interaction.
Intensitythatinvolvesallsenses(notonlysight,andalsonotonlydiscussiondiscussion),and
theintensityofengagementintheinteraction.
Participatoryphotographycombinesdiscussionandexplanationofperspectiveswith
sharingvisualexperiences.Itoftendemandsmoreengagementthanonlyinterviews,asboth
researchersandparticipantscollaborateintakingpictures.Thosepicturescanlaterbeused
forexpositionsorjusttoenrichthecollectionoffamilyphotosaproductiscreatedasa
resultofinteraction.Participatorymethods,notonlythevisualones,givemoreauthorityto
thepeopleweworkwith.Wellusedparticipatoryphotographyhasmanyadvantages. Ido
notclaimsuperiorityforthismethod;mygoalisjusttoshowitsutility.
Onlysomeaspectsofparticipatoryphotographyhavebeenpresentedinthisessay.It
isnotamanual.Muchmorecouldbesaidaboutthismethod,andstillalothastobetested
andexamined.HovewerIhopeitmightbeusefulforanyonewhoisplanningaparticipatory
photographyproject.
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