phylogenetic trees understand the history and diversity of life. systematics. –study of biological...
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Phylogenetic Trees
• Understand the history and diversity of life.• Systematics.
– Study of biological diversity in evolutionary context.
– Phylogeny is evolutionary history.– Goal: Account for evolutionary history of all
species to origin of life.
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Systematics Approaches
• Based on anatomical characteristics.– Morphology.– Fossil record.
Modern systematist uses two techniques to classify organisms:
• Based on molecular characteristics.– Genetic information.
• Nucleic acids.
• Proteins.
– Involves sequencing.
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Phylogenetic Trees• Organize comparative
information and form hypothesis.
• Phylogenetic tree is a diagram of the hypothesis.– Traces evolutionary
relationships.– Records the classifications
of organisms.• Monophyletic groups share
a common ancestor.• Polyphyletic groups do not
share a common ancestor.
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Anatomical Characterization
• Degree of anatomical similarities between organisms indicates evolutionary relatedness.
• Two major approaches. – Characterizing the morphology of live animals:
• Description of physical characteristics.• Unfeasible if extinct or unresolvable by microscopy (too
small).– Studying fossil record:
• Array of fossils in layered rock.• Radiometric dating determines age.• Oldest ~ 3.5 billion years.
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Molecular Techniques• Protein sequencing:
– Digest a polypeptide, separate and sequence the fragments.– Reconstruct sequence by matching regions of sequence overlap. – Algorithms provide local and global comparisons of protein
sequence data against a database.– Advantages: Obtaining disulfide bond position and detecting
modified amino acids.– Drawbacks: Only looking at genes that code for proteins (small
fraction of genome).
• Nucleic acid sequencing:– mRNA, rRNA, genomic DNA.– Automated high-throughput chain termination method cranks out
10,000 bp/day.– Advantages: More complexity yields identification of new
lineages and viral strains.– Drawbacks: Much nongene junk DNA, introns within gene, not
many genomes sequenced.
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Protein Data• Compare protein sequences of alike proteins for different
species.• Comparison of sequences orders the divergence of species in
relative time.• Problems with “molecular clock.”
– Proteins evolve at different rates.– Changes in generation time or metabolic rate may affect a mutation
rate.
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Nucleic Acid Data• NCBI website BLAST alignment for 2 different HIV strains
(HIV-1 and HIV-2).• Help characterize the different strains of HIV and their
evolutionary relationship to one another.
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Tree Construction
• Based on comparisons of anatomical or sequence information.
• Reference outgroup is more recent and closely related to the study groups, but not as closely related as the study groups are to each other.
• Distance of the branch from outgroup represents relative time of origin.
• Between nodes ancestor changes from primitive to more recent condition.
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Classifying OrganismsTwo modern analytical taxonomic methods
– Phenetics:• Classification based entirely on measurable similarities and
differences; no assumptions of homology are made.• Compares as many anatomical characteristics as possible to
determine relatedness.• Skeptics claim that phenotypic similarity alone is not sufficient
to judge phylogenetic relationships.
– Cladistics:• Orders organisms along a phylogenetic tree in branches.• Describes the extent of divergence between the branches. For
molecular sequence alignments, two major computational approaches (PHYLIP and MEGA software):
– Distance-based: The overall distance between all sequence pairs is calculated to construct a tree.
– Character-based: Individual substitutions along sequence pairs are used to derive ancestral relationships.
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Conclusion• Data of two main types are used to determine
evolutionary relatedness: anatomical and molecular. • Systematists construct phylogenetic trees to
represent inferred relationships between organisms.• The strongest support for any phylogenetic
hypothesis is agreement between molecular data and anatomical evidence (from living or fossilized organisms).
• To represent the history and diversity of life in one classification system is a goal far from realization.