physical hydrology & hydroclimatology (multiscale hydrology) a science dealing with the...
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Physical Hydrology & Hydroclimatology(Multiscale Hydrology)
A science dealing with the properties, distribution and circulation of water.
R. Balaji
http://civil.colorado.edu/~balajir/CVEN5333
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Evapotranspiration• Evapotranspiration
– Basics, Importance• Physics of Evaporation
– Turbulent Transfer of Heat, Momentum and Vapor• Diffusion
• Energy – Balance• Mass Transfer• Combination – Penman approach• Pan Evaporation, Evaporation from open water• Evaporation from bare soil• Transpiration
– Penman-Monteith• PET, Crop ET
Physical Hydrology, Dingman (Chapter 7, Appendix D)Terrestrial Hydrometeorology, Shuttleworth, (Chapter 2,3)Hydrology, Bras (Chapter 5)Chow (Chapter 3)Prof. Mark Serreze, CU Geography & Prof. P. Houser, GMU presentation
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Evaporation from a Pan
• National Weather Service Class A type• Installed on a wooden platform in a
grassy location• Filled with water to within 2.5 inches of
the top• Evaporation rate is measured by manual
readings or with an analog output evaporation gauge
• Mass balance equation
• Pans measure more evaporation than natural water bodies because:– 1) less heat storage capacity
(smaller volume)– 2) heat transfer– 3) wind effects
)(
0
12
12
HHPE
EPHH
IS
p
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Soil Water Evaporation• Stage 1. For soils saturated to the surface, the evaporation
rate is similar to surface water evaporation. • Stage 2. As the surface dries out, evaporation slows to a rate
dependent on the capillary conductivity of the soil. • Stage 3. Once pore spaces dry, water loss occurs in the form of
vapor diffusion. Vapor diffusion requires more energy input than capillary conduction and is much, much, slower.
Note that for soils under a forest canopy, Rnet, vapor pressure deficit, and turbulent transport (wind) are lower than for exposed soils.
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Fore
st S
oil
Soil water loss with different cover
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Surface
2 months later
Rooting Depth Effects
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Evaporation• Transfer of H2O from liquid to vapor phase
– Diffusive process driven by • Saturation (vapor density) gradient ~ (rs – ra)• Aerial resistance ~ f(wind speed, temperature)• Energy to provide latent heat of vaporization (radiation)
• Transpiration is plant mediated evaporation– Same result (water movement to atmosphere)
• Summative process = evapotranspiration (ET)– Dominates the fate of rainfall
• ~ 95% in arid areas• ~ 70% for all of North America
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Evapo-Transpiration• ET is the sum of
– Evaporation: physical process from free water• Soil• Plant intercepted water• Lakes, wetlands, streams, oceans
– Transpiration: biophysical process modulated by plants (and animals)• Controlled flow through leaf
stomata• Species, temperature and moisture
dependent
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Four Requirements for ET
Vapor Pressure Gradient
Energy
Water
Wind
NP
TP
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Evapotranspiration has Multiple Components
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Transpiration (Dingman P 294)
• Absorption of soil water by roots
• Translocation through plant vascular system
• Stomata open to take in CO2 for photosynthesis and water is lost by transpiration
• Plants control stomata openings to regulate photosynthesis and transpiration
from http://www.trunity.net/envsciClone/articles/view/177351/?topic=81575
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Transpiration• Plant mediated diffusion of soil water to
atmosphere– Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Continuum (SPAC)
CO2 H2O
1 : 300
Transpiration and productivity are tightly coupled
Transpiration is the primary leaf cooling mechanism under high radiation
Provides a pathway for nutrient uptake and matrix for chemical reactions
Worldwide, water limitations are more important than any other limitation to plant productivity
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Total System ET – Ordered Process
• Intercepted Water Transpiration Surface Water Soil Water
• Why?• Implications for:
– Cloud forests– Understory vegetation in wetlands– Deep rooted arid ecosystems
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Interception• Surface tension holds
water falling on forest vegetation.– Leaf Storage
• Fir 0.25”
• Pines 0.10”
• Hardwoods 0.05”
• Litter 0.20”
• SP Plantations 0.40”.
Interception Loss (% of rainfall)•Hardwoods 10-20% (less LAI)
•Conifers 20-40%
•Mixed slash and Cypress Florida Flatwoods 20%
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Transpiration Dominates the Evaporation Process
•Large surface area
•More turbulent air flow
•Conduits to deeper moisture sources
Hardwood ~80%
White Pine~60%
Flatwoods ~75%
T/ET
Trees have:
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Cover Evaporation Interception Transpiration
Forest 10% 30% 60%
Meadow 25% 25% 50%
Ag 45% 15% 40%
Bare 100%
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The driving force of transpiration is the difference in water vapor concentration, or vapor pressure difference, between the internal spaces in the leaf and the atmosphere around the leaf
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Transpiration
• The physics of evaporation from stomata are the same as for open water. The only difference is the conductance term.
• Conductance is a two step process– stomata to leaf surface– leaf surface to atmosphere
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Transpiration
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Stomata respond to
• Light• Humidity• Water content (related
to soil moisture)• Temperature• Other factors such as
wind, CO2, chemicals
from http://www.ck12.org/
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How Does Water Get to the Leaf?
Water is PULLED, not pumped. Water within the whole plant forms a continuous network of liquid columns from the film of water around soil particles to absorbing surfaces of roots to the evaporating surfaces of leaves.
It is hydraulically connected.
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Even a perfect vacuum can only pump water to a maximum of a little over 30 feet. At this point the weight of the water inside a tube exerts a pressure equal to the weight of the
atmosphere pushing down
> 100 meters
So why doesn’t the continuous column of water in trees taller than
34 feet collapse under its own weight? And how does water move UP a tall tree against the forces of
gravity?
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Water is held “up” by the surface tension of tiny menisci (“menisci” is the plural of meniscus) that form in the microfibrils of cell walls, and the adhesion of the water
molecules to the cellulose in the microfibrils
cell wall microfibrils of carrot
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Yw(soil) -0.1 MPa Yw (root) -0.5 MPa
Yw (stem) -0.6 MPa
Yw (smallbranch) -0.8 MPa
Yw (atmosphere) -95 MPa
The SPAC (soil-plant-atmosphere continuum)
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Cohesion-Tension Theory:(Böhm, 1893; Dixon and Joly, 1894)
The cohesive forces between water molecules keep the water column intact unless a threshold of tension is exceeded (embolism). When a water molecule evaporates from the leaf, it creates tension that “pulls” on the entire column of water, down to the soil.
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ET = Rain * 0.80 ET = Rain * 0.95
1,000 mm * 0.80 = 800 mm 1,000 mm * 0.95 = 950 mm
Assume Q & ΔS = 0
G = 200 mm G = 50 mm
4x more groundwater recharge from open stands than from highly stocked plantations.
?
G = P - ET
NRCS is currently paying for growing more open stands, mainly for wildlife.
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Trading Environmental
Priorities?
• Water for Carbon• Water for Energy
Jackson et al. 2005 (Science)
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Canopy and atmospheric conductance
)ee(v
zzz
ln
k
P
.E asa
o
dmw
a
2
26220
𝐸=𝐾 𝑎𝑡𝐶𝑎𝑡 (𝑒𝑠−𝑒𝑎 )
𝐸𝑇=𝐾 𝑎𝑡𝐶𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 (𝑒𝑠−𝑒𝑎 )
1𝐶𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
=1𝐶𝑎𝑡
+1
𝐶𝑐𝑎𝑛
Resistance Analogy
𝐶𝑐𝑎𝑛= 𝑓 𝑠 ∙𝐿𝐴𝐼 ∙𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑓
from Shuttleworth 1993 from Dingman (2002)
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Penman-Monteith Model
𝐸=∆ ∙ (𝐾+𝐿)+𝜌𝑎 ∙𝑐𝑎 ∙𝐶𝑎𝑡 ∙𝑒𝑎
∗ (1−𝑊 𝑎 )𝜌𝑤 ∙𝜆𝑣 ∙ (∆+𝛾 )
𝐸𝑇=∆ ∙ (𝐾+𝐿 )+𝜌𝑎 ∙𝑐𝑎 ∙𝐶𝑎𝑡 ∙𝑒𝑎
∗ (1−𝑊 𝑎 )
𝜌𝑤 ∙𝜆𝑣 ∙(∆+𝛾 ∙(1+ 𝐶𝑎𝑡
𝐶𝑐𝑎𝑛))
Open water
Vegetation
𝐸𝑇=∆ 𝐴+𝜌𝑎 ∙𝑐𝑎 ∙𝐷/𝑟𝑎
𝜌𝑤 ∙ 𝜆𝑣 ∙(∆+𝛾 ∙(1+ 𝑟 𝑠
𝑟 𝑎))
Shuttleworth 4.2.27 resistance notationD = vapor pressure deficit
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Soil moisture functions for actual ET
𝐸𝑇= 𝑓 (𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑙) ∙𝑃𝐸𝑇
from Shuttleworth 1993
Common – consistent with “Crop factor” concept
Theoretically preferable based on resistance/conductance concept (Dingman 7-69)
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Water Availability: PET vs. AET• PET (potential ET) is the expected ET if water is not
limiting – Given conditions of: wind, Temperature, Humidity
• AET (actual ET) is the amount that is actually abstracted (realizing that water may be limiting)– AET = a * PET– Where a is a function of soil moisture, species, climate– In Florida, ~ a is unity for the summer, 0.75 otherwise
• ET:PET is low in arid areas due to water limitation
• ET ~ PET in humid areas due to energy limitation
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A Simple Catchment Water Balance
• Consider the net effects of the various water balance components (esp. ET)
• ET controlled by water availability and atmospheric demand
• The “Budyko” Curve– Dry conditions: when PET:P → ∞, AET:P → 1 and Q:P → 0– Wet conditions: when PET:P → 0 AET → PET
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Theory vs. Real Data – Budyko curves across the world’s catchments
PET:P
AET:
P
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Complimentary (Advection-Aridity) Approach (Dingman p314)
from Dingman (2002)
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