piecework - july-august 2015

needleworktraditions.comJULY/AUGUST 2015

KNIT THISCotton Victorian

BabyBlanket

PLUS:ExploreCluny

Tatting

OUR COTTON CELEBRATION: 7 Fun Projects to Make Today

Lettersfrom theAsylumDo You Still Have My Table Cover?p. 30

TURKEY500-YEATRADITIYazma & Oy

BABY BLANKET KIT AVAILABLE

FOR DETAILS SEE p. 2

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J U L Y / A U G U S T 2 0 1 5 P I E C E W O R K 1

Volume XXIII Number 4

10 The Height of Femininity: Wispy Cotton DressesMary Polityka Bush

14 A Handkerchief to Embroider in Shadow WorkMary Polityka Bush

18 Framework Knitters, Luddites, and the Capital Crime of PovertyElizabeth Hulse

26 Counterpane Baby Blanket to KnitCarol Huebscher Rhoades

30 Letters from the AsylumDo You Still Have My Table Cover?Katherine Durack

34 Square and Border Pattern for Annies Tablecloth to Filet CrochetKatherine Durack

40 Open Bay-Leaf Pattern: A Cotton Square for a Quilt to Knit

42 Yazma and Oya from Turkey Traditional Handprinted Scarves with Needlework EdgingsCynthia LeCount Samak

49 Turkish Bell Oya to MakeCynthia LeCount Samak

52 A Square to Make in Cluny TattingDagmar Pezzuto

56 Kogin and Hishi Stitches of Aomori Prefecture in JapanAkiyo Murono

Departments

Columns

Features

2 Notions Letter from the editor

60 Abbreviations and Techniques Definitions

62 By Post Letters from readers

64 Calendar Upcoming events

Visit NeedleworkTraditions.com for free projects and articles; a link to our eNewsletter, Needlework Traditions; the PieceWork index; this issues Calendar; recommended books; back issues; and much more!

26

42

52

30

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4 Tapestry The new and the noteworthy

6 Trimmings Birkbeck Edging to Crochet

8 The Last Word Books of interest

GET THE KIT

Notions

2 P I E C E W O R K N E E D L E W O R K T R A D I T I O N S . C O M

White Gold. Tree Wool. Vegetable Lamb. Vegetable Wool. At one point in time, the natural fiber we know as cotton was known by each of these names (tree wool is the direct translation for the German word for cotton, baumwolle). Cottons history goes back at least 7,000years. Greek historian Herodotus (circa 484425 B.C.) wrote about trees in India that were . . . growing wild, which produce a kind of wool better than sheeps wool in beauty and quality. . . . A fourteenth-century European traveler writing under the pseudonym of Sir John Mandeville started the myth surrounding vegetable lamb: . . . there grew there [in India] a wonderful tree which bore tiny lambs on the ends of the branches. . . .

Its no wonder that cotton has been a favorite of needleworkers for eons. For this summer issue of PieceWork, were celebrating this marvelous fiber.

For a stellar book on cottons history, do look for Sven Beckerts Empire of Cotton: A Global History (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2014). And Julia Baratta explores cottons colorful history in her article, The History of Naturally Colored Cotton, available on our community website, needleworktraditions.com/projects-articles. In addition to the fascinating facts about naturally colored cottonin various places, colors include mocha, tan, gray, black, mahogany, red, pink, blue, green, and creamJulia details the efforts today to . . . encourage mills to use naturally colored cotton to cut down on toxic wastes that result from chemically dyeing fibers. . . . and of a group of farmers who . . . raise [naturally colored] cotton to preserve it. . . .

Enjoy our celebration of cotton!Some notes of interest: Lacis Museum of Lace & Textiles in Berkeley,

California, is looking for tatted items to include in a 2016 tatting exhibition at the museum. For consideration, send photographs to [email protected] by September 1, 2015. The provisional program for the Knitting Reference Library and Knitting Collections at the University of Southamptons In the Loop 4 conference August 2628, 2015, at the University of Glasgow is now available; visit www.soton.ac.uk/intheloop. Here are PieceWorks editorial themes for 2016: January/FebruaryHistorical Knitting, March/AprilDomestic Textiles, May/JuneA Celebration of Lace, July/AugustCountry Living, September/OctoberHandwork and the Mystery Genre, November/DecemberSilk; visit needleworktraditions.com/piecework-submissions for details.

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Jeane HutchinsTECHNICAL EDITORS Deanna Hall West,

Tracey Davidson, Georgia SeitzCOPY EDITOR Veronica Patterson

EDITORIAL ADVISORY PANEL Patricia Bolton, Nancy Bush, Catherine Amoroso Leslie, Susan Strawn, Meg Swansen

EDITORIAL DIRECTOR Anita OsterhaugGROUP CONTENT MANAGER Deborah Gerish

MANAGING EDITOR, SPECIALTY FIBER Kathy MalloEDITORIAL ASSISTANT, SPECIALTY FIBER Tamara Schmiege

ASSOCIATE ART DIRECTOR Samantha WranoskyPRODUCTION DESIGNER Nichole MulderPROJECT PHOTOGRAPHER Donald Scott

PHOTOSTYLING, ILLUSTRATION Ann Swanson

ADVERTISING MANAGERS Diane Kocal, Sally Finnegan CLASSIFIED ADVERTISING Tina Hickman

AD TRAFFICKER Mary LutzECOMMERCE MARKETING MANAGER Annie Hartman Bakken

FOUNDER Linda LigonVICE PRESIDENT, GROUP PUBLISHER Shahla Hebets

CREATIVE DIRECTOR Larissa DavisSENIOR PRODUCTION MANAGER Nancy M. Pollock

BOOKS EDITORIAL DIRECTOR Vanessa LymanECOMMERCE MARKETING DIRECTOR Evelyn Bridge

DIRECTOR, MAGAZINE MARKETING & FULFILLMENT Mark Fleetwood

CHAIRMAN & CEO David NussbaumCHIEF OPERATING OFFICER/ CHIEF FINANCIAL OFFICER

James OglePRESIDENT Sara Domville

CHIEF DIGITAL OFFICER Chad PhelpsSENIOR VICE PRESIDENT, OPERATIONS Phil GrahamVICE PRESIDENT, COMMUNICATIONS Stacie Berger

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KIT AVAILABLE!Get our kit with the yarn you need to knit this delightful baby blanket (page 26).

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Imperial Iranian TentThe Cleveland Museum of Art has acquired a spectacular imperial tent created for Muhammad Shah, who ruled Iran from 18341848. The interior of the tent is lavishly decorated with inlaid woolen cloth embellished with silk-thread embroidery. The tent will be on display at the museum from July 17, 2015, through June 26, 2016. For more information: The Cleveland Museum of Art, 11150 East Blvd., Cleveland, OH 44106; www.clevelandart.org.

Tapestry

The imperial tent of Irans Muhammad Shah, who ruled from 1834 to 1848. Collection of The Cleveland Museum, Cleveland, Ohio.Photograph courtesy of The Cleveland Museum.

TattingWORKSHOPS

NEEDLE TATTING: Create exquisite lace using just a tatting needle and thread. Learn the basic steps of needle tatting: selecting needle and thread sizes, chains, picots, rings, joins, spirals, and even Josephine knots with step-by-step instructions.

SHUTTLE TATTING: Create exquisite lace with only 2 simple implementsa shuttle and a ball of thread. Learn the basic steps of shuttle tatting: chains, picots, rings, joins, hiding ends, the reverse order double stitch, and double and triple picots with step-by-step instructions.

These workshops are available on DVD ordownload the workshops instantly; www.bit.ly/dvd-shuttle-tatting.

Join Georgia Seitz and learn the basics and beyond of tatting!


This column brings a sampling of patterns, charts, and instructions gleaned from vintage magazines and books. Use this as given here or adapt it as you like. The instructions are worded exactly as they appeared in the original publicationWeldons Practical Needlework, Volume 2. (The first six volumes of Weldons are included in PieceWorks deluxe set now available; see page 41 for more information.)

Birkbeck Edging to CrochetCommence with 20 chain. 1st row1 treble in the seventh chain from the needle, 2 more treble in the same place, 2 chain, 3 treble in the next stitch of the foundation, 3 chain, miss three, 1 double crochet in the next, 3 chain, miss three, 3 treble in the next, 2 chain, 3 treble in the next, leave three stitches unworked. 2nd row6 chain to turn, 3 treble under two chain of last row, 2 chain, 3 more treble in the same place, 3 chain, 1 double crochet on the double crochet of last row, 3 chain, 3 treble under two chain, 2 chain, 3 more treble in the same place, 1 chain, 1 treble on the second stitch of the chain that turned. 3rd row4 chain to turn, 3 treble under two chain, 2 chain, 3 more treble in the same place, 7 chain, 3 treble under two chain, 2 chain, 3 more treble in the same place, 1 chain and 1 treble seven times under the loop of six chain at

the side of the edging, 1 single crochet in the stitch at the end of the foundation chain. 4th rowWork 5 chain and 1 double crochet seven times under the one chains of last row, 3 chain, 3 treble under two chain, 2 chain, 3 more treble in the same place, 3 chain, 1 double crochet in the centre stitch of the seven chain, 3 chain, 3 treble under two chain, 2 chain, 3 more treble in the same place, 1 chain, 1 treble on the second stitch of the chain that turned. 5th row4 chain to turn, 3 treble under two chain, 2 chain, 3 more treble in the same place, 3 chain, 1 double crochet on the double crochet of last row, 3 chain, 3 treble under two chain, 2 chain, 3 more treble in the same place. 6th row6 chain to turn, 3 treble under two chain, 2 chain, 3 more treble in the same place, 7 chain, 3 treble under two chain, 2 chain, 3 more treble in the same place, 1 chain, 1 treble on the second stitch of the chain that turned. 7th row4 chain, 3 treble under two chain, 2 chain, 3 more treble in the same place, 3 chain, 1 double crochet in the centre stitch of the seven chain, 3 chain, 3 treble under two chain, 2 chain, 3 more treble in the same place, 1 chain and 1 treble seven times under the loop of six chain at the side of the edging, 1 single crochet under the three chain of the fourth row. 8th rowWork 5 chain and 1 double crochet seven times under the one chains of last row, 3 chain, 3 treble under two chain, 2 chain, 3 more treble in the same place, 3 chain, 1 double crochet on the double crochet of last row, 3 chain, 3 treble under 2 chain, 2 chain, 3 more treble in the same place, 1 chain, 1 treble on the second stitch of the chain that turned. Continue thus: each scallop takes four rows, and you do seven chain every third row in the centre.

Trimmings

The Birkbeck Edging. Antique thread holder from the collection of

Loene McIntyre.Photograph by

Joe Coca.

J U LY / A UGU S T 2 0 1 5 P I E C EWOR K 7

A fresh approach to tattingNew Tatting is not your grandmothers tatting book, enjoy 20 projects that rede ne the traditional craft.

Tomoko Morimoto presents NewTatting that is fresh, colorful, andmodern. Enjoy tatting 20 projectsthat appeal to people who havenever tatted as well as tatterslooking for something new andinteresting. With step-by-stepphotos and eye candy designs,New Tatting is the book for thetwenty rst-century tatter.

Tomoko Morimoto 128 Pages, $24.99ISBN 13: 9781596687455

Order or download online atwww.bit.ly/new-tatting-book.


The Last WordTo learn more about the rich and ongoing tradition of various forms of needlework, we recommend these books.

Editor

An Introduction to Traditional Hand Embroideries of IndiaNew Delhi, India: Chitra Balasubramaniam, 2014. Electronic publication. $4.99. ISBN: 978-131-128463-1.

A Stitch in Time: The Needlework of Aging Women in Antebellum AmericaAthens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 2014. Softbound, 265 pages. $29.95. ISBN: 978-0-8214-2052-2

First Frost: Cozy Folk KnittingFort Collins, Colorado: Interweave, 2014. Softbound, 127 pages, $24.99. ISBN: 978-1-62033-336-5. Visit bit.ly/first-frost-paperback for more information.

Fashion Victims: Dress at the Court of Louis XVI and Marie-AntoinetteNew Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2015. Hardbound, 352 pages, $60. ISBN: 978-0-300-15438-2.

Empire of Cotton: A Global HistoryNew York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2014. Hardbound, 616 pages. $35. ISBN: 978-0-375-41414-5.

Knitting Traditions Spring 2015 is all about explorers and adventurerssome were attempting to reach the North or South Pole, others to circumnavigate the globe. Not all of them were men.

t Meet Josephine Peary, who fi rst traveled to the Arctic in 1891 with yarn and knitting needles

t-FBSOBCPVUUIFIBOELOJUUFE.BXTPO#BMBDMBWBworn on an Antarctic expedition

t5SBWFMUIF4BOUB'F5SBJMJOXJUIOFXMZXFE4VTBO4IFMCZ.BHPGO

t"OELOJU%FMWFJOUPTUBOEPVUQSPKFDUTsocks, sweaters, mittens, gloves, hats, a CBMBDMBWBBTDBSGBTIBXMBOE1PMBSJT1VQQZ

0SEFSPOMJOFBUCJUMZLOJUUJOHUSBEJUJPOTTQSJOH

KnittingTraditions

Discover

The Height of FemininityWispy Cotton DressesM A R Y P O L I T Y K A B U S H

Who among us, enchanted by the Regency-era romances penned by Jane Austen, has not imagined herself clothed in a gown

so ethereal it would melt Mr. Darcys

heart? Although the Regency era offi-

cially lasted from 1811 to 1820, while

Englands Prince Regent (later George

IV; 17621830) replaced his ailing father

George III (17381820) on the throne,

the mood of the era is generally agreed

to have spanned a longer period.It was during this time that wispy cotton

dresses and gowns were the pinnacle of fash-ion. These frocks were all things feminine: alluring yet demure, graceful, and elegant. As neoclassical realizations of the diapha-nous garments chiseled onto ancient Greek statues, the gowns were flattering to young, sylphlike figures yet forgave the ample pro-portions and figure flaws of those who were older. Little wonder these dresses were an instant hit and remained so for years.

Many were made of muslin because it drapes so beautifully. A plain-weave cotton fabric with identical warp and weft threads, muslin was first woven in the Middle East. The word muslin is derived from Mosul, the name of the Iraqi city often noted as muslins birthplace. From the seventeenth through the late eighteenth centuries, the

Promenade Dress fashion plate by Rudolph Ackermann (17641834). Hand-colored engraving on paper. London. June 1, 1814. Collection of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles, California; gift of Charles LeMaire. (M.83.161.191); www.lacma.org.Image courtesy of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art.


British East India Company imported muslin from India and modern-day Bangladesh. By the late eigh-teenth century, it was being woven in Scotland and England, which reduced the demand for imports.

The muslin woven at the turn of the eighteenth century was fine, soft, and almost transparent. Because it readily accepted dyes and paints, mus-lin could be dotted, checked, striped, sprigged (patterned allover, often with leaves), or left solid and often embroidered. The earliest muslin was sometimes woven with gold. Pastel pink, which flattered the complexion in the yellow light of can-dlelit rooms, was popular in the Regency era. (Blue,

Walking Dress fashion plate by Rudolph Ackermann (17641834). Hand-colored engraving on paper. London. June 1, 1814. Collection of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles, California; gift of Charles LeMaire. (M.83.161.177); www.lacma.org.Image courtesy of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art.

which resulted in an unhealthy green under can-dlelight, and lavender, which became gray, were unacceptable options.) White was preferred above colors. A white dress was the mark of an aristocrat because its upkeep required a great deal of work and servants to perform the drudgery. Lower-class women who dared to wear white were considered presumptuous social climbers.

The love affair with muslin garments did not begin with Jane Austens heroines or their real-life counter-parts. French royalty had established the precedent years earlier. Empress Josephine Bonaparte (17631814) was notable in part for the delectable neoclassic gowns of mousseline (muslin) and cotton gauze that were her signature. Many of them, from unadorned to exquisitely embroidered, can still be admired at the Chteau de Malmaison, Josephines country house a few miles outside Paris.

Credit for initiating the popularity of the muslin dress, however, belongs not to Josephine but to her predecessor, style maven Marie Antoinette (17551793). This French queen sparked a trend when she shed her feathers and frippery, the mile-high wigs upon which they perched, her priceless jewels, and cumbersome brocade court gowns with their heavily boned, tightly laced corsets, panniers (oval hoops), and other requisite underpinnings. Then la reine slipped into something more comfortableloosely gathered layers of featherweight cotton that flowed freely over her body, rippled softly around her neck, and were controlled only by a sash at the waist. She can be seen wearing just such a dress, also called a chemise la reine, in the scandalously casual portrait of her, Marie Antoinette in a Muslin Dress, painted by lisabeth Vige-Lebrun in 1783. Liberating garments such as this one were the mode du jour whenever Marie escaped the stifling formal-ity of court to romp at Le Hameau, the rustic retreat she had built on the grounds of Versailles. Her fashion innovation was not an absolute triumph, however. The chemise la reine was mocked in France as indecent.

To understand how the soft, sheer cotton gown crossed the English Channel to assume the top


spot in the fashion lexicon of the Regency era, attention turns to Georgiana Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire (17571806), a glamorous and cel-ebrated fashion icon, whose descendant Princess Diana (19611997) inherited Georgianas vogue-centric instincts. In 1783, the duchess received a gift from a close friend with whom she shared a penchant for the latest fashions. That friend was none other than Marie Antoinette. Her gift to G, as the duchess was known to intimates, was a muslin gown. As with everything G wore, the sumptuous, sensuous cotton dress became wildly popular and widely imitated throughout England.

The chemise la reine was voluminous com-pared to the almost nave simplicity of the English interpretation. In reality, it was little more than a sheer night dress. Simply cut and styled with a waistline placed high under the bosom, it was known as a short body style. A lissome column of fabric with a slender silhouette when viewed from the front, this style was fuller in the back for easier walking and dancing. A ladys best gowns were embellished with lace, ribbon, or embroi-dery. Day dresses and more formal gowns featured low, broad, scooped necklines with tiny shoulders and short, puffed sleeves. Long, separate under-sleeves could be slipped under the short sleeves and basted in place for warmth, or, if they were sheer, embroidered or otherwise made fancy, for drama. Occasionally, an oversleeve of sheer fabric was attached over the sleeve of an evening dress. Skirts were ankle-length or rose up to 4 inches (10.2 cm) above it. Many dresses and gowns had trains, which were looped over the forearm or tucked up in back (if dragged across muddy lawns, they caused much additional work for the servants). For obvious rea-sons, an apron might be worn over a day dress. When a gown teetered on the brink of fashion obliv-ion, trims were removed so it could be recut and restyled, often to fit a smaller person (the cost of all-new garments could be prohibitively expensive).

It is difficult to separate a discussion of Regency dresses from the undergarments essential to the overall look. As underlayers, they separated the dress from the body, preventing the skirt from gath-ering up between the wearers legs and hobbling her

dainty steps. A long, sleeveless or short-sleeved che-mise or shift was worn closest to the skin. Because bathing was infrequent, the chemise was made of fabric durable enough to withstand more frequent washings, all with harsh soaps. Stays were worn over the chemise. Corsetlike but less restricting, stays lifted and separated the breasts somewhat like a modern brassiere. Light boning, laces, and a busk (a long, narrow, flat piece of wood or whalebone) down the center front of the stays encouraged erect posture which, in turn, produced a gracefully rounded bosom. A sleeveless pinafore-style pet-ticoat with ruffles or tucks intended to be visible below a dresss hem came next. It may seem sur-prising in this day and age, but well-bred ladies of the Regency era did not wear panties or similar gar-ments because doing so was considered indecent.

Because a proper lady would not dream of expos-ing cleavage during the daytime, the drawstring on her chemises neckline could be pulled tighter to gather and raise it well above her stays, thereby pro-viding a modicum of coverage. A frequently chosen option was the chemisette (a dickey or half-blouse). It had a high collar and was open on both sides; ties secured it. Modesty also was preserved with a fichu or tucker, a triangular scarf whose ends were tucked into the bodice of a day gown.

Sadly, the fashion also had a dark side. Although the sheer, weightless fabric offered no real warmth, filmy muslin dresses were worn year-round, even in the bone-chilling cold of dank English winters. (Rarely, some womenmostly those of ill reputedampened their dresses so the fabric would cling to their bodies, revealing much that was exposed by the lack of undergarments.) Wearing muslin, dry or wet, without regard for seasonal suitability could lead to contracting flu, pneumonia, and other respiratory diseases, sometimes resulting in death. The phenomenon, branded muslin disease, was blamed for the 1803 influenza epidemic in Paris.

Because todays muslin is not nearly as fine as its predecessors, highly prizing a muslin dress may seem curious. Now coarser, heavier, more opaque and firmly woven, muslin plays a supporting, not a star-ring, role in couture. The term muslin often refers to the prototype for a garment made solely for the

A plain-weave cotton fabric with identical warp and weft threads,

muslin was first woven in the Middle East.


purpose of fine-tuning fit and other details before the final garment is cut from more expensive fabric.

The mystique of muslins history remains tan-talizing, however. Regency-era heroines certainly believed in the allure of muslin gowns. And their Mr. Darcys did fall like tenpins. Perhaps we are missing out on something.

F U R T H E R R E S O U R C E S

Chteau de Malmaison; www.chateau-malmaison.fr.Hill, Georgiana. A History of English Dress: From the Saxon

Period to the Present Day. New York: G. P. Putnams Sons, 1893.

Jane Austen Centre; www.janeausten.co.uk/the-world- of-jane-austen.

Jane Austens World; www.janeaustensworld.wordpress.com.

MARY POLITYKA BUSH of Piedmont, California, treasures the handkerchiefs, both white with hand-crocheted edgings and those printed with colorful flowers, which she inherited from her mother, a lady who was never without a fresh hankie in her purse. Out it came in the event of a sneeze or a drip of ice cream on her daughters chin. Mary herself always carries a hankie and believes her mother would approve. Mary's project that follows is a stunning handkerchief.

A companion project follows

Above: Womans dress probably made in India for the Western market. Cotton plain weave (muslin) with silk embroidery. Circa 1800. Collection of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles, California; purchased with funds provided by Suzanne A. Saperstein and Michael and Ellen Michelson, with additional funding from the Costume Council, the Edgerton Foundation, Gail and Gerald Oppenheimer, Maureen H. Shapiro, Grace Tsao, and Lenore and Richard Wayne. (M.2007.211.867); www.lacma.org.

Left: Detail of womans dress. Collection of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles, California; purchased with funds provided by Suzanne A. Saperstein and Michael and Ellen Michelson, with additional funding from the Costume Council, the Edgerton Foundation, Gail and Gerald Oppenheimer, Maureen H. Shapiro, Grace Tsao, and Lenore and Richard Wayne. (M.2007.211.867); www.lacma.org.Images courtesy of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art.


A Handkerchief to Embroider in Shadow Work

M A R Y P O L I T Y K A B U S H

Inspired by the preceding article

Mary Polityka Bushs ethereal Swiss batiste handkerchief features delicate shadow work.


A lady never knows when she will be required to dab tears of joy or discreetly tend to sniffles. Tucked into her reticule, this dainty batiste hand-kerchief can be withdrawn the instant she receives a marriage proposal or catches cold. Its scalloped border is produced by working closed herringbone stitch on the wrong side of the handkerchief. The ethereal effect is delineated by lines of backstitches formed on the right side when working the herring-bone stitches. This technique, known as shadow work, was popular in the eighteenth century in the white-on-white color scheme reproduced for this handkerchief. This will make a charming gift for a bride, a bridesmaid, or ones dearest friend, perhaps with her initial satin-stitched in one corner.

M A T E R I A L S

Presencia Finca Embroidery Floss, 6-strand 100% cotton thread, 8.7 yards (8.0 m)/skein, 1 skein of#0001 White; www.presenciaamerica.com Swiss batiste, 100% cotton fabric, 1 piece, 18 x 18

inches (45.7 x 45.7 cm), White; www.farmhousefabrics.com John James Needles, tapestry size 28 and sharps size

10; www.colonialneedle.com Embroidery hoop, 8 inches (20.3 cm) in diameter,

with inner ring wrapped in white bias binding or twill tape Sewing thread, White Washout marking pen with fine point

Finished size: 12 x 12 inches (30.5 x 30.5 cm)

I N S T R U C T I O N S

HandkerchiefWithdraw a single fabric thread in each of four

directions to outline a 13-inch (33.0-cm) square in the center of the fabric. Copy and cut out the Scalloped Border Pattern and, using the washout marking pen, trace it onto the square, inch (1.3 cm) in from the withdrawn thread on each side of the square. Alternatively, trace the pattern onto the fabric using a light box or by taping the pattern to a window. Regardless of method used, carefully align the straight edge of the pattern witha thread on the fabric as precisely as possible. Be sure the short end bars between the scallops

Closed Herringbone Stitch


6"

match up and connect with one another on each side to form a square.

Mount a left-hand corner of the square in the hoop, traced side up. This will be the wrong side of the completed embroidery.

Cut the floss into 1-yard (0.9-m) lengths and separate each length into single strands. Use the single strands to embroi-der the shadow work border in a closed herringbone stitch. Keep the fabric taut in the hoop with the grainlines straight at all times. When moving the hoop to unworked areas, take care not to crush or damage the completed areas of embroidery. Begin and end all threads along the outer edge of the design by sliding under existing stitches and gently pushing the thread tails as close to the edge of the border as possible. Do not cut off thread tails until all four sides have been embroidered. Keep the backstitches that appear on the reverse side of the closed herringbone stitches about 132 inch (.8 mm) long and keep the angle of the crisscrosses as consistent as possible; this will require slightly longer stitches on the curves of the scallops and the angles at each corner.

When the entire closed herringbone border has been com-pleted, remove the embroidery from the hoop, turn it over and remount it in the hoop so the closed herringbone stitches are on the wrong side. Use single strands of floss to embroi-der a trio of French or colonial knots at the point of each scallop. When all embroidery has been completed on the right and wrong sides of the fabric, adjust the closed herring-bone stitches, if necessary, and clip off the thread tails.

FinishingSoak the completed embroidery in three changes of cold

water to remove marker lines completely. Roll embroidery in a thick terry towel to remove excess moisture. Spread it out flat on a dry towel and gently pull it into a square shape. Allow it to air dry.

Trim away the excess fabric on all four sides by cutting along the withdrawn thread channels. Finish the handker-chief with a hand-stitched folded or rolled hem. Press the completed handkerchief face down on a terry towel.

Scalloped Border Pattern may be photocopied for personal use.


Framework Knitters, Luddites, and the Capital Crime of PovertyE L I Z A B E T H H U L S E

The Calverton Folk Museum on Main Street in Calverton, Nottingham, England. The museum is housed in an eighteenth-century stockingers cottage. In addition to objects and information on framework knitters, the museum has Victorian samplers and about fifty village scenes worked in needlepoint.Photograph by Malcolm Hankin and courtesy of the Calverton Folk Museum.


As the Liberty lads oer the seaBought their freedom, and cheaply, with blood,So we, boys, weWill die fi ghting, or live free,And down with all kings but King Ludd!

Lord Byron, Song for the Luddites (1816)

Technical drawing ofWilliam Lees knittingframe. Included in AHistory of the Machine-Wrought Hosiery andLace Manufacturers byWilliam Felkin, publishedin 1867 in London.Image courtesy ofWikimedia.

The framework-knitting industry began with the invention of an early form of knitting machine, the stocking frame, by William Lee (unknown1614 or 1615) about 1589. As historian Joan Thirsk and others have demonstrated, the knitted stocking industry was driven by a change in male fashion. Until the early 1500s, men had worn leg coverings, either

attached to breeches or as leggings under tunics, made of woven material cut on the bias and

sewn into shape. But in the early sixteenth century, fashionable upper-class men began to

favor knitted stockings, a style fi rst seen in Italy, Spain, and France, which fi tted more closely

and showed off the leg to greater advantage. The demand for silk and then wool stockings,

initially made by hand, led in turn to the development of the fi rst knitting machine.


Though much has been written about William Lee and traditions have grown up about how he came to invent the stocking frame, modern scholarship has been able to confirm little about himwhether he was a clergyman, where and when he was born (Calverton in Nottinghamshire is most likely), or where he earned his MA degree. His most recent biographer, Marilyn Palmer, in the authori-tative Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, writes: That so little is known about the inventor of a machine which gave employment to thousands has led to the creation of considerable legend. Tradition has it that he invented the machine after watching a woman knit, either his wife, who was trying to supplement the income he earned as a poor curate, or a lady who preferred her knitting to his courtship, and on whom he vowed revenge by depriving her of her occupation.

Also challenged by modern scholarship is the tra-dition that Lee tried and failed to win the approval of Queen Elizabeth I (15331603) for his invention. What is known is that, after an attempt to estab-lish himself in London, he signed a contract in 1612 with a citizen of Rouen, France, establishing a company to make silk and wool stockings. Lee, who had evidently brought several knitting frames with him to France, agreed to supply more and to train French workers to use them. But after he died, a number of his workmen returned to London, where they formed the Worshipful Company of Framework Knitters (still in existence) in an effort to regulate the industry by setting prices and mak-ing rules about apprentices. Meanwhile, Williams brother James formed a partnership about 1620 with a former apprentice named Ashton, and they began making improved knitting frames, proba-bly in Nottingham. By the middle of the eighteenth century, hosiery manufacture had largely shifted to the East Midlands, drawn there by cheaper rents and lower wages. According to one estimate, of the approximately 20,000 stocking frames in use in the British Isles at that time, more than 17,000 were located in the East Midland counties. (Other coun-tries that developed stocking industries, though on a smaller scale, included France and Germany, par-ticularly in Saxony.)

At first glance, the stocking frame resembles a floor loom, with a seat for the operator, several

floor treadles, and a complex mechanism above. A course, or row of stitches, involved some eight movements and required considerable physi-cal effort using the hands and arms and the legs and feet, as well as good eyesight. The machine underwent a number of improvements in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, at a time when there was also a significant growth in the number of framework knitters. The early stocking frames produced a flat piece of fabric in what we know as stocking (or stockinette) stitch, fully fash-ioned, or shaped, by the operator, which was then taken off the machine and seamed by hand. Later, Lees invention would be adapted to produce ribbed or patterned fabrics and eventually lace. Other goods, such as gloves, shawls, and underwear, were eventually produced on knitting frames.

Workshops employing half a dozen or more knitters have been identified as early as the mid-seventeenth century, but for most of its history, framework knitting was primarily a domestic industry. Stocking makers, nearly all men, would work at home on a single frame, perhaps assisted by their wives to seam the stockings and their children to wind yarn onto bobbins. Some knitters owned their own frames, but most could not afford to do so and were forced to rent them from master hosiers, middlemen, shop-keepers, or other investors, at rates that were often excessive relative to the price of the frames.

The framework knitters worked long hoursby the early nineteenth century as many as seventeen or eighteen hours a dayand might have to walk a great distance each week to collect yarn from the warehouse and deliver the completed hose, for which they were paid by the piece. Out of the mod-est wages they received, they had to pay for frame rent (even when they were unemployed), stand-ing room (space they occupied in workshops if they worked outside their own homes), yarn wind-ing, candles, and needles, oil, and minor parts for the knitting frame, as well as food, coal, and other necessities for their families. It has been esti-mated that a third to a half of their income went for charges connected with their work. No wonder they became a byword for poverty, the proverbial as poor as a stockinger.

Most framework knitters were entirely depen-dent for their pay on the master hosiers who

At first glance, the stocking frame resembles a floor loom, with a seat for the

operator, several floor treadles, and a complex mechanism above.


supplied the yarn and marketed the finished goods. Particularly resented was the truck system, by which payment was in goods, perhaps from a mid-dleman who was also a shopkeeper and stood to benefit by such a practice; deductions were made for frame rent, standing room, or winding the yarn. Attempts were made to regulate truck in the hosiery industry, but it would not be until the Hosiery Manufacture (Wages) Act of 1874 that the practice was made illegal, and the earnings of labour had to be paid in the current coin of the realm . . . with-out any deduction or stoppage . . . save and except for bad and disputed workmanship.

Framework knitters usually would have com-pleted a lengthy apprenticeship, perhaps with a relative. A surviving indenture from 1691 offers details of the apprenticeship of a Nottingham orphan named John Hilton to Rachell Smart, a London framework knitter (unusually, a woman). It spells out the regulations that were to govern Hiltons conductno fornication or matrimony, no playing of cards, no haunting of taverns or play-housesover the seven years he was in her employ. In return, young Hilton was to be instructed in her Art as well as lodged and fed. (The indenture is now held by the Nottinghamshire County Council; www.nottinghamshire.gov.uk.)

The earliest recorded use of cotton for machine-made stockings dates from 1730, when a framework knitter in Nottingham produced a pair using four strands of very fine cotton yarn imported from India. But the yarn was found to be too harsh and inflexible to work on the machine. In addi-tion, cotton yarn was still very expensive (more so than silk). Not until James Hargreaves (17211778) invented the hand-operated spinning jenny, a multispindle spinning machine, in the 1760s, and Richard Arkwright (17321792) the spinning frame at about the same time could a consistent, hard-twisted cotton yarn suitable for the stocking frame be produced at reasonable cost. (Originally horse-driven, the spinning frame was later converted to water power and then to steam.)

Cotton mills quickly sprang up in many places in Britain, especially in Lancashire, which supplied both the East Midlands knitting industry and textile manufacturers in Manchester. Eventually cheaper than silk and finer than wool, cotton became popu-lar for stockings and other machine-made garments. By the time author William Felkin (17951874) sur-veyed the framework industry in the 1840s, more than half the frames in employment in Britain were used for cotton, the vast majority in the Midlands. Britain was exporting many thousands of pairs of

One of the interior rooms at the Calverton Folk Museum in Calverton, Nottingham, England. A mannequin dressed as William Lee is to the right of the stocking frame.Photograph by Malcolm Hankin and courtesy of the Calverton Folk Museum.


cotton stockings a year, as well as smaller numbers of stockings made of silk or wool.

By the early decades of the nineteenth century, the industry had in fact become glutted with workers seeking employmentat the same time that the demand for stockings was beginning to decline. The industry was vulnerable to changes in fashion, particularly in menswear. Breeches and their accom-panying knee-length stockings were increasingly being replaced by trousers for everyday wear. Britain also had been caught up in a series of conflictsthe Seven Years War (17561763), the American Revolution (17751783), the Napoleonic Wars (18001815), and the War of 1812all of which disrupted overseas markets and drove up taxes and the price of food. Although the Napoleonic Wars initially increased demand for clothing for the army and navy, the long-term impact on the garment industry and on living conditions generally was severe. In 1778, framework knitters had unsuccessfully peti-tioned Parliament for legislation to regulate wages. They also had formed friendly societies to support one another in hard times. However, trade unions, which were already illegal, were further suppressed under the Combination Acts of 1799 and 1800, which introduced new penalties. In 1821, four framework knitters from Nottinghamshire were convicted of

offences against the Combination Act because they had entered into a combination to obtain an advance of wages; they were sentenced to three months in jail. The result of all these factors was much unrest in the industry. It came to a head in the notorious Luddite attacks of 1811 through 1816, during which more than 800 knitting frames were destroyed.

Although Ludditism is now commonly seen as resistance to new technology of all kinds, the first Luddites, who claimed to be followers of the mythi-cal General or King Ned Ludd, were themselves users of knitting frames or other textile machinery. They were demonstrating against the poor work-ing conditions they faced: lower wages, high frame rents, frequent unemployment, exploitation by mas-ter hosiers and bagmen (middlemen). In particular, they resented the introduction of wider frames. Traditionally, framework knitters made fully fash-ioned stockings one at a time on narrow frames, and they despised the spurious hose or cut-ups produced on the newer equipment. It is notable that only these wider frames were broken; the raid-ers would leave other frames in the workshops untouched.

The Luddites began their attacks in March 1811, after attempts had been made to negotiate higher

Sparrow Park and the former town hall in

Liversedge, West Yorkshire, England.

Luddites attacked the towns Rawfolds Mill in

1812. Sparrow Park was established in

2012 to mark the 200th anniversary of

the uprising.Image courtesy

of Wikimedia.


wages and an end to cut-ups. The men, a contem-porary broadside recorded, had commenced their depredations in Nottinghamshire by breaking and destroying a certain description of stocking-frames, which, being calculated to execute an extra quan-tity of work, they imagined were detrimental to that branch of manufacture. The attacks soon spread to Leicestershire and Derbyshire. In early 1812, the breaking of a stocking or lace frame was made pun-ishable by death; as a contemporary ballad put it, Tis death to break a frame.

The poet Lord Byron (17881824), whose ances-tral home was in Nottinghamshire, famously made his maiden speech in the House of Lords during debate on the legislation. Although he acknowl-edged that considerable injury had been done to the proprietors of the frames, he argued that the attacks had arisen from circumstances of the most unparalleled distress, and the workmen were guilty only of the capital crime of poverty. Soon after, a number of Luddites were brought to trial in Nottingham; though convicted, they were sen-tenced to transportation rather than execution. But others were not so fortunate. Ludditism continued intermittently in 1813 and 1814 and broke out again in 1815 and 1816. In the latter year, James Towle (17801816), a stocking knitter and Luddite leader, was hanged at Leicester for his part in an attack on a lace mill in Loughborough.

Only a small number of framework knitters were actually caught up in the destruction of machinery. And despite the riots and destruction, wages con-tinued to be depressed. In 1833, William Jackson (dates unknown), the secretary of the Framework Knitters Society, claimed that they had not risen in twenty years. In fact, they fell by as much as forty percent between 1814 and 1844, while frame rents and other prices rose. Conditions in the industry were so bad by the early 1840s that some 25,000 framework knitters signed a petition to the House of Commons asking for a commission of inquiry. The evidence collected for this inquiry provides some of the most revealing details about the daily life of those who toiled to make a living in this line of work.

William Felkin, who had been trained as a frame-work knitter and would make a lifelong study of the lace and hosiery industries, described what he had found in a paper that he read to the British Association in 1844 and in testimony before the commission of inquiry that year. His Account of the Machine-Wrought Hosiery Trade (1844) is full of statistics, but it is the details about individ-ual families that are particularly heart-wrenching. The family of William Cawthorn in a village in Nottinghamshire, several of whose teenage children were also employed in the work, earned a total of 18 shillings and 9 pence a week, from which 2 shillings and 10 pence went to coals and rent, leaving 2 shillings a head per week for food and clothing. It was 16 years since this man had a new coat. The family are in a ragged state generally. About one village Felkin comments, As to education, not one in twenty, of the children of the framework-knit-ters in Arnold, attend a day-school, entirely through their poverty. Some knitters told the commission they were ashamed to send their children to Sunday school to learn to read and write because the chil-dren were so badly clothed. They could not attend school during the week because their labor was needed to support the family.

The commission in its report acknowledged that the framework knitters were in a very distressed state, from the very low amount of their ordinary earnings. It also recognized the evil effects of the truck system, but the commission had little to recommend. However, the commission of inquiry concluded that the problem was one of supply and demand; too many sought employment in the trade while demand for the products traditionally pro-duced was in decline. More employment could come only from an emphasis on quality goods and an increased application of taste and skill in the designs and patterns of the articles manufactured.

The hosiery trade improved somewhat in the second half of the nineteenth century, when demand grew once again and trade-union organiza-tion became possible. Stockings and other knitted goods were increasingly being produced in work-shops. Dorothy M. Shrimpton, in The Parkers of

Stocking makers, nearly all men, would work at home on a single frame,

perhaps assisted by their wives to seam the stockings

and their children to wind yarn onto bobbins.


Rantergate, Framework Knitters (Nottingham,England: Ruddington Framework Knitters MuseumTrust, 1989), records the history of the build-ing complex that now makes up the FrameworkKnitters Museum in Ruddington, which was begunby Samuel Parker (17791845) in 1829. She providesan excellent description of working conditions inframeshops of this period, which might house asmany as fifty frames crowded closely together. Theowners of such places would employ knitters them-selves or lease the frames and collect standingrent from the operators.

The second half of the nineteenth century alsosaw the gradual transition of manufacturing into fac-tories, particularly after the invention of the circularknitting frame and the introduction of steam power.By 1871, there were 126 hosiery factories in Britainand 223 producing lace. Although the hosiery facto-ries were still vastly outnumbered by workshops, thenumber of workers they employed was much greater,and more than half the workers were women. By the beginning of the twentieth century, only a few inde-pendent framework knitters were still active. JohnParker, the last knitter in the village of Ruddington,who had been born in 1845, was working for a mill inArnold and on private work in the early 1900s. Butthe stocking frame, which had supported thousandsof families for more than three centuries, was largelya thing of the past.


Marilyn Palmers Framework Knitting (Risborough, Eng-land: Shire Publications, 2002) is the best short introduc-tion to the subject. Another short, well-illustrated over-view is Christopher Weirs As Poor as a Stockinger: Framework Knitting & the Luddites in Nottinghamshire (Nottingham, England: Nottinghamshire County Council, 1998). Milton and Anna Grasss Stockings for a Queen (New York: A.S. Barnes & Co., 1969) provides a colorful account of William Lees invention, not all of which has been supported by more recent research.

The classic nineteenth-century account of the industry, William Felkins A History of the Machine-Wrought Hosiery and Lace Manufactures (1867), has been reprinted with an introduction by historian Stanley D. Chapman (Newton Abbot, England: David and Charles, 1967). Professor Chapman also has written a comprehen-sive modern history, Hosiery and Knitwear: Four Cen-turies of Small-Scale Industry in Britain, c.15892000 (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2002). Brian Baileys The Luddite Rebellion (Stroud, England: Sutton Publishing, 1998) highlights the role of the East Midlands framework knitters in the disturbances of 18111816.

Much useful information can be found online. The website Knitting Together (www.knittingtogether.org.uk) provides an excellent overview of the history of the Midlands knit-ting industry through a series of short profiles and links to other sources. Accounts may also be found on county his-tory websites: for example, Denise Amoss Framework Knitters and John Becketts Luddites at www.nottsher itagegateway.org.uk/people.htm and Malcolm Hornsbys Knitting and the Luddites at www.loughborough.co.uk/history/luddite.htm. One can view a film of Martin Green working on one of his hand-operated knitting frames at www.lihs.org.uk/framework_knitting_film.html.

Many printed documents from the nineteenth century have been digitized, particularly in connection with the Luddite bicentenary of 18111817 (see especially www.ludditebi centenary.blogspot.ca).

Several museums in the East Midlands are devoted to framework knitting or have significant collections, in par-ticular, the Framework Knitters Museum in Ruddington, Nottinghamshire (www.frameworkknittersmuseum.org.uk), which preserves a nineteenth-century frameshop, and the Wigston Framework Knitters Museum in Leicestershire (www.wigstonframeworkknitters.org). The Calverton Folk Museum in Nottinghamshire (www .calvertonvillage.com/calmuseum.html) is housed in an eighteenth-century stockingers cottage. Outside Britain, the hosiery museum in the Htel de Vauluisant, in Troyes, France, holds a collection of knitting frames dating from the mid-eighteenth century onwards (www .tourisme-troyes.com/discover/for-museums-lovers/vauluisant-museum).

ELIZABETH HULSE is a lifelong hand- and machine-knitter with a keen interest in the textile and decorative arts. A former librarian and a freelance editor and researcher, she has pub-lished on a wide range of historical subjects. She lives in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

Andrew Snow, Framework Knitter

Michael T. Billings has uncovered the story of one of his wifes ancestors, Andrew Snow, a framework knitter from the village of Kilby in Leicestershire, who in 1807 joined the 1st Regiment of Foot. Whether he was escaping poverty or seeking adventure, whether he left home voluntarily or was picked up by one of the press gangs that were employed to force young men into service during the Napoleonic Wars, is unknown. Snow served at "Corunna in Spain during Napoleons Peninsular campaign, in the West Indies, and at Chippawa, near Niagara Falls, dur-ing the War of 1812. Despite losing his right eye at Chippawa, he returned to Leicestershire in 1815 and took up the trade he had left. Ironically, Snow would later be forced to face some of his fellow workers when, as a pensioned soldier, he was called out to assist the police in quelling rioting by framework knitters at Loughborough in December 1830. Billings chronicled Snows life in his book, The Story of Andrew Snow: Framework Knitter, Chelsea Pensioner, Survivor of Corunna & Chippawa (Leicester, England: M. T. Billings, 1996).

E. H.


J U L Y / A U G U S T 2 0 1 5 P I E C E WO R K 25

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Counterpane Baby Blanket to KnitC A R O L H U E B S C H E R R H O A D E S

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knit this delightful baby blanket. bit.ly/pw-baby-blanket-kit


The nineteenth-century Weldons Practical Knitter series provides endless inspiration for me. When I was looking for a cotton project, the Knitted Design for Counterpane in the First Series and republished in Volume 1 of Weldons Practical Needlework caught my eye immediately. The lace pattern has a woven look to it and just the right amount of variation from row to row to keep it interesting but also easy to knit. The original pat-tern does not specify any yarn or needle size, although most counterpanes are knitted with fine cotton yarn. As with many vintage patterns, this one had some obvious errors, and it was unclear how to finish the repeat at the end of each row. When I charted the design, the errors stood out and were easy to fix.

If you want to make a larger- or smaller-size blanket, note that each 12-stitch/24-row repeat of the motif uses about 6 grams (0.2 oz) of yarn. The pattern introduction in Weldons Practical Knitter suggests making individual squares or stripes in various contrasting colors and using the motif for projects other than a counterpane. I immediately thought of a baby blanket for a soon-to-be-born granddaughter of some longtime friends.

M A T E R I A L S

Blue Sky Alpacas Skinny Cotton, 100% organic cot-ton yarn, DK weight, 150 yards (137.2 m)/65 gram (2.3 oz) hank, 6 hanks of #312 Pear (MC); www.blueskyalpacas.com ChiaoGoo Needle, circular 24 inches (60 cm) size 7

(4.5 mm) or size needed to obtain gauge; www.chiaogoo.com Stitch markers (optional) Tapestry needle

Finished size: 31 inches (80.0 cm) wide and 36 inches (92.1 cm) long, after blockingGauge: 18 sts and 28 rows = 4 inches (10.2 cm) in charted patt, after blocking


Notes: See page 60 for Abbreviations andTechniques. A circular needle is used to accom-modate the large number of stitches. If desired,place markers before and after the 5-stitch garterstitch edgings and between repeats while workingthe chart. When adding a new ball of yarn, leave a6-inch (15.2-cm) tail of new and old ends. Positionthe yarn change between 2 purl stitches; drop theold end and add the new end on the next stitch.When finishing, on the wrong side, double knot theends and weave each in for about 2 inches (5 cm).Trim ends to about inch (1 cm) so that the endswont poke through to right side.

BlanketUsing the long-tail method, CO 142 sts. Do not

join.Next Row: Sl 1 kwise wyb, k to last st, p1.

Rep last row 8 more times, ending with a WSrow. Work Rows 124 of Blanket Chart 10 times.Next Row: Sl 1 kwise wyb, k to last st, p1.

Rep last row 7 more times. BO all sts.

The illustration for Knitted Design for Counterpane from WeldonsOpposite Page: Baby will love this so-soft, so-sweet blanket.


FinishingWeave in loose ends. Block, following wash-

ing instructions on yarn tag or steam press lightly under damp pressing cloth.


Weldons Practical Needlework, Volume 1, includes Weldons Practical Knitter: How to Make 39 Useful Articles for Ladies, Gentlemen, and Children, First Series. 1886. Facsimile edition. Loveland, Colorado: Interweave, 1999. (Piece-Works facsimile editions of Volumes 16 of Weldons Practical Needlework are included in a deluxe boxed set. Visit bit.ly/weldons-practical-needlework-deluxe- edition for complete details.)

CAROL RHOADES of Madison, Wisconsin, has been inter-ested in all things Victorian since she was young. In high school, she spent her pocket money in a small indepen-dent bookstore, buying lovely red faux-leather bound, encased editions of nineteenth-century novels, particu-larly those of Charles Dickens. In college, she found a Dover reproduction of Weldons crochet patterns and honed her crochet and pattern reading skills by trying out various motifs and projects. In graduate school, she spe-cialized in nineteenth-century womens literature. She thanks The Loopy Ewe for expediting the yarn order for this project.

k on RS; p on WS

p on RS; k on WS

yo

k2tog

sl 1 kwise wyb on RS

sl 1 kwise wyb on WS

patt rep

Key

12-st rep

23

21

19

17

15

13

11

9

7

5

3

1

Blanket

Chart may be photocopied for personal use.The chart for this project is available in PDF format at

needleworktraditions.com/charts-and-illustrations.


Satisfy your historical curiositiesof knitting, crochet and needlework

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Th is boxed set makes a perfect gift for anyone interested in historical needlework and is the perfect addition to your library!

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Once a popular Victorian magazine of knit, crochet, patchwork, and other useful articles involving needle-work, Weldons began as a paper pattern company and became one of the most recognized needlework publishers in England. Now available as an extravagant boxed set, Weldons Practical Needlework: Deluxe Edition contains the rst six volumes of the series. Each hardcover volume is comprised of 12 monthly issues. There are roughly 16 categories and over 2,000 projects included in this collection. In addition to knit and crochet, each volume contains a variety of decorative needlework: crewel, appliqu, cross-stitch, macram, smocking, bead netting, and other lesser-known techniques. This box set serves as a historical document and a collectors item. Open a window to another time and place with Weldons Practical Needlework: Deluxe Edition as you explore fashion, domestic life, and the history of needlework.

Hardcover boxed set with cloth case912 Pages, $129.99 ISBN 13: 9781620337417

Letters from the Asylum Do You Still Have My Table Cover?K A T H E R I N E D U R A C K

Like other bits of needle-work from my mothers family, the ivory-colored filet-crochet tablecloth was a

fixture in my childhood home.

I never gave much thought to

where it came from, and, had

I looked at it carefully, I might

have wondered why my mother

thought it was worth keeping.

The old cloth was marred by sev-

eral holes, stained from use, and

had dye-lot variations that would

have been noticeable even when it

was new. Only after my great-aunt

Edith died did I discover that the

cloth represented a deep connec-

tion between two old friends.

My funny and fiercely independent great-aunt Edith was 100 years old by the time she finally agreed to let Mom and me pack most of her belongings for storage and bundle her off to Colorado to spend her final years with my mother and father. It was hard for her to relin-quish her independence. Aunt Edith had lived in her own home since she had it built in the 1920s with her share of the Oklahoma oil money from wells on the family farm. Shed lived there as landlord and tenant, sometimes inhab-iting the tiny back room while renting out the front part of the house. During

Annie Mathews filet-crochet tablecloth and one of her letters to the authors great-aunt Edith.Photograph by Donald Scott.


Eight poignant letters sent between 1950 and 1957 identifi ed the maker

of the tablecloth as Annie Mathew, a childless spinster who had found

shelter in my aunts home from time to time.

World War II (19391945), while my grandmother (Ediths sister) worked and my grandfather was a prisoner of the Japanese, Edith took care of my mom and my moms sister. For decades, Edith had offered the safety and security of her tiny bungalow to generations of family members and friends when-ever they were in need.

After Aunt Edith died, my mother, her sister, and I cleaned the house and worked our way through the boxes that had been hurriedly packed three years earlier. An enormous amount of material would be given or thrown away, but we also found treasure: boxes of cards and letters saved over the 103 years of Aunt Ediths life. Eight poignant letters sent between 1950 and 1957 identifi ed the maker of the tablecloth as Annie Mathew, a childless spinster

Edith in front of her bungalow. The American flag hanging is the casket flag for the authors great-great-grandfather, John Stevens Templeton, a Civil War veteran.Photograph courtesy of the author.

Edith as a young woman.Photograph courtesy of the author.

who had found shelter in my aunts home from time to time. (To respect the familys privacy, Annies name and the names of her family members have been changed.)

Annie wrote to Aunt Edith from the state mental hospital, where her niece Caroline had abandoned her one day after a drive through the countryside:

September 30, 1950Dear Edith,This is humiliation to have to write you from this institute. I was brought here by Caroline and a man, whose name I do not know, and left penniless. They took my rings and beads and all the other possessions I had. I have written to her repeatedly for money and clothes but she does not respond to my letters.I need some money and in the box you have of mine, there is a crocheted table cover. I have tried to sell it for $25, but you see I have not been successful. There is about $9.50 worth of thread in it, and if you will give me the price of the thread I will let you


have it. I would give it to you for past favors but you see I am sorely in need of money. I have not enough to buy stamps, hairpins or even a hairnet.I asked my mother if she knew anything about

this woman who wrote in such desperation to Aunt Edith. Mom remembered visiting Annie Mathew at the asylum, called in jest the east campus of the nearby university because the buildings once housed the first womens college in the state, before they were turned over for use by a private sanitar-ium company in the late nineteenth century.

Though deceived and uprooted, Annies spirits were good: I am swell, she reported, and that is pretty good. I will be 78 years old this winter. She asked about Ediths family, then closed, repeating her pleaSure hope you can buy my table cover.

Annie wrote again in late January to thank Edith for a Christmas card and the money and hairnets she had sent. She told a little bit about her life in the womens ward at the hospital, which Annie

characterized as the last stop out of the institution for those who were fi t to leave and had homes to return to. Another letter provided additional details: the ward housed 73 or 74 women who got along pretty well, all of whom ate in a dining room that fed some 1,200 individuals three times a day. The ward was clean, there was enough to eat, and the nurses were kind. There was a dance on Fridays, a movie Saturday evening, and church on Sunday morning. This is a very pretty place, she wrote, and wonderful for such as it is intended.

A two-year gap separated that letter and the next (and those that followed), and the overall tone had changed. The letters spoke of an empty sameness of days during the dull, unending weeks, months, and years Annie spent at the hospital. The place is just as you saw it, she wrote, several months after one of my aunts visits. No change, only occasionally some woman goes home and another one comes. She added, Things go on here in kind of a mono-tone way.

Edith (far right), my grandmother (center bottom), and their two sisters, Lola (left) and Ethel (center top).Photograph courtesy of the author.


The few possessions Annie had left in a box at Aunt Ediths house seemed to anchor her to the world outside the hospital: Do you still have my 2 house dresses, 1 street dress, and the crocheted table cover? she wrote. She asked again a year later, Have you got my dresses yet, and also my table cover? And twice in 1954, Have you got my dresses and my table cover? She urged Aunt Edith to hold on to her clothes and the table coveras if knowing they were kept safely at a place that she once called home helped her to believe that she would one day be able to collect them herself. Dont let anybody have them as I will want them when I come to the city. I will not be here forever. God will deliver me some day.

Did Aunt Edith think of Annie Mathew and the long country drive to the asylum when she stepped into Moms car, and they slowly pulled away from her bungalow with the shade tree in the front and the garden in the back? Edith must have known that, like Annie, she would never see her home again. Did she look to the future with fear, or glanceback with regret?

The last letter Aunt Edith received from Annie Mathew was addressed in someone elses hand. Annie had little to say, and for once, she did not ask about the dresses or the tablecloth. She enlisted Aunt Ediths help in contacting her niece Caroline, whose address she had lost. She wasnt well, she reported, and she asked for news about Aunt Ediths family. I suppose you are having some cloudy weather. We are here. Please write soon.Much love, Annie.

KATHERINE DURACK is a Cincinnati crochet designer andauthor of award-winning articles on technical documentationand household technology. After fifteen years on the facultyat Miami University, Katherine founded Patterns for Success topursue teaching, writing, and crochet design. In addition toresearching early crochet instructions, Katherine designs origi-nal patterns inspired by real people and events. You can followher exploration of the intriguing parallels between the nine-teenth-century womens suffrage movement and theevolution of modern crochet on her Moral Fiber blog athttps://patterns4success.wordpress.com/about or on Ravelry(patterns4success).

A companion project follows Edith as an adult.Photograph courtesy of the author.

Detail of Annie Mathews filet-crochet tablecloth.Photograph by Donald Scott.


Square and Border Pattern for Annies Tablecloth to Filet Crochet

K A T H E R I N E D U R A C K

Inspired by the preceding article


In re-creating the pattern for Annies table cover, I used slightly larger crochet cotton than the very fine thread Annie used. Stitch together three squares (as shown) for a table runner, add two more to create a lacy summer wrap, or follow the pat-tern using fine cotton thread and re-create Annies table cover to fit your own dining table. Just be sure to make an odd number of squares so the border design works (any odd number of squares in a grid will work: 1x3, 3x5, 5x7, and so forth).

M A T E R I A L S

Handy Hands Lisbeth, 100% cotton thread, size 10, 122 yards (111.6 m)/25 gram (0.9 oz) ball, 279 yards (255.1 m) for each square and 280 yards (256.0 m) for the border, #610 Cream; www.hhtatting.com Crochet hook, steel, size 8 (1.50 mm) Locking stitch markers Tapestry needle

Finished size: Table runner, 1678 inches (42.9 cm) x 4078 inches (103.8 cm); each square, 1358 inches (34.6 cm) x 1358 inches (34.6 cm); the border adds 158 inches (4.1 cm) on a sideGauge: 12 blocks = 4 inches (10.2 cm)


Notes: See page 60 for Abbreviations and Techniques. The pattern for the filet crochet square is worked from the center out and starts very muchlike an old-fashioned granny square. I provide

Opposite Page: Katherine Duracks lovely Filet Crochet Square and Border Pattern for Annies Tablecloth. Its shown here as a table runner. By creating more squares, you can create a lacy wrap or a table cover.

x

19

1

3

5

7

9

11

13

15

17

Notes: Square is worked in rounds from center (X). Relative to center, vertical bars = tr, horizontalbars = ch 3, and 3 tr fill blocks. Rounds begin and end at corner marked with red line.Chart may be photocopied for personal use.The chart for this project is available in PDF format at needleworktraditions.com/charts-and-illustrations.

Interpreting the Chart

The main challenge of filet crochet is accurately replicating the design chart. The instructions for the first three rounds replicate the patternof open and filled blocks in the center of the chart. Notice that:

the vertical lines of the grid relative to the center are tr (4 ch = 1 tr at the beg of a rnd)

horizontal lines are 3 ch sts (creating an open block) filled blocks are created with 3 trDepending on where you are in the design, open and filled blocks

will seem to vary slightly from this general scheme. For example, when filled blocks alternate with open blocks, it looks like the filled block is made up of 5 tr. In this instance, think of the 5 tr as being 2 vertical grid lines (the tr on the right and left sides of each filled block), with 3 tr in between to fill the block. Refer to the Guide to Stitching Open and Filled Blocks for detailed information.


traditional instructions for the first few rounds and a guide for interpreting the chart to complete suc-cessive rounds. Check the accuracy of your work frequently; to track your progress, make photo-copies of the chart for each square and mark off completed rounds in alternating highlighter colors.

SquareCh 12, sl st to form ring.

Rnd 1: Ch 4, 4 tr in ring, (ch 7, 5 tr in ring) 3 times, ch 3, tr in 4th ch of ch-4 at beg of rnd.See Figures 1 and 2.

Rnd 2: Ch 4, 3 tr in corner lp, (tr in each of next 5 sts, 4 tr in corner lp, ch 7, 4 tr in corner lp) 3 times, tr in each of next 5 sts, 4 tr in corner lp, ch 3, tr in 4th ch of ch-4 at beg of rnd.See Figure 3.

Guide to Stitching Openand Filled Blocks

Note: Arrows indicate the first stitch in the sequence.

Beginning and Ending RoundsStart withfilled blocksat corner lp

Ch 4, 3 tr in corner lpworking sts over trthat completes cornerin prev rnd, tr in top ofch 4 at beg of prev rnd

Start withopen blocksat corner lp

Ch 7, tr in top of ch 4at beg of prev rnd

End withfilled blocksin corner lp

Tr in tr, 4 tr in cornerlp, ch 3, tr in top of ch4 at beg of prev rnd

End with open blocks at corner lp

Tr in tr, ch 3, tr in tr that completes corner lp in prev rnd, ch 3, tr in 4th ch of ch 7 at beg of rnd

Working SidesNote: Stitch patterns begin and end with a treble crochet that replicates the grid line on the chart.

Consecutivefilled blocksalong a side

Tr in tr, 3 tr in ch-3 sp, tr in next tr (filled block over open block made), tr in next 4 tr (filled block over filled block made)

Consecutiveopen blocksalong a side

Tr in tr, ch 3, sk 3 tr, tr in next tr (open block over filled block made) ch 3, sk 3 ch, tr in next tr (open block over open block made)

Filled blocksalternatingwith openblocks

Tr in tr, 3 tr in ch-3 sp, tr in next tr (filled block over open block made), ch 3, sk 3 tr, tr in next tr (open block over filled block made)

Turning CornersFilled blocksin corner lp

Tr in tr, 4 tr in corner lp, ch 7, 4 tr in corner lp, tr in tr

Open blocks at corner lp

Tr in tr, ch 3, tr in 4th ch of ch 7 in prev rnd, ch 7, tr in same st, ch 3, sk 3 ch, tr in next tr


Rnd 3: Ch 7, tr in 4th ch of ch-4 at beg of prev rnd, [(ch 3, sk 3 sts, tr in next tr) 3 times, ch 3, tr in 4th ch of ch 7 in prev rnd, ch 7, tr in same st, ch 3, sk 3 sts, tr in next tr] 3 times, (ch 3, sk 3 sts, tr in next tr) 4 times, ch 3, tr in 4th ch of ch 7 at beg of rnd. See Figure 4.

Rnds 420: Refer to chart and the Guide to Stitching Open and Filled Blocks for completing the rem rnds. Break off.With RS tog, stitch the completed squares together, pick-

ing up back lps only and beg and ending seams with a stitch through the center ch of the open blocks at the corners.BorderRnd 1: Sl st to join thread to 4th ch of ch 7 in a corner. Ch 7, tr

in next tr; work open blocks to end of rnd, working tr at seams.

Rnds 23: Work 2 rnds of open blocks.Rnd 4: Beg with filled block, then alternate open and filled

blocks around edge.Rnd 5: Ch 4, 2 tr in corner loop, ch 5, sl st in top of last tr

made to make picot, 2 tr in corner lp, tr in next tr, [ch 2, sk 3 st, tr in next tr, 2 tr in ch-3 sp, ch 5, sl st in top of last tr made to make picot, 2 tr in ch-3 sp, tr in tr], rep between [ ] to next corner, ending after last picot block along the side with ch 2. At corner, sk 3 st, tr in next tr, 2 tr in corner loop, ch 5, sl st in top of last tr made to make picot, 3 tr in


corner lp, ch 3, 3 tr in corner lp, ch 5, sl st in top of last tr made to make picot, 2 tr in corner lp, tr in next tr. Cont in established patt to end of rnd. Finish with ch 3, sl st in top of ch 4 at beg of rnd. See Figure 5. Break off.

FinishingWeave in ends. Block.

Figure 4 Round 3 ready to complete the last corner with final tr in 4th ch of ch-7 at beg of rnd.

Figure 2Figure 1Completing the last corner.

Figure 5Border pattern with picot blocks in the last round.

Figure 3 Rounds 1 and 2 completed.

MORE FILET CROCHET

Forty-two designs are included in a PieceWork eBook, Filet

Crochet with Instructions Series No. 2. These delightful designs

were originally published in 1915. Visit bit.ly/fi let-crochet-

series-no-2.


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The Best of Jane Austen Knits27 Regency-Inspired Designs

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Enter the world of Jane Austen through timeless knittingpatterns

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Order online at www.InterweaveStore.com

Open Bay-Leaf PatternA Cotton Square for a Quilt to Knit

This pattern originally appeared in Weldons Practical Needlework, Volume 6, which was published in London in 1891. We asked Judy Alexander to re-create the square, using the instructions exactly as they appeared in that volume of Weldons. Judy used 3 skeins of #3718 Natural Cascade Ultra Pima Fine, 100% cotton yarn, 136 yards/50 gram (1.8 oz) skein, fingering weight; www.cascadeyarns.com.

Editor

The square represented in our engraving is composed of four sep-arate pieces joined together. A design of small raised bay-leaves adorns the centre of the pattern, which further consists of ridged and open knitting, and an outer border of similar leaves. When a number of squares are joined together, the effect is very pretty, and the work is not at all difficult to execute. Procure Strutts knitting cot-ton, No. 8, and a pair of steel knitting needles, No. 16. Commence with a long end, which will afterwards be used for sewing up. Cast on 2 stitches. 1st rowKnit 2 stitches. 2nd rowMake 1, knit 2. 3rd rowMake 1, knit 3. 4th rowMake 1, knit 4. 5th rowMake 1, purl 2, make 1, pearl 3. 6th rowMake 1, knit 3, purl 1, knit 3. In places where the last stitch in the row (the made stitch of the

Above: A knitted quilt using the striking Open Bay-Leaf pattern shown here will certainly become a family heirloom.Right: The illustration of the Open Bay-Leaf Pattern for Quilt Square from Volume 6 of Weldons Practical Needlework.


previous row) appears twisted, untwist it before knitting it. 7th rowMake 1, purl 3, make 1, knit 1, make 1, purl 4. 8th rowMake 1, knit 4, purl 3, knit 4. 9th rowMake 1, pearl 4, make 1, knit 3, make 1, purl 5. 10th rowMake 1, knit 5, purl 5, knit 5. 11th rowMake 1, purl 5, make 1, knit 5, make 1, purl 6. 12th rowMake 1, knit 6, purl 7, knit 6. 13th rowMake 1, purl 6, make 1, knit 7, make 1, purl 7. 14th rowMake 1, knit 7, purl 9, knit 7. 15th rowMake 1, purl 7, knit 3, slip 1, knit 2 together, pass the slipped stitch over, knit 3, purl 8. 16th rowMake 1, knit 8, purl 7, knit 8. 17th rowMake 1, purl 8, knit 2, slip 1, knit 2 together, pass the slipped stitch over, knit 2, purl 9. 18th rowMake 1, knit 9, purl 5, knit 9. 19th rowMake 1, purl 9, knit 1, slip 1, knit 2 together, pass the slipped stitch over, knit 1, purl 10. 20th rowMake 1, knit 10, purl 3, knit 10. 21st rowMake 1, purl 10, slip 1, knit 2 together, pass the slipped stitch over, purl 11. 22nd rowMake 1, knit 11, purl 1, knit 11. 23rd rowBegins the ridges. Make 1, knit 24. 24th rowMake 1, purl 25. 25th rowMake 1, knit 1, make 1 and knit 2 together twelve times, knit 1. 26th rowMake 1, purl 27. 27th rowMake 1, knit 28. 28th rowMake 1, knit 29. 29th rowMake 1, purl 30. 30th rowMake 1, knit 31. 31st rowMake 1, purl 32. 32nd rowMake 1, purl 33. 33rd rowMake 1, knit 34. 34th rowMake 1, purl 35. 35th rowMake 1, knit 1, make 1 and knit 2 together seventeen times, knit 1. 36th rowMake 1, purl 37. 37th rowMake 1, knit 1, make 1 and knit 2 together eighteen times, knit 1. 38th rowMake 1, purl 39. 39th rowMake 1, knit 1, make 1 and knit 2 together nineteen times, knit 1. 40th rowMake 1, purl 41. 41st rowMake 1, knit 42. 42nd rowMake 1, purl 43. 43rd rowMake 1, purl 44. 44th rowMake 1, knit 45. 45th rowMake 1, purl 46. 46th rowMake 1, knit 47. 47th rowMake 1, knit 48. 48th rowMake 1, purl 49. 49th rowMake 1, knit 50. 50th rowMake 1, purl 51. 51st rowBegins the outer border of leaves.Make 1, purl 4, * make 1, knit 1, make 1, purl 6, repeat from * fi ve times, make 1, knit 1, make 1, purl 5. 52nd rowMake 1, knit 5, * purl 3, knit 6, repeat from * fi ve times, purl 3, knit 5. 53rd rowMake 1, purl 5, *make 1, knit 3, make 1, purl 6, repeat from * fi ve times, make 1, knit 3, make 1, purl 6. 54th rowMake 1, knit 6, *purl 5, knit 6, and repeat from * to end. 55th rowMake 1, purl 6, *make 1, knit 5, make 1, purl 6, repeat from * to the end, and purl the last stitch. 56th rowMake 1, knit 7, * purl 7,

knit 6, and repeat from * six times, and knit the last stitch. 57th rowMake 1, purl 7, *make 1, knit 7, make 1, purl 6, repeat from * six times, and purl the last two stitches. 58th rowMake 1, knit 8, * purl 9, knit 6, repeat from * six times, and knit the last two stitches. 59th rowMake 1, purl 8, * knit 3, slip 1, knit 2 together, pass the slipped stitch over, knit 3, purl 6, repeat from * six times, and purl the last three stitches. 60th rowMake 1, knit 9, * purl 7, knit 6, repeat from * six times, and knit the last three stitches. 61st rowMake 1, purl 9, * knit 2, slip 1, knit 2 together, pass the slipped stitch over, knit 2, purl 6, repeat from * six times, and purl the last four stitches. 62nd rowMake 1, knit 10, * purl 5, knit 6, repeat from * six times, and knit the last four stitches. 63rd rowMake 1, purl 10, * knit 1, slip 1, knit 2 together, pass the slipped stitch over, knit 1, purl 6, repeat from * six times, and purl the last fi ve stitches. 64th rowMake 1, knit 11, * purl 3, knit 6, repeat from *6 times, and knit the last fi ve stitches. 65th rowMake 1, purl 11, *slip 1, knit 2 together, pass the slipped stitch over, purl 6, repeat from * six times, and purl the last six stitches. 66th rowMake 1, knit 12, * purl 1, knit 6, repeat from * six times, and knit the last six stitches. 67th rowMake 1, knit 2, make 1 and knit 2 together thirty-two times, knit 2. 68th rowKnit plain 69 stitches. Cast off loosely. Knit three more sections the same as the above, and sew them together with the commencing points in the centre, and joining by the made stitches, to give an appearance of a row of holes from corner to cor-ner. Proceed with similar squares, until suffi cient are made for the size of the quilt.

DELUXE EDITIONPieceWorks facsimile editions ofVolumes 16 of VictWeldons Practical Nincluded in this beauset. In addition to ththe knitted Bay-Leaffi nd more than 2,00for knitting, crochet,various forms of needlework, macram, smockingnetting, beadwork, and much more! Visit bit.ly/weldonspractical-needlework-deluxe-edition for complete details.


Twenty-five years ago, I wore white gloves the first time I touched needlework from Turkey. An exhibitionThe Traditional

Turkish Housewas opening soon at

the San Francisco Museum of Craft and

Folk Art, and my job that morning was

to arrange dozens of lacy, multicolored

strands of miniature flowers made from

fine thread. The enclosed list labeled the

strands as oya. I was so enchanted by

the delicate yellow daisies and intricate

purple zinnias that I lingered over the

task, examining each strip, puzzling over

the complex techniques that Turkish

women had used to create tiny, three-

dimensional marvels. There also were

complicated fan and rondel shapes and

strips of finely worked motifs with beads.

Some flowery strands had been stitched

onto traditional cotton or silk scarves

that the museum labels called yazma.The yazma proved as exciting as the edg-

ings. Many of the delicate scarves sent to the museum for the exhibition were 75 to 100 years old. I could tell that wood-block artists had stamped the floral motifs by hand, because often the register was a bit off or the same tiny glitch was repeated in each motif around the square of light, gauzy cotton. I finished up

Above: Hava Turgan, an expert at making tatted oya, Cappadocia, Turkey. 2013.Photograph by the author.

Top of Page: A string of oya. For those who havent the time or skill to make their own oya,strings of forty flowers are sold at various markets. Rolled around tubes of paper, they wait to bestitched onto the four edges of a square scarf, ten to a side.Photograph by Donald Scott.

Yazma and Oya from TurkeyTraditional Handprinted Scarves with Needlework EdgingsC Y N T H I A L E C O U N T S A M A K


with the scarves, then arranged another display of embroidered bath (hamam) towels and wooden hamam clogs. I went home for the day, with curios-ity about the beautiful scarves and their intricate edgings whirling in my head.

Many years later, I traveled to Turkey and fell in love with the country: the people, the food, the architecture, the rugs, and the hand-trimmed scarves I had admired so long ago. In Istanbul and Bursa, I found vintage yazma in little hidden shops. I found strips of new flower blossom oya to buy in a shop below the Grand Bazaar in Istanbul.

As I traveled to rural regions over the next few years, I saw women wearing the cotton scarves with handmade oya edging in the streets, mar-kets, mosques, and restaurants. (In Istanbul and other large cities, fashion-conscious women wear silky polyester scarves, commercially printed with splashy modern motifs and usually without trim.) I eventually met generous Turkish women who showed me how to make the time-intensive little edgings. Several women let me examine the scarves in their own dowry collections or the ones they were readying for a daughter or daughter-in-law. To protect, cover, and decorate the wearers head and neck, large scarves called trban measure 30 to 36 inches (76.2 to 91.4 cm) per side. Thus, strips of finely stitched needlework trim need to be at least 10 feet (3.0 m) long! (Older scarves called tlbent tend to be smaller.)

Turkish women have a centuries-old tradition of embellishing even the functional items they use in their daily lives. As recently as fifty years ago, they stitched beautiful needlework patterns and embroidered intricate motifs to decorate every-thing from lounging robes and bath towels to purses and headscarves.

The Topkapi Palace Museum in Istanbul has some examples of antique silk scarves decorated with silk thread oya. Some of the oldest Turkish museum examples of oya-embellished cotton yazma are displayed in neat stacks or wrapped onto

mannequins in Bursas Ulumay Museum of Ottoman Folk Costume and Jewellery, Izmirs Ethnography Museum, the Sadberk Hanim Museum in Istanbul, and the new Ethnography Museum in Tokat.

The documented period in the long and colorful his-tory of oya-trimmed hand-block-printed yazma dates to the sixteenth century. Informational panels in the Tokat Museum mention a 600-year-old yazma printing h

piecework - july-august 2015

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