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PISAP r o g r a m m e f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d e n t A s s e s s m e n t

PISA 2015 Results POLICIES AND PRACTICES FOR SUCCESSFUL SCHOOLS

VOLUME II

PISA 2015 Results (Volume II)

POLICIES AND PRACTICES FOR SUCCESSFUL SCHOOLS

PISA

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OECD (2016), PISA 2015 Results (Volume II): Policies and Practices for Successful Schools, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris.

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Foreword

ISA 2015 RESULTS (VOLUME II): POLICIES AND PRACTICES FOR SUCCESSFUL SCHOOLS © OECD 2016 3

Equipping citizens with the knowledge and skills necessary to achieve their full potential, contribute to an increasingly interconnected world, and ultimately convert better skills into better lives is a central preoccupation of policy makers around the world. Results from the OECD’s Survey of Adult Skills show that highly skilled adults are not only twice as likely to be employed and almost three times more likely to earn an above-median salary than poorly skilled adults, they are also more likely to volunteer, to report that they are in good to excellent health, to see themselves as actors rather than as objects of political processes, and to trust others. Fairness, integrity and inclusiveness in public policy thus all hinge on the skills of citizens.

In working to achieve these goals, more and more countries are looking beyond their own borders for evidence of the most successful and efficient education policies and practices. Over the past decade, the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment, PISA, has become the world’s premier yardstick for evaluating the quality, equity and efficiency of school systems. But the evidence base that PISA has produced goes well beyond statistical benchmarking. By identifying the characteristics of high-performing education systems, PISA allows governments and educators to identify effective policies that they can then adapt to their local contexts.

The latest PISA assessment in 2015 focused on science, a discipline that plays an increasing role in our economic and social lives. From taking a painkiller to determining what is a “balanced” meal, from drinking pasteurised milk to deciding whether or not to buy a hybrid car, science is pervasive. And science is not just test tubes and the periodic table; it is the basis of nearly every tool we use – from a simple can opener to the most advanced space explorer. More important, science is not only the domain of scientists. In the context of massive information flows and rapid change, everyone now needs to be able to “think like a scientist”: to be able to weigh evidence and come to a conclusion; to understand that scientific “truth” may change over time, as new discoveries are made, and as humans develop a greater understanding of natural forces and of technology’s capacities and limitations.

The last time science was the focus of PISA was in 2006. Since then, science and technology have advanced tremendously. The smartphone was invented and became ubiquitous. Social media, cloud-based services, robotics and machine learning have transformed our economic and social life. New possibilities of gene sequencing and genome editing, synthetic biology, bio-printing or regenerative medicine and brain interfaces are changing life itself. Against this backdrop, and the fact that expenditure per primary and secondary student rose by almost 20% across OECD countries over this period, it is disappointing that, for the majority of countries with comparable data, science performance in PISA remained virtually unchanged since 2006. In fact, only a dozen countries showed measurable improvement in the science performance of their 15-year-olds, including high-performing education systems, such as Singapore and Macao (China), and low-performing ones, such as Peru and Colombia.

It is also worrying to see how many young people fail to reach even the most essential learning outcomes. In September 2015, world leaders gathered in New York to set ambitious goals for the future of the global community. Goal 4 of the Sustainable Development Goals seeks to ensure “inclusive and equitable quality education and promote

FOREWORD

4 © OECD 2016 ISA 2015 RESULTS (VOLUME II): POLICIES AND PRACTICES FOR SUCCESSFUL SCHOOLS

lifelong learning opportunities for all”. This includes that “all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development” (Target 4.7). Only in Canada, Estonia, Finland, Hong Kong (China), Japan, Macao (China) and Singapore do at least nine out of ten 15-year-old students master the baseline level of proficiency in science, reading and mathematics. These countries show that there are countries on nearly every continent that could achieve the goal of universal basic skills by 2030. At the same time, the small group of countries that has moved close to securing at least basic skills for all shows how much remains to be done in most countries – including some of the wealthiest OECD countries – to attain the Sustainable Development Goals.

The data also show that the world is no longer divided between rich and well-educated nations and poor and badly educated ones: the 10% most disadvantaged students in Viet Nam compare favourably to the average student in the OECD area. Clearly, all countries and economies have excellent students, but few have enabled all students to excel. Achieving greater equity in education is not only a social justice imperative, it is also a way to use resources more effectively, increase the supply of skills that fuel economic growth, and promote social cohesion.

PISA also finds varying levels of engagement with science and expectations of science-related careers across students who are similarly capable and interested in science. In a majority of countries and economies, students from advantaged backgrounds are more likely to expect a career in science – even among students who perform similarly in science and who reported similar enjoyment of learning science.

Similarly, while it is encouraging that boys and girls now show similar levels of science performance in PISA, large gender differences remain in students’ dispositions towards science-related careers, even among students who score similarly in science and who report similar levels of enjoyment in learning science. In Germany, Hungary and Sweden, for instance, top-performing boys are significantly more likely than top-performing girls to expect a career requiring further training in science. These findings have serious implications not only for higher education, where young women are already under-represented in the science, technology, engineering and mathematics fields of study, but also later on, when these young women enter the labour market.

Gender stereotypes about scientists and about work in science-related occupations can discourage some students from engaging further with science. Schools can counter these stereotypes, and help both boys and girls cultivate a wider perspective on science, including through better career information. Employers and educators in perceived “masculine” or “feminine” fields can also help eliminate existing stereotypes by underscoring the close inter-relationships among the numerous fields of science.

The subject of science itself suffers from a stereotyped image. Too often, school science is seen as the first segment of a (leaky) pipeline that will ultimately select those who will work as scientists and engineers. Not only does the “pipeline” metaphor discount the many pathways successful scientists have travelled to reach their career goals, it also conveys a negative image of those who do not end up as scientists and engineers. Because knowledge and understanding of science is useful well beyond the work of scientists and is, as PISA argues, necessary for full participation in a world shaped by science-based technology, school science should be promoted more positively – perhaps as a “springboard” to new sources of interest and enjoyment. Expanding students’ awareness about the utility of science beyond teaching and research occupations can help build a more inclusive view of science, from which fewer students feel excluded.

PISA is not only an accurate indicator of students’ abilities to participate fully in society after compulsory school, but also a powerful tool that countries and economies can use to fine-tune their education policies. There is no single combination of policies and practices that will work for everyone, everywhere. Every country has room for improvement, even the top performers. That’s why the OECD produces this triennial report on the state of education across the globe: to share evidence of the best policies and practices and to offer our timely and targeted support to help countries provide the best education possible for all of their students. With high levels of youth unemployment, rising inequality, a significant gender gap, and an urgent need to boost inclusive growth in many countries, we have no time to lose. The OECD stands ready to support policy makers in this challenging and crucial endeavour.

Angel GurríaOECD Secretary-General

PISA 2015 RESULTS (VOLUME II): POLICIES AND PRACTICES FOR SUCCESSFUL SCHOOLS © OECD 2016 5

Acknowledgements

This report is the product of a collaborative effort between the countries participating in PISA, the national and international experts and institutions working within the framework of the PISA Consortium, and the OECD Secretariat.

The development of this volume was guided by Andreas Schleicher and Yuri Belfali and managed by Miyako Ikeda. This volume was drafted by Alfonso Echazarra with Esther Carvalhaes and edited by Marilyn Achiron. Statistical and analytical support was co-ordinated by Giannina Rech and provided by Hélène Guillou and Bonaventura Francesco Pacileo. Rose Bolognini co-ordinated production and Fung Kwan Tam designed the publication. Administrative support was provided by Claire Chetcuti, Juliet Evans, Audrey Poupon and Lisa Smadja. Additional members of the OECD PISA and communication teams who provided analytical, statistical and communication support include Peter Adams, Francesco Avvisati, Guillaume Bousquet, Anna Choi, Cassandra Davis, Carlos González-Sancho, Tue Halgreen, Jeffrey Mo, Chiara Monticone, Judit Pál, Mario Piacentini, Daniel Salinas, Shun Shirai, Michael Stevenson, Sophie Vayssettes and Michael Ward. Luka Boeskens, Tracey Burns, Marc Fuster, Paulo Santiago and Claire Shewbridge, from the OECD Directorate for Education and Skills, drafted the boxes on policy. Eric Charbonnier and Etienne Albiser, from the OECD INES and NESLI (Network for the Collection and Adjudication of System-Level Descriptive Information on Educational Structures, Policies and Practices) teams provided advice on the system-level data collection. External consultants for analytical and communication support include Simone Bloem, Henry M. Levin, Christian Monseur and Elodie Pools.

To support the technical implementation of PISA, the OECD contracted an international consortium of institutions and experts, led by Irwin Kirsch of the Educational Testing Service (ETS). Overall co-ordination of the PISA 2015 assessment, the development of instruments, and scaling and analysis were managed by Claudia Tamassia of the ETS; development of the electronic platform was managed by Michael Wagner of the ETS. Development of the science and collaborative problem-solving frameworks, and adaptation of the frameworks for reading and mathematics, were led by John de Jong and managed by Catherine Hayes of Pearson. Survey operations were led by Merl Robinson and managed by Michael Lemay of Westat. Sampling and weighting operations were led by Keith Rust and managed by Sheila Krawchuk of Westat. Design and development of the questionnaires were led by Eckhard Klieme and managed by Nina Jude of the Deutsches Institut für Pädagogische Forschung (DIPF).

Jonathan Osborne chaired the expert group that guided the preparation of the science assessment framework and instruments. This group included Marcus Hammann, Sarah Howie, Jody Clarke-Midura, Robin Millar, Andrée Tiberghien, Russell Tytler and Darren Wong. Charles Alderson and Jean-Francois Rouet assisted in adapting the reading framework, and Zbigniew Marciniak, Berinderjeet Kaur and Oh Nam Kwon assisted in adapting the mathematics framework. David Kaplan chaired the expert group that guided the preparation of the questionnaire framework and instruments. This group included Eckhard Klieme, Gregory Elacqua, Marit Kjærnsli, Leonidas Kyriakides, Henry M. Levin, Naomi Miyake, Jonathan Osborne, Kathleen Scalise, Fons van de Vijver and Ludger Woessmann. Keith Rust chaired the Technical Advisory Group, whose members include Theo Eggen, John de Jong, Jean Dumais, Cees Glas, David Kaplan, Irwin Kirsch, Christian Monseur, Sophia Rabe-Hesketh, Thierry Rocher, Leslie A. Rutkowski, Margaret Wu and Kentaro Yamamoto.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

6 © OECD 2016 PISA 2015 RESULTS (VOLUME II): POLICIES AND PRACTICES FOR SUCCESSFUL SCHOOLS

The development of the report was steered by the PISA Governing Board, chaired by Lorna Bertrand (United Kingdom), with Maria Helena Guimarães de Castro (Brazil), Sungsook Kim (Korea) and Dana Kelly (United States) as vice chairs. Annex C of the volume lists the members of the various PISA bodies, including Governing Board members and National Project Managers in participating countries and economies, the PISA Consortium, and the individual experts and consultants who have contributed to PISA in general.

Table of contents


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................17

READER’S GUIDE ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................19

WHAT IS PISA? ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................25

CHAPTER 1 OVERVIEW: POLICIES AND PRACTICES FOR SUCCESSFUL SCHOOLS ..........................................................................33

CHAPTER 2 HOW SCHOOLS AND TEACHING PRACTICES SHAPE STUDENTS’ PERFORMANCE IN AND DISPOSITIONS TOWARDS SCIENCE ........................................................................................................................................................................47

Opportunity to learn science at school ..................................................................................................................................................................................50

• Choice of school science courses ....................................................................................................................................................................................53

Science resources at school ............................................................................................................................................................................................................53

• Science teaching staff .............................................................................................................................................................................................................56

• Extracurricular science activities ......................................................................................................................................................................................59

Teaching science .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................63

• Teacher-directed science instruction .............................................................................................................................................................................63

• Perceived feedback from science teachers ................................................................................................................................................................66

• Adaptive instruction in science lessons .......................................................................................................................................................................66

• Enquiry-based science instruction ...................................................................................................................................................................................69

How science resources, learning time and teaching are related to science performance compared

to performance in other subjects ................................................................................................................................................................................................73

How science resources, learning time and teaching are related to students’ expectations of working

in science‑related careers ................................................................................................................................................................................................................74

CHAPTER 3 THE SCHOOL LEARNING ENVIRONMENT .........................................................................................................................................79

School climate ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................81

• Student truancy.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................81

• Skipping school ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................81

• Arriving late for school ............................................................................................................................................................................................................83

• How does truancy throughout the school relate to individual student truancy, science performance and

disciplinary climate? ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................84

Disciplinary climate .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................88

• Student and teacher behaviour hindering learning ..............................................................................................................................................88

• Teacher support to students .................................................................................................................................................................................................93

Parental involvement ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................96

• Legislation on parental involvement ..............................................................................................................................................................................96

• School efforts to involve parents .......................................................................................................................................................................................96

• Parental involvement in school activities ....................................................................................................................................................................99

School leadership ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................101

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CHAPTER 4 SCHOOL GOVERNANCE, ASSESSMENT AND ACCOUNTABILITY .................................................................................107

How school systems are governed ..........................................................................................................................................................................................110• Responsibilities for school governance and school autonomy .................................................................................................................110• Changes between 2009 and 2015 in the allocation of responsibilities for school governance .........................................113• Another perspective on how responsibilities are distributed .....................................................................................................................114• School autonomy .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................114

How are the responsibilities for school governance related to science performance and equity? ...........................................114• Educational leadership .........................................................................................................................................................................................................121• School accountability: Mandatory standardised tests and using achievement data beyond the school .......................123

Public and private involvement ................................................................................................................................................................................................123• Student performance and enrolment in public and private schools ......................................................................................................126

School choice .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................126

Assessments and evaluations .......................................................................................................................................................................................................129• Profiles of assessments and examinations, by education level .................................................................................................................130• Assessment practices at school .......................................................................................................................................................................................132• Assessment practices and purposes .............................................................................................................................................................................136

Accountability and quality assurance .................................................................................................................................................................................138• The use of achievement data beyond school ........................................................................................................................................................138• Quality-assurance and school-improvement practices ..................................................................................................................................139• Consequences of internal and external evaluations .........................................................................................................................................142

School leader and teacher appraisal ......................................................................................................................................................................................145• School leader appraisal........................................................................................................................................................................................................145• Teacher appraisal .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................146

Teacher evaluations at school.....................................................................................................................................................................................................150

CHAPTER 5 SELECTING AND GROUPING STUDENTS ........................................................................................................................................155

Vertical stratification: How students progress through the school system.................................................................................................157• Students’ grade level ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................157• Students’ age at entry into the school system .......................................................................................................................................................160• Grade repetition ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................160

Horizontal stratification: How education systems organise school programmes .................................................................................166• Differentiation among education programmes: Age at selection, and the number and types

of study programmes ............................................................................................................................................................................................................166• School admissions policies ...............................................................................................................................................................................................170• Other policies and practices that sort students between schools ............................................................................................................171• Are stratification policies related to academic inclusion across schools? ........................................................................................171• Horizontal stratification within schools: Ability grouping ............................................................................................................................176

How policies on grouping and selecting students are related to equity in science performance ..............................................177

CHAPTER 6 RESOURCES INVESTED IN EDUCATION ............................................................................................................................................183

Financial resources .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................184

Material resources ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................186• Equity in resource allocation ...........................................................................................................................................................................................187• Computers at school ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................189• School size ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................190

Human resources ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................193• Teachers’ salaries......................................................................................................................................................................................................................193• Pre-service teacher training ...............................................................................................................................................................................................194

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• Requirements to enter the teaching profession ....................................................................................................................................................196• Teacher profile and qualifications ................................................................................................................................................................................196• Teachers’ professional development ..........................................................................................................................................................................198• Shortage of education staff ................................................................................................................................................................................................202• Class size and student-teacher ratio ..........................................................................................................................................................................202

Time resources ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................209• Actual teaching time ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................209• Student learning time ............................................................................................................................................................................................................209• Assistance with homework at school .........................................................................................................................................................................216• Extracurricular activities ......................................................................................................................................................................................................218

Attendance at pre‑primary school ..........................................................................................................................................................................................218

CHAPTER 7 WHAT PISA 2015 RESULTS IMPLY FOR POLICY ...........................................................................................................................225

Accounting for variations in student performance ....................................................................................................................................................226

Give every 15‑year‑old the opportunity to learn science in school ................................................................................................................226• Ensure that learning time is productive so that students can build up their academic,

social and emotional skills in a balanced way ....................................................................................................................................................227

The most ambitious education reforms aspire to change what happens inside the classroom....................................................228• Ensure that the science laboratory work is meaningful ..................................................................................................................................229

Create a positive learning environment for all ...............................................................................................................................................................229

Encourage schools to use multiple types of assessments ........................................................................................................................................229

Build a skilled and dedicated teacher workforce .........................................................................................................................................................230• Attract and retain qualified teachers, and ensure that they continue to learn throughout their careers .......................230

Balance school autonomy with accountability, and develop capacity at the local level .................................................................230

Strive to have excellent schools in every neighbourhood and make them accessible to all students .....................................231

Adjust the size of schools and classes if financial resources are limited ....................................................................................................232

Favour additional support to struggling students rather than grade repetition ......................................................................................232

Delay the age at selection into different education programmes .....................................................................................................................233

Provide access to quality early education for all children .....................................................................................................................................233

Above all, provide additional support to disadvantaged schools ......................................................................................................................233

ANNEX A PISA 2015 TECHNICAL BACKGROUND .................................................................................................................................................237

Annex A1 Construction of indices, trends and missing observations ............................................................................................................238

Annex A2 The PISA target population, the PISA samples and the definition of schools...................................................................247

Annex A3 Technical notes on analyses in this volume............................................................................................................................................257

Annex A4 Quality assurance .....................................................................................................................................................................................................260

Annex A5 Changes in the administration and scaling of PISA 2015 and implications for trends analyses .........................262

Annex A6 System-level data collection for PISA 2015: Sources, comments and technical notes .............................................263

Annex A7 Guidelines and caveats about interpreting the results .....................................................................................................................264

ANNEX B PISA 2015 DATA .........................................................................................................................................................................................................267

Annex B1 Results for countries and economies ...........................................................................................................................................................268

Annex B2 Results for regions within countries .............................................................................................................................................................435

Annex B3 List of tables available on line ..........................................................................................................................................................................457

ANNEX C THE DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF PISA: A COLLABORATIVE EFFORT .....................................461

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BOXES

Box A PISA’s contributions to the Sustainable Development Goals ............................................................................................................................26

Box B Key features of PISA 2015 ...........................................................................................................................................................................................28

Box II.2.1 How PISA defines socio-economically advantaged and disadvantaged schools .......................................................................................53

Box II.2.2 How PISA defines urban and rural schools ............................................................................................................................................................56

Box II.2.3 How PISA defines public and private schools .......................................................................................................................................................56

Box II.4.1 Governing complex education systems ............................................................................................................................................................... 109

Box II.4.2 School governing boards around the world ........................................................................................................................................................ 111

Box II.4.3 Are students in the United States taking too many standardised tests? ...................................................................................................... 132

Box II.5.1 Interpreting school results and grade repetition ................................................................................................................................................ 161

Box II.5.2 Stratification policies in the Netherlands: Context matters ....................................................................................................173

Box II.6.1 School size, efficiency and effectiveness ............................................................................................................................................................. 190

FIGURES

Map of PISA countries and economies ....................................................................................................................................................................................................27

Figure II.1.1 Differences in the requirement to attend regular science lessons, by schools’ socio-economic profile ...........................................35

Figure II.1.2 Change between 2012 and 2015 in student truancy ..........................................................................................................................................38

Figure II.1.3 Change between 2009 and 2015 in grade repetition rates ...............................................................................................................................41

Figure II.1.4 Correlations between the responsibilities for school governance and science performance .................................................................45

Figure II.2.1 Science at school as covered in PISA 2015 ...........................................................................................................................................................49

Figure II.2.2 High-performing education systems in science-related outcomes .................................................................................................................49

Figure II.2.3 Key information about high-performing education systems in science-related outcomes ......................................................................50

Figure II.2.4 Attendance at regular science lessons, and science performance .................................................................................................................51

Figure II.2.5 Differences in the requirement to attend regular science lessons, by schools’ socio-economic profile ...........................................52

Figure II.2.6 Science-specific resources, school characteristics and science outcomes ...................................................................................................55

Figure II.2.7 Science-specific resources at school and science performance ......................................................................................................................57

Figure II.2.8 Science teachers’ qualifications, school characteristics and science outcomes .........................................................................................58

Figure II.2.9 Science-related extracurricular activities offered at school .............................................................................................................................60

Figure II.2.10 Science competitions offered at school, by schools’ socio-economic profile .............................................................................................61

Figure II.2.11 Science competitions offered at school and science performance .................................................................................................................62

Figure II.2.12 Relationships among instructional practices in science .....................................................................................................................................63

Figure II.2.13 Teacher-directed science instruction, school characteristics and science outcomes ...............................................................................64

Figure II.2.14 Teacher-directed teaching practices and science performance .......................................................................................................................65

Figure II.2.15 Perceived feedback, school characteristics and science outcomes ................................................................................................................67

Figure II.2.16 Adaptive instruction, school characteristics and science outcomes ..............................................................................................................68

Figure II.2.17 School autonomy and adaptive instruction in science lessons ........................................................................................................................70

Figure II.2.18 Enquiry-based instruction in science lessons ........................................................................................................................................................71

Figure II.2.19 Enquiry-based instruction, school characteristics and science outcomes ....................................................................................................72

Figure II.2.20 Enquiry-based teaching practices and science performance ............................................................................................................................73

Figure II.2.21 Explaining the difference in performance between science and other subjects .........................................................................................74

Figure II.2.22 Explaining students’ expectations of a career in science ..................................................................................................................................75

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Figure II.3.1 The learning environment as covered in PISA 2015 ..........................................................................................................................................80

Figure II.3.2 Change between 2012 and PISA 2015 in student truancy ................................................................................................................................82

Figure II.3.3 Students skipping a whole day of school, school characteristics and science outcomes ........................................................................83

Figure II.3.4 Concentration of truancy across schools ...............................................................................................................................................................85

Figure II.3.5 Schoolmate truancy and science performance .....................................................................................................................................................86

Figure II.3.6 Schoolmate truancy and disciplinary climate in science lessons....................................................................................................................87

Figure II.3.7 Index of disciplinary climate in science classes, school characteristics and science outcomes ...........................................................89

Figure II.3.8 Student and teacher behaviour hindering learning..............................................................................................................................................91

Figure II.3.9 Index of student behaviour hindering learning, school characteristics and science performance ......................................................92

Figure II.3.10 Student and teacher behaviour hindering learning and science performance............................................................................................93

Figure II.3.11 First age at selection in the education system and index of teacher support in science lessons ...........................................................94

Figure II.3.12 Index of teacher support in science lessons, school characteristics and science performance ............................................................95

Figure II.3.13 School efforts to involve parents, school characteristics and science performance .................................................................................97

Figure II.3.14 Including parents in school decisions and science performance ....................................................................................................................98

Figure II.3.15 Index of parental involvement in school-related activities, school characteristics and science performance ............................... 100

Figure II.3.16 Parental involvement in school-related activities and science performance ............................................................................................ 100

Figure II.3.17 Educational leadership and science performance ............................................................................................................................................ 102

Figure II.4.1 Governance, assessment and accountability as measured in PISA 2015 .................................................................................................. 108

Figure II.4.2 Summary of responsibilities for school governance ......................................................................................................................................... 113

Figure II.4.3 Distribution across the education system of responsibility for school resources .................................................................................... 115

Figure II.4.4 Distribution across the education system of responsibility for the curriculum ........................................................................................ 116

Figure II.4.5 Distribution across the education system of responsibility for establishing student assessment policies ........................................ 117

Figure II.4.6 Distribution across the education system of responsibility for approving students for admission to the school .......................... 118

Figure II.4.7 Index of school autonomy, school characteristics and science performance ........................................................................................... 119

Figure II.4.8 Correlations between the responsibilities for school governance and science performance .............................................................. 120

Figure II.4.9 Correlations between the responsibilities for school governance and equity in science performance............................................ 120

Figure II.4.10 Correlations between the responsibilities for school governance and science performance, by educational leadership ......... 121

Figure II.4.11 Correlations between the responsibilities for school governance and science performance, by use of mandatory standardised tests ................................................................................................................................................................ 122

Figure II.4.12 Correlations between the responsibilities for school governance and science performance, by tracking achievement data over time .............................................................................................................................................................. 122

Figure II.4.13 Correlations between the responsibilities for school governance and science performance, by posting achievement data publicly .................................................................................................................................................................. 123

Figure II.4.14 Attendance at public school, school characteristics and science performance ...................................................................................... 125

Figure II.4.15 Attendance at different types of schools, science performance and equity .............................................................................................. 126

Figure II.4.16 Distance to school as a reason for choosing school, school characteristics and science performance ........................................... 128

Figure II.4.17 School low expenses as a reason for choosing school, school characteristics and science performance ...................................... 128

Figure II.4.18 School reputation as a reason for choosing school, school characteristics and science performance............................................. 129

Figure II.4.19 Profiles of assessments and examinations across countries and economies ............................................................................................ 131

Figure II.4.20 Frequency of assessments at school ...................................................................................................................................................................... 132

Figure II.4.21 Frequency of mandatory standardised tests at school ...................................................................................................................................... 133

Figure II.4.22 Frequency of teacher-developed tests at school ................................................................................................................................................ 134

Figure II.4.23 Type of assessments at school, science performance and equity ................................................................................................................. 135

Figure II.4.24 Purposes of standardised tests and science performance ............................................................................................................................... 136

Figure II.4.25 Purposes of teacher-developed tests and science performance .................................................................................................................... 137

Figure II.4.26 Posting achievement data publicly, school characteristics and science performance ........................................................................... 140

Figure II.4.27 Quality assurance and improvement actions at school ................................................................................................................................... 141

Figure II.4.28 Actions following internal evaluations ................................................................................................................................................................. 143

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Figure II.4.29 Consequences following external evaluations ................................................................................................................................................... 144

Figure II.4.30 Obligation to undertake teacher appraisal and frequency, lower secondary (2015) ............................................................................. 147

Figure II.4.31 Monitoring teaching practices ................................................................................................................................................................................. 149

Figure II.5.1 School system stratification as covered in PISA 2015 ................................................................................................................................... 156

Figure II.5.2 Factors associated with students’ grade level ..................................................................................................................................................... 158

Figure II.5.3 Grade level, age of entry into primary education and grade repetition ..................................................................................................... 159

Figure II.5.4 Science performance and grade repetition ......................................................................................................................................................... 162

Figure II.5.5 Change between 2009 and 2015 in grade repetition rates ............................................................................................................................ 163

Figure II.5.6 Factors associated with grade repetition .............................................................................................................................................................. 164

Figure II.5.7 Students’ socio-economic profile and grade repetition ................................................................................................................................... 165

Figure II.5.8 Education programmes and ability grouping ...................................................................................................................................................... 167

Figure II.5.9 Enrolment in pre-vocational or vocational programmes, by schools’ socio-economic profile .......................................................... 168

Figure II.5.10 Enrolment in a pre-vocational or vocational programmes and science performance ........................................................................... 169

Figure II.5.11 Factors associated with academic inclusion in science performance ........................................................................................................ 172

Figure II.5.12 Academic and social inclusion across schools .................................................................................................................................................. 172

Figure II.5.13 Factors associated with equity in science performance .................................................................................................................................. 177

Figure II.5.14 Use of selected stratification policies in PISA-participating countries ........................................................................................................ 178

Figure II.6.1 Resources invested in education as covered in PISA 2015 ............................................................................................................................ 185

Figure II.6.2 Spending per student from the age of 6 to 15 and science performance .................................................................................................. 186

Figure II.6.3 Index of shortage of educational material, school characteristics and science performance ............................................................. 188

Figure II.6.4 Equity in resource allocation and science performance ................................................................................................................................. 189

Figure II.6.5 Number of students per school, school characteristics and science performance ................................................................................. 192

Figure II.6.6 Expenditure on education and teachers’ salaries .............................................................................................................................................. 194

Figure II.6.7 Teachers’ salaries and science performance ....................................................................................................................................................... 195

Figure II.6.8 Selected pre-service training requirements for lower secondary teachers in public institutions........................................................ 195

Figure II.6.9 Percentage of fully certified teachers, school characteristics and science performance ..................................................................... 197

Figure II.6.10 Science teachers’ participation in professional development activities, school characteristics and science performance ....... 200

Figure II.6.11 In-house professional development activities .................................................................................................................................................... 201

Figure II.6.12 Index of shortage of education staff, school characteristics and science performance ......................................................................... 203

Figure II.6.13 Equity in allocation of material and human resources .................................................................................................................................... 204

Figure II.6.14 Relationship between class size and student-teacher ratio ............................................................................................................................ 205

Figure II.6.15 Relationship between class size and student-teacher ratio, and science performance ......................................................................... 206

Figure II.6.16 Relationship between class size and science performance ........................................................................................................................... 207

Figure II.6.17 Class size and the index of adaptive instruction ............................................................................................................................................... 208

Figure II.6.18 Time per week spent learning in regular lessons ............................................................................................................................................... 210

Figure II.6.19 Intended learning time in science lessons, school characteristics and science performance ............................................................. 212

Figure II.6.20 After-school study time .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 213

Figure II.6.21 After-school study time, by schools’ socio-economic status .......................................................................................................................... 214

Figure II.6.22 Relationship between after-school study time and science performance .................................................................................................. 215

Figure II.6.23 Ratio between learning time and PISA scores .................................................................................................................................................... 217

Figure II.6.24 Extracurricular activities offered at school........................................................................................................................................................... 219

Figure II.6.25 Index of creative extracurricular activities, school characteristics and science performance ............................................................. 220

Figure II.7.1 Variation in science performance between systems, schools and students .............................................................................................. 227

Figure II.7.2 Factors associated with science performance .................................................................................................................................................... 228

Figure A7.1 Interpreting the predominant figure in this report ............................................................................................................................................. 265

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TABLE

Table A1.1 Differences in the definition of science-related career expectations ......................................................................................................... 241

Table A1.2 ISCO-08 to ISCO-88 correspondence table for science-related career expectations ........................................................................... 241

Table A2.1 PISA target populations and samples ....................................................................................................................................................................... 249

Table A2.2 Exclusions ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 250

Table A2.3 Response rates ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 254

Table A2.4a Percentage of students at each grade level ............................................................................................................................................................. 255

Table A2.4b Percentage of students at each grade level ............................................................................................................................................................. 256

Table II.2.1 Epistemic beliefs .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 268

Table II.2.2 Students expecting to work in science-related occupations at age 30 ....................................................................................................... 271

Table II.2.3 Requirement to attend at least one science course per week, by student and school characteristics .............................................. 272

Table II.2.5 Science-specific resources at school ..................................................................................................................................................................... 275

Table II.2.6 Index of science-specific resources, by student and school characteristics .............................................................................................. 276

Table II.2.8 Science teaching staff ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 279

Table II.2.10 Qualified science teachers, by student and school characteristics .............................................................................................................. 280

Table II.2.11 Science-related extracurricular activities ............................................................................................................................................................. 283

Table II.2.16 Teacher-directed science instruction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 284

Table II.2.17 Index of teacher-directed science instruction, by student and school characteristics ........................................................................... 286

Table II.2.19 Perceived feedback from science teachers .......................................................................................................................................................... 289

Table II.2.20 Index of perceived feedback from science teachers, by student and school characteristics ............................................................... 291

Table II.2.22 Adaptive instruction in science lessons ................................................................................................................................................................ 294

Table II.2.23 Index of adaptive instruction in science lessons, by student and school characteristics ...................................................................... 295

Table II.2.26 Enquiry-based instruction in science lessons ..................................................................................................................................................... 298

Table II.2.27 Index of enquiry-based instruction, by student and school characteristics ............................................................................................... 301

Table II.3.1 Student truancy ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 304

Table II.3.4 Skipping a school day, science performance and school characteristics ................................................................................................... 305

Table II.3.8 Truancy at school and science performance ..................................................................................................................................................... 308

Table II.3.9 Truancy at school and disciplinary climate in science lessons .................................................................................................................... 309

Table II.3.11 Index of disciplinary climate in science classes, science performance and school characteristics .................................................. 310

Table II.3.15 Index of student behaviour hindering learning, science performance and school characteristics .................................................... 313

Table II.3.16 Student behaviour hindering learning and science performance ................................................................................................................ 316

Table II.3.21 Teacher behaviour hindering learning and science performance ................................................................................................................ 318

Table II.3.22 Teacher support in science classes ........................................................................................................................................................................ 320

Table II.3.24 Legislation on including parents in school activities ....................................................................................................................................... 323

Table II.3.29 Correlations between school efforts to involve parents and parents’ responses and involvement .................................................... 325

Table II.3.30 Parental involvement in school-related activities .............................................................................................................................................. 326

Table II.3.33 Educational leadership .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 327

Table II.4.1 Responsibilities for school governance ................................................................................................................................................................ 332

Table II.4.5 Index of school autonomy, science performance and school characteristics ........................................................................................... 337

Table II.4.6 School type .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 340

Table II.4.10 Attendance at public schools, science performance and school characteristics ..................................................................................... 341

Table II.4.15 Criteria for choosing a school ................................................................................................................................................................................. 344

Table II.4.19 Student assessment ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 345

Table II.4.24 Purposes of assessments ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 347

Table II.4.27 Use of achievement data for accountability purposes ..................................................................................................................................... 349

TABLE OF CONTENTS


Table II.4.29 Change between 2012 and 2015 in the use of achievement data for accountability purposes ......................................................... 350

Table II.4.30 Achievement data posted publicly, science performance and school characteristics ........................................................................... 351

Table II.4.31 Achievement data tracked by an administrative authority, science performance and school characteristics ...................................... 354

Table II.4.39 Monitoring teaching practices ................................................................................................................................................................................. 357

Table II.4.44 National/central assessments at the lower and upper secondary levels (2015) ..................................................................................... 358

Table II.4.45 National/central examinations at the lower secondary level (2015) ......................................................................................................... 359

Table II.4.46 National/central examinations at the upper secondary level (2015) ......................................................................................................... 361

Table II.4.47 Teacher appraisal (2015) ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 363

Table II.4.58 School leader appraisal (2015) ............................................................................................................................................................................... 365

Table II.5.3 Student grade level ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 366

Table II.5.9 Grade repetition ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 368

Table II.5.11 Change between 2009 and 2015 in grade repetition ..................................................................................................................................... 369

Table II.5.12 Grade repetition, science performance and school characteristics ............................................................................................................. 370

Table II.5.14 Programme orientation .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 373

Table II.5.16 Change between 2009 and 2015 in programme orientation ....................................................................................................................... 374

Table II.5.17 Enrolment in pre-vocational or vocational programme, science performance and school characteristics..................................... 375

Table II.5.18 School admissions policies ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 378

Table II.5.21 School admissions policies and science performance .................................................................................................................................... 380

Table II.5.22 Ability grouping between and within classes ..................................................................................................................................................... 382

Table II.5.25 Ability grouping between classes, science performance and school characteristics ............................................................................. 383

Table II.5.27 Selecting students for different programmes (2015) ......................................................................................................................................... 386

Table II.6.1 Shortage of educational material............................................................................................................................................................................ 387

Table II.6.2 Index of shortage of educational material¹, science performance and school characteristics ............................................................ 389

Table II.6.4 Computers at school ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 392

Table II.6.7 Students per school (school size), science performance and school characteristics .............................................................................. 393

Table II.6.9 Composition and qualifications of teaching staff ............................................................................................................................................. 396

Table II.6.14 Shortage of education staff ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 397

Table II.6.15 Index of shortage of education staff, science performance and school characteristics ......................................................................... 399

Table II.6.17 Participation in professional development activities ........................................................................................................................................ 402

Table II.6.20 In-house professional development ....................................................................................................................................................................... 403

Table II.6.26 Student-teacher ratio and class size in language-of-instruction class ......................................................................................................... 404

Table II.6.28 Change between 2006 and 2015 in student-teacher ratio and class size in language-of-instruction class .................................. 405

Table II.6.29 Student-teacher ratio, science performance and school characteristics .................................................................................................... 406

Table II.6.32 Average time per week spent learning in regular lessons ............................................................................................................................... 409

Table II.6.33 Average time per week in regular science lessons, science performance and school characteristics .............................................. 410

Table II.6.37 After-school study time .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 413

Table II.6.38 Time per week studying science after school¹, science performance and school characteristics ...................................................... 414

Table II.6.42 Schools providing study help................................................................................................................................................................................... 417

Table II.6.46 Extracurricular activities offered at school ......................................................................................................................................................... 418

Table II.6.50 Attendance at pre-primary school .......................................................................................................................................................................... 419

Table II.6.51 Number of years at pre-primary school, science performance and school characteristics .................................................................. 420

Table II.6.53 Compulsory and intended instruction time, by age (2016) ............................................................................................................................ 423

Table II.6.54 Teachers’ salaries (2014) ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 424

Table II.6.55 Teachers’ actual teaching time (2014) .................................................................................................................................................................. 428

Table II.6.56 Pre-service teacher training requirements in public institutions (2013) ..................................................................................................... 429

Table II.6.57 Requirements for entry into the teaching profession and for professional development in public institutions (2013) ............... 432

Table II.6.58 Cumulative expenditure by educational institutions per student aged 6 to 15 (2013) .......................................................................... 433

Table II.6.59 Per capita GDP at the system level (2013, 2014).............................................................................................................................................. 434

TABLE OF CONTENTS


Table B2.II.4 Science-specific resources at school ..................................................................................................................................................................... 435

Table B2.II.5 Science teaching staff ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 436

Table B2.II.10 Enquiry-based science teaching and learning practices ................................................................................................................................. 437

Table B2.II.11 Student truancy ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 440

Table B2.II.20 Responsibilities for school governance ................................................................................................................................................................ 441

Table B2.II.25 Student assessment ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 446

Table B2.II.28 Quality assurance and improvement actions at school ................................................................................................................................... 448

Table B2.II.33 Grade repetition ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 451

Table B2.II.35 Programme orientation .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 452

Table B2.II.36 School admissions policies ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 453

Table B2.II.45 Average time per week spent learning in regular lessons ............................................................................................................................... 455

Table B2.II.46 After-school study time .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 456

pisa 2015 results - supranational education library · successful and efficient education policies...

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