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24‐Nov‐17 1 Pituitary Disease Resident Tutorial 2017 Sarat Sunthornyothin MD Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism King Chulalongkorn Memorial Hospital Pituitary Anatomy hypophyseal portal system direct arterial supply from int. carotid a. 1. Sup. hypophyseal a. 2. Inf. hypophyseal a. Pituitary Gland JAMA. 2017 Feb 7;317(5):516‐524. Pituita (latin) = phlegm

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Page 1: Pituitary Disease Resident 2017reviews.berlinpharm.com/20171125/Pituitary_Disease.pdf · •Dopamine agonist •Procedures •Angiography esp.cerebral angiogram •Surgery (cardiac

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Pituitary DiseaseResident Tutorial 2017

Sarat Sunthornyothin MD

Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism

King Chulalongkorn Memorial Hospital

Pituitary Anatomy

hypophyseal portal systemdirect arterial supply from int. carotid a.1. Sup. hypophyseal a.2. Inf. hypophyseal a.

Pituitary Gland

JAMA. 2017 Feb 7;317(5):516‐524.

Pituita (latin) = phlegm

Page 2: Pituitary Disease Resident 2017reviews.berlinpharm.com/20171125/Pituitary_Disease.pdf · •Dopamine agonist •Procedures •Angiography esp.cerebral angiogram •Surgery (cardiac

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Control of Pituitary Hormones

Pituitary Imaging

Sellar Masses

• Pituitary tumor• Functioning pituitary adenoma

• Prolactin, GH, Cushing’s, TSH, gonadotroph

• Non‐functioning pituitary adenoma• Null‐cell adenoma, gonadotroph

• Pituitary carcinoma

• Other mass lesions• Rathke’s Cyst• Craniopharyngioma• Metastases• Hypophysitis• Meningioma

Page 3: Pituitary Disease Resident 2017reviews.berlinpharm.com/20171125/Pituitary_Disease.pdf · •Dopamine agonist •Procedures •Angiography esp.cerebral angiogram •Surgery (cardiac

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Pituitary Apoplexy

• Greek : apoplexia : (ἀποπληξία) to strike• Sudden impairment of brain function

• Pituitary : pituita : phlegm• It was believed in the 1500's and 1600's that the pituitary gland channeled mucus to the nose

• Clinical syndrome consisting of a constellation of signs and symptoms that occur with rapid expansion of the contents of the sella turcica

• *** CLINICAL DIAGNOSIS ***

Pituitary Apoplexy

• Pituitary apoplexy is a clinical syndrome due to abrupt hemorrhaging and/or infarction of the pituitary gland, generally within a pituitary adenoma. 

• prevalence : 6.2 per 100,000 

• Incidence: 0.17 per 100,000 per year

• 2% and 12% of patients with adenoma • 45% non‐functioning adenoma

• Most common: 5th – 6th decade• male preponderance (1.1 ‐ 2.3 : 1)

• 26% with precipitating factors

Endocrine Reviews, December 2015, 36(6):622–645

Pituitary Apoplexy: Precipitating factors

• Conditions• Head trauma• Hypotension

• Medications• Anticoagulants• Dopamine agonist

• Procedures• Angiography esp. cerebral angiogram• Surgery (cardiac and orthopedic surgery)

• Pituitary dynamic testing• TRH / GnRH/ GHRH/ CRH stimulation test• Insulin‐induced hypoglycemia

• Others• History of irradiation• History of hypertension

intra‐ or postoperative hypotension, cardiopulmonary bypass, anticoagulation and/or microemboli leading to infarction

imbalance between the increased metabolic demand induced by the stimulation and the ability of increased blood flow at the level of the pituitary adenoma

Page 4: Pituitary Disease Resident 2017reviews.berlinpharm.com/20171125/Pituitary_Disease.pdf · •Dopamine agonist •Procedures •Angiography esp.cerebral angiogram •Surgery (cardiac

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Clinical Manifestations

• Headache of sudden and severe onset• “like a thunderclap in a clear sky”• Dural traction • meningeal irritation from extravasation of blood and necrotic material into the subarachnoid space

• usually retroorbital but can be bifrontal or diffuse

• Hormonal deficits• * Adrenal insufficiency *• Chronic

• Hypothyroid• from pre‐existing pituitary lesions

• Hormonal excess: pre‐existing functioning pituitary tumor

Endocrine Reviews, December 2015, 36(6):622–645

Clinical Manifestations

• Visual disturbances • Visual field defect 

• Ocular palsy

• Subarachnoid hemorrhage

• Cerebral ischemia : focal neurological deficits• mechanical compression of the carotid artery

• cerebral vasospasm

Pituitary Tumor Apoplexy 

• Prolactin may be an indicator of pituitary function recovery• Degree / risk of hypopituitarism related to intrasellar pressure

Page 5: Pituitary Disease Resident 2017reviews.berlinpharm.com/20171125/Pituitary_Disease.pdf · •Dopamine agonist •Procedures •Angiography esp.cerebral angiogram •Surgery (cardiac

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Pituitary Apoplexy Score (PAS)

Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2011;74:9–20 (17)

Pathophysiology

• Pituitary apoplexy is mostly associated with pituitary macroadenoma

• Pituitary adenoma• Less blood supply than normal pituitary

• Reduced angiogenesis and microvasculature

• pituitary tumor ischemia / infarction• Tumor outgrows blood supply 

• Increased fragility of tumor blood vessels

• Compression of vessels against the sellar diaphragm by the expanding tumor mass

MRI Findings

Stage Substance T1 T2

Hyperacute (1‐2hr) blood Hypoiso Hyper hypo

Acute (>3hr) deoxyHb iso Very hypo

Subacute (< 1 wk) metHb HyperFocal or heterogeneous

Hypo to hyper

Chronic (> 1 wk) ↑protein Hyper Hyper

• Rarely shows pure hemorrhage; usually mixed infarction/ hemorrhagic infarction

• Thickening of sphenoid mucosal sinus from venous congestion• Related to degree of hypopituitarism

J Neurosurg. 2006; 104:892‐898

Page 6: Pituitary Disease Resident 2017reviews.berlinpharm.com/20171125/Pituitary_Disease.pdf · •Dopamine agonist •Procedures •Angiography esp.cerebral angiogram •Surgery (cardiac

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Hormonal Deficit

• Corticotropin deficiency: most common deficit (50%‐80%)

• **** empiric parenteral corticosteroid *****• After serum blood draw for cortisol 

• given to all patients with signs of PA, without waiting for diagnostic confirmation

• Cortisol < 15 mcg/dL : adrenal insufficiency in critical acute settings

Pituitary Apoplexy: Treatment

• No treatment mortality > 50%

• Clinical suspicious is very important• Blood draw for hormone measurement

• Supportive hemodynamic treatment

• Glucocorticoid : stress dose (200 mg of hydrocortisone)

• Imaging study after initial treatment and hemodynamically stable

Conservative or Surgery

• Conservative therapy can be used in selected patients • minimal symptoms • improve dramatically after administration of glucocorticoids

• Factors to choose treatment options• Patient’s presentation• clinical stability• initial response to glucocorticoids• availability of an experienced neurosurgeon• Imaging findings

• single large hypodense area within the tumor on CT might be associated with better subsequent tumor shrinkage than are several small hypodense areas

• Simple infarction is less severe than hemorrhagic infarct

Page 7: Pituitary Disease Resident 2017reviews.berlinpharm.com/20171125/Pituitary_Disease.pdf · •Dopamine agonist •Procedures •Angiography esp.cerebral angiogram •Surgery (cardiac

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Hormonal Management

• Glucocorticoid preoperative

• Thyroid hormone if symptomatic or very low

• DI : not common (10%) and often transient

• Re‐evaluate postoperative 2‐4 weeks• Glucocorticoid may be tested early postop.

• Thyroid, sex hormone

Outcomes after Apoplexy

• Ocular palsy resolved• 75%–100% of patients without surgery,• 31%–57% of patients with surgery

• Visual field defect resolved• 50% normalized, 30% improved after Sx• Similar outcome in conservative treatment• Worse outcome in severe deficit • Better outcome if surgery within first week 

• Hormonal deficit• Only 20% does not require hormone replacement after apoplexy

• Similar outcome for surgical and conservative group

Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2011 Jan;74(1):9‐20.

UK GuidelineApoplexy

Page 8: Pituitary Disease Resident 2017reviews.berlinpharm.com/20171125/Pituitary_Disease.pdf · •Dopamine agonist •Procedures •Angiography esp.cerebral angiogram •Surgery (cardiac

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Pituitary Apoplexy : Summary

• Clinical diagnosis: high degree of suspicion

• Hydrocortisone therapy as soon as the diagnosis is suspected

• Conservative treatment is an option

• Surgery if• Severely reduced VA• Severe, persistent, deteriorating VF defect• Deteriorating level of consciousness• Not improved or worsening with conservative treatment

• Surgery should be performed within first week

Pitfalls of Management

• Delay in diagnosis• Delay in hydrocortisone treatment

• Need patient education for self adjustment of glucocorticoid dose

• No testosterone replacement• How to prescribe

• IM, transdermal gel, oral 

• How to follow up• Testosterone level, CBC, PSA• Consult urology

• PSA increase > 1.4 in first 12 month• PSA > 4• Abn. digital rectal exam

Hypothalamic Pituiary Control

Neuropeptides are released into the specialized blood supply to the pituitary to regulate its secretion

Page 9: Pituitary Disease Resident 2017reviews.berlinpharm.com/20171125/Pituitary_Disease.pdf · •Dopamine agonist •Procedures •Angiography esp.cerebral angiogram •Surgery (cardiac

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Pituitary Adenoma

JAMA. 2017 Feb 7;317(5):516‐524.

Prevalence of Pituitary Adenoma

JAMA. 2017 Feb 7;317(5):516‐524.

Prolactinoma

Page 10: Pituitary Disease Resident 2017reviews.berlinpharm.com/20171125/Pituitary_Disease.pdf · •Dopamine agonist •Procedures •Angiography esp.cerebral angiogram •Surgery (cardiac

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Prolactin Regulation

StimulatoryTRH, E, EGF

InhibitoryDopamine

hypogonadism

Prolactin Regulation

Predominant effect: Inhibitory• Dopaminergic neuron• Dopamine D2 receptorStimulatory : Prl Releasing FactorsPeripheral neural control

Hyperprolactinemia

Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2015 May;11(5):265‐75

• Prl inh. Kisspeptin expression• Kisspeptin stim GnRH neuron

prolactin

inh

Page 11: Pituitary Disease Resident 2017reviews.berlinpharm.com/20171125/Pituitary_Disease.pdf · •Dopamine agonist •Procedures •Angiography esp.cerebral angiogram •Surgery (cardiac

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Symptoms of Hyperprolactinemia

• Female• Amenorrhea, Oligomenorrhea• infertility• Galactorrhea• Osteoporosis

• Male• Hypogonadism• Gynecomastia• Osteoporosis

• Symptoms from mass effect• Visual field defect• Apoplexy• CN defect• CSF rhinorrhea

Causes of Hyperprolactinemia

AntihistamineOpiate and opiate antagonist

Prolactin Measurement

• Single measurement at any time of the day• Avoid excessive venipuncture• No need for stimulation test (TRH, L‐dopa, domperidone)

• PRL > 500 ng/mL macroprolactinoma• PRL > 250 ng/mL  usually indicate prolactinoma

• Some drug‐induced hyperPRL can have PRL > 200 ng/mL• Risperidone, metoclopramide• Usually drug‐induced hyperPRL; PRL < 100 ng/mL

• Minimal hyperprolactinemia maybe a prolactinoma, but a non‐prolactin‐secreting mass should first be considered

Page 12: Pituitary Disease Resident 2017reviews.berlinpharm.com/20171125/Pituitary_Disease.pdf · •Dopamine agonist •Procedures •Angiography esp.cerebral angiogram •Surgery (cardiac

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Prolactin Measurement

Nat Clin Pract Endo&Met Mar 2007

Circulating Forms of PRL

MACROPROLACTIN

Found in 40% of patients with hyperprolactinemiaFound in 4% of normal population 

• Galactorrhea 20%• oligo/amenorrhea 45%• pituitary adenomas 20%

Page 13: Pituitary Disease Resident 2017reviews.berlinpharm.com/20171125/Pituitary_Disease.pdf · •Dopamine agonist •Procedures •Angiography esp.cerebral angiogram •Surgery (cardiac

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Heterophile Antibody Interference

Heterophile Ab are antibodies induced by external antigens (heterophile Ag)

Heterophile Ab Interference

Hook Effect

Reading can be normal or slightly elevated. Happen in very big tumor (Actual PRL is extremely high)Unless using the assay not affected by this condition: 2 steps method

Page 14: Pituitary Disease Resident 2017reviews.berlinpharm.com/20171125/Pituitary_Disease.pdf · •Dopamine agonist •Procedures •Angiography esp.cerebral angiogram •Surgery (cardiac

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Inaccurate Result of Prolactin

• Falsely high• Macroprolactinemia

• Heterophile antibody

• Physiologic causes

• Falsely low• Hook effect• Heterphile antibody

Bromocriptine VS Cabergoline

N Engl J Med. 1994 Oct 6;331(14):904‐9.

Bromocriptine VS Cabergoline

N Engl J Med. 1994 Oct 6;331(14):904‐9.Presse Med. 1995 Apr 29;24(16):753‐7

Page 15: Pituitary Disease Resident 2017reviews.berlinpharm.com/20171125/Pituitary_Disease.pdf · •Dopamine agonist •Procedures •Angiography esp.cerebral angiogram •Surgery (cardiac

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Bromocriptine vs Cabergoline in PRL‐secreting macroadenoma

J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1985 Apr;60(4):698‐705J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000 Jun;85(6):2247‐52

When to stop DA?

• Therapy may be tapered and perhaps discontinued• treated with dopamine agonists for at least 2 yr(ENDO SOC), 3 yr (Pituitary Society)• Normal serum prolactin• No visible tumor remnant on MRI

• Recurrence rate: 26‐69%• Predicted by initial PRL and tumor size

• Increase 18% per mm of tumor size

• Most likely occur in first year • Monitor q 3 month during 1st year then annually• Repeat MRI if PRL above UNL

Recurrence after DA discontinuation

J Endocrinol Invest. 2016 May 31

Recurrence is related to‐ PRL level at Dx and before D/C‐ Pituitary dysfunction at DxNot related to size, DA doseNot related to longer treatment time

Page 16: Pituitary Disease Resident 2017reviews.berlinpharm.com/20171125/Pituitary_Disease.pdf · •Dopamine agonist •Procedures •Angiography esp.cerebral angiogram •Surgery (cardiac

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Women with Asymptomatic Microadenoma

YOUNG WOMEN

• If pregnancy is desired: DA

• If pregnancy is not desired: DA or OC• Microadenoma rarely grows

POSTMENOPAUSAL WOMEN

• DA may be discontinued

• Monitoring of tumor size increase periodically

Drug‐induced HyperPRL

• Discontinue medication for 3 days or substitution of an alternative drug, followed by remeasurement of serum prolactin• should not be undertaken without consulting the patient’s physician.

• If drug can’t be stopped: perform MRI to differentiate drug‐induced vs. pituitary/hypothalamic lesion if pretreatment PRL is not available

• Treatment with DA may cause psychosis relapsed!• Not common

• Use estrogen or testosterone in patients with long‐term hypogonadism (hypogonadal symptoms or low bone mass)