plant ethnoveterinary practices in two pyrenean territories of
TRANSCRIPT
Hindawi Publishing CorporationEvidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineVolume 2012, Article ID 896295, 22 pagesdoi:10.1155/2012/896295
Research Article
Plant Ethnoveterinary Practices in Two PyreneanTerritories of Catalonia (Iberian Peninsula) andin Two Areas of the Balearic Islands and Comparison withEthnobotanical Uses in Human Medicine
Esperanca Carrio,1 Montse Rigat,1 Teresa Garnatje,2 Marina Mayans,1
Montse Parada,1 and Joan Valles1
1 Laboratori de Botanica, Facultat de Farmacia, Universitat de Barcelona, Av. Joan XXIII s/n,08028 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
2 Institut Botanic de Barcelona (IBB-CSIC-ICUB), Passeig del Migdia s/n, Parc de Montjuıc,08028 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
Correspondence should be addressed to Joan Valles, [email protected]
Received 1 March 2012; Accepted 15 April 2012
Academic Editor: Manuel Pardo-de-Santayana
Copyright © 2012 Esperanca Carrio et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons AttributionLicense, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properlycited.
This paper presents the results of an ethnobotanical study centred in veterinarian uses in two Catalan Pyrenean regions (AltEmporda -AE- and High River Ter Valley -AT-, Iberian peninsula) and two Balearic Islands areas (Formentera -FO- andnortheastern Mallorca -MA-). In the areas studied, 97 plant species have been claimed to be useful for veterinary purposes. Atotal of 306 veterinary use reports have been gathered and analysed. The ten most reported plants are Tanacetum parthenium (24use reports), Parietaria officinalis (15), Ranunculus parnassifolius (14), Meum athamanticum (13), Olea europaea (13), Quercus ilex(12), Ruta chalepensis (12), Sambucus nigra (10) and Thymus vulgaris (10). According to comprehensive reviews, a high numberof novelties for plant ethnoveterinary are contributed: 34 species and one subspecies, 11 genera, and three families have not beenreported in previous works in this field, and 21 species had only been mentioned once. Several ethnoveterinary uses are coincidentalwith those in human medicine. Although ethnoveterinary practices are less relevant than in the past in the territories considered,as in all industrialised countries, the knowledge on plant properties and applications is still rich and constitutes a large pool ofevidence for phytotherapy, both in domestic animals and humans.
1. Introduction
Community animals have always been and continue to beintimately linked to human societies’ life. Domesticated(livestock, horses, poultry, other cage food animals suchas rabbits, and most pets) and wild animal species (someoccasionally captured pets, e.g., certain cage birds) livetogether with people, who obtain benefits and, at the sametime, take care of them. Traditional veterinary practices aredocumented from as long as 14,000 years ago [1], being atleast as ancient as animal domestication [2]. Given the kindof animals dealt with, the rural environment is where suchpractices (often including healing) are most extended, but
pets and other small domestic animals are also quite presentin urban areas. This is why ethnoveterinary knowledge is cur-rently in use not only in developing countries, where oftenno other resources are available, but in developed ones aswell, where it constitutes a very valuable complement and/oralternative to the so-called Western veterinary medicine [3].
Ethnoveterinary knowledge constitutes a relevant partof ethnobiological knowledge [1]. Data on veterinary plantuses are universally and significantly present in every generalethnobotanical prospection, and even more in those, veryfrequently, biased to ethnopharmacological aspects. Thiscan be illustrated with a few -out of the very abundant-case examples of monographic ethnobotanical studies in
2 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
different continents including diverse geographical or the-matic approaches and different kinds of societies as regardsindustrialization level [4–9].
Apart from ethnoveterinary data appearing in generalethnobiological works, a considerable effort has been madeto address this subject specifically. All angles of animalhealth care have been studied, among which those with anethnographic focus are very relevant. A recent bibliographiccompilation [3] provides data from 118 countries all over theworld regarding 200 health troubles in 25 livestock species. Agreat number of papers on ethnoveterinary appear both inethnobiological and veterinary journals, indicating contem-porary interest of the subject in distinct fields. This meansthat the folk knowledge on animal health problems and themost frequent plant-derived remedies used to treat them arenot merely an affair of past times but continue to play animportant role in alternative or complementary medicine.To exemplify this we will quote again only an extremelyreduced part of the very numerous sources specificallydevoted to ethnoveterinary uses and practices, also coveringdifferent parts of the world, some of them very general andothers focused on a single animal [10–26]. Strictly medicalveterinary uses are often complemented with animal feed.In fact, a relatively new return to natural detected in thefield of ethnoveterinary (not only referring to traditionalancestral plant use but also to modern uninformed accessto plant products as well) has made the border betweenfeed and medicine rather diffuse when addressing health carein animals [15]. In any case, the advanced state of art ofethnoveterinary has already made possible a synthetic workaiming to constitute a worldwide inventory of botanicals foranimal health including 451 plant species [27]. All the above-cited general works [4–9] contain, in addition to veterinaryones, data on human medicinal uses, and some of theethnoveterinary-centred ones also establish the comparisonbetween medicinal uses addressed to humans and animals inthe same sociogeographical group [23].
Ethnobotanical studies in Europe -most of them, asalready stated, containing ethnoveterinary data- have beenand still are abundant ([28] and references therein). Amongthese, in southern Europe, and in particular in Iberianterritories, dealt with in the present paper, specific eth-noveterinary work is not at all scarce, especially in recenttimes [16, 29–35]. Nevertheless, in Catalonia only two worksparticularly deal with ethnoveterinary [31, 36], whereasno studies on this subject have been published to dateconcerning the Balearic Islands.
The efforts made over the last years to inventory the eth-noveterinarian heritage respond to the fact that industrialisa-tion and rural depopulation have diminished the dependenceof people on animals and caused a decrease in traditionalanimal healing [1] and that the ethnoveterinary knowledgeis weak, since it depends exclusively on oral transmission[19]. This weakness is particularly worrying in developedcountries, where much more industrial medicine is availableand easy to use. Ethnobotanical studies focused on medicinaland on food plants have been previously published fromthe two Catalan regions considered ([37–39] and referencestherein), but only very scarce ethnobotanical information is
AT AE
FO
MA
Figure 1: Location of the studied areas in Europe and in the Catalanlinguistic area. AE: Alt Emporda; AT: High River Ter Valley; MA:northeastern Mallorca; FO: Formentera.
available from the islands of Mallorca and Formentera ([40,41] and references therein), and ethnoveterinary medicinehas not been addressed at all, to date, in any of thoseterritories. Consequent with this situation, the aims of thepresent work are (1) to inventory plant ethnoveterinaryresources in several Catalan and Balearic regions in orderto compare the data obtained in insular and continentalterritories; (2) to evaluate the degree of coincidence ofveterinary and human medicinal plant uses in the zonesconsidered; (3) to assess consensus and reliability of theseuses and so the vitality of complementary and alternativemedicinal practices and their real incidence in the healthcaresystem.
2. Methods
2.1. Study Areas. The territories studied are located insouthwestern Europe (Figure 1) and grouped in two close butdistinct geographical areas as follows. On the one hand, tworegions in the eastern Pyrenees (Catalonia, Iberian penin-sula): the district (in Catalan “comarca”) of Alt Emporda(AE), in the foothills of the Pyrenees, and the high mountainarea of the High River Ter Valley (AT). On the other hand,two regions in the Balearic Islands: the Arta peninsula area(northeastern) in Mallorca (MA) and Formentera (FO). Allthese territories share political administration (Spanish) andlanguage (Catalan) and have a common ethnographic andcultural background, with the logical regional nuances.
The Alt Emporda territory comprises 1,358 km2 andhas around 138,000 inhabitants living in 68 municipal-ities. The climate is mainly coastal Mediterranean, witha global mean rainfall of 550–750 mm per year and anannual mean temperature of 15.2◦C (data from the CatalanMeteorological Service [42]). The most well-known anddeep-rooted meteorological phenomenon is a northwesterlywind called the tramuntana, responsible for some naturaleffects, such as some wind-adapted vegetation forms andthe desiccation of crops. The district contains an unevendistribution of distinct biogeographical regions—two pre-dominantly Mediterranean ones and also the Eurosiberian incertain mountainous areas [43]. Economically, this area hasevolved from an initial agriculture and livestock raising andsubsequent industrial forestry exploitation (especially cork)to the more recent tourism and real-estate boom, stronger on
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 3
the seaside Costa Brava. The High River Ter Valley occupies294 km2 within the Ripolles district. To the North, the valleyis limited by peaks that reach almost 2,900 m. The weatheris typical of high mountain areas, with cold winters (meantemperature around 3◦C) and a mean annual precipitation of1,284 mm (data corresponding to 2003, Birba, pers. comm.),although the proximity of the Mediterranean Sea softens theclimatic conditions. The predominant vegetation belts arethe alpine and subalpine [43, 44]. This valley is inhabitedby 4,526 people (municipal census, 2004), distributed in 18population centres belonging to six municipalities. Someof them have suffered an important population decrease,although in recent years houses have been gradually reoccu-pied as second residences. Agriculture is not very relevant,given its climatic conditions and uneven territory, butmany farms and houses within the villages have their ownhomegardens for private consumption.
Formentera is the smallest of the four inhabited BalearicIslands. It occupies 82 km2 and has 9,147 inhabitants (datafrom 2008) [45] living in nine population centres belongingto one municipality. Its maximum altitude is 195 m, andthe climate is Mediterranean with an arid tendency, with anannual mean temperature of 18.6◦C and an annual meanrainfall of 370 mm [46]. The main vegetation landscape onthis island is the coastal Mediterranean one [43]. Agriculture,timber exploitation, fishing, and salt production have beenrelevant activities on the island, but nowadays tourism isthe most important economic activity. The prospected areain Mallorca is the Arta peninsula, covering the highest partof the Eastern Mountains, in the northeastern corner of theisland. It comprises three municipalities: Arta (7,549 inhabi-tants), Capdepera (11,929), and Son Servera (12,286). Onemunicipality (Arta) belongs to the North district and twomunicipalities to the Eastern (Capdepera and Son Servera)[45]. The climate in the area is typically Mediterranean (fromthe coast to the highest peaks, approximately 600 m) withan annual mean temperature of 16.5◦C, a mean rainfall of805.9 mm, and 70% of mean relative humidity [46]. Plantlandscapes are basically limited to those of the Mediterraneanbiogeographic region with a particular relevance of coastalcommunities [47]. The three municipalities currently sharetheir main reliance on tourism, having left aside the primarysector of agriculture and livestock, which used to be the mainactivities throughout their history. Currently the percentageof active people engaged in this economic sector (data from2010) [45, 48] is only 1.24 for the whole island, and a relevantpart of peasants are retired people who continue to cultivatesome extension of land not far from the place where they live.
2.2. Informants and Periods of Field Work. The informationwas obtained from people either born and (almost) perma-nently located in each concerned territory or having livedthere most of their life. The informants’ selection has beenbasically done on a snowball basis, mostly starting withpeople known by the authors or by some authors’ friendsor relatives. All the authors of the present paper have beenborn in and live in or have links and frequent contactswith one of the studied territories, which facilitated the
approach to the informants. A special emphasis has beenmade in contacting older people, since we supposed themto possess a higher amount of traditional knowledge due tothe years of experience and the possibility of rememberingpretouristic times, although young people have also beentaken into account. In AE 101 interviews with a total of 179informants (71% women, 29% men, maximum, minimum,and mean ages 95, 23, and 71 years, resp.) were carriedout from 1995 to 2008. In AT 42 interviews concerning 60informants (63% women, 37% men, maximum, minimum,and mean ages 87, 45, and 71 years, resp.) were performedin 2004 and 2005. In FO, 12 interviews were performedwith 14 informants (78.6% women, 21.4% men, maximum,minimum, and mean ages 90, 68, and 80 years, resp.) in 2010and 2011. In MA 42 informants (40% women, 60% men,maximum, minimum, and mean ages 99, 28, and 77 years,resp.) were interviewed between 2005 and 2011.
2.3. Ethnobotanical Interviews. The conversations wererecorded, and pictures were taken during their development,all this with the permission of the informants. We did notuse a closed questionnaire and avoided as much as possibleasking direct questions, so as not to coerce the intervieweesand so diminish their spontaneity. We used a combinationof what the ethnographers call nonstructured or nondirectedinterview and the model termed as structured, direct, orfocused interview [49], the latter called semistructured inmost ethnobiological literature [50]. In some cases wealso practised what the above-cited authors termed groupinterview, but those with only one informant constituted themajority. Since, as already stated, the authors live in or gofrequently to the study areas, participant observation [50, 51]has also been conducted in a large number of cases. Mosttimes more than one conversation with an informant wasperformed. During the interviews we asked the informants,in addition to their providing data on plant knowledge, totell us how, when, and where they collected the plants, howthey kept them, and how they prepared them for use. Oneof the principal points in our interviews being medicinalplants, an effort has been made to steer the conversation notonly towards comments relevant to human medicine but alsotouching the health and treatment of domestic animals. So,we asked the informants about plants traditionally used inthe area for treating animal illnesses.
2.4. Plant Collection and Identification. Plant materials of alltaxa mentioned were collected according to the advice andrecommendations of the informants and, whenever possible,together with them. They were identified using the Flora delsPaısos Catalans [52], the Flora Manual dels Paısos Catalans[53], and counting, in some cases, on the help of specialistsin floristic and systematic botany. For foreign or cultivatedspecies determination we followed [54, 55]. Vouchers aredeposited in the herbarium BCN (Centre de Documentaciode Biodiversitat Vegetal, Universitat de Barcelona).
2.5. Data Analysis. Data collected were introduced andanalysed using a database we had designed [56] to ensure an
4 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
organized pool of the gathered information from interviews.This permitted the standardisation of data entry and furtheranalysis. This database has been designed as an open sourceinterface, a constantly growing platform for ethnobotanicaldata collected within Catalan-speaking territories. Technicalcharacteristics of the database are a MySQL server, readon php format and data exported as csv. With comparisonintentions, we made an analysis of the coincidences andthe degree of novelty between our own data and data frombibliography on ethnoveterinary plant uses in different areas(see the literature quoted in the introduction, especially[27], which constitutes a checklist of world ethnoveterinaryplants).
Several quantitative ethnobotany indices accounting forthe relevance and/or reliability of folk plant knowledgehave been calculated for the ethnoveterinary plant uses inthe territories studied: ethnoveterinaricity index (EvI), anadaptation of Portere’s ethnobotanicity index (EI, [57]) toveterinary plant uses; informant consensus factor (FIC, [58]);cultural importance index for each species and for all theterritories (CI, [59]), on the basis of all informants, havingor not provided veterinarian information. Also, the Jaccard’ssimilarity index [60] has been calculated from the matrix ofall use reports (for the four areas) using R software [61],and its visualisation has been designed as a PCA (principalcomponent analysis) plot. This plot is complementary to a 4-term Venn diagram [62] that compares the number of plantspecies shared (one-to-one and by groups) among studiedterritories. Statistical analyses were carried out using XLSTAT2009 v.3.02 (Addinsoft Corporation) available for MicrosoftExcel 2003. Descriptive statistics (including rank, mean, andstandard deviation, among other parameters) have beencalculated for all the studied variables. One-way ANOVA hasbeen conducted in order to test the differences, if any, in theCI among three studied areas (MA and FO are grouped toavoid a sampling bias). Least significant difference (LSD) testwas carried out after ANOVA analysis to identify which pairsare significantly different. Chi-square (χ2) tests are used tocompare the parameters (part of plant, pharmaceutical form,etc.) among studied areas.
3. Results and Discussion
In the Catalan and Balearic areas studied, 97 plant species(101 taxa to the levels of subspecies and variety; 49 in AE, 49in AT, 11 in FO, 17 in MA) have been claimed to be usefulfor veterinary purposes. Table 1 presents the plants recorded,grouped in alphabetical order of genera, with indicationof scientific and local Catalan names, herbarium vouchernumber, botanical family, part used, pharmaceutical form,administration way, and veterinary and human uses. Table 2summarizes numerical information on the informants andthe territories studied, the plants used, reports, local names,families and related data, and some quantitative ethnob-otany indexes calculated for these plant uses in the areasprospected.
Apart from the plants used against animal diseases,a considerable percentage of plant species are employed
in the different areas as fodder: 21% (AT), 73% (AE),16% (MA), and 14% (FO). This paper being specificallydevoted to medicinal uses, we did not consider all feedplants as having an ethnoveterinary application. Anywaythey, too, contribute to animal health, and in many casesthe informants attribute them with medicinal propertiescomplementary to the nutritional effect. These plants fitwithin the category of folk functional foods, proposed byRigat et al. [37] to include plants traditionally used asnutraceuticals or food medicines, terms usually applied inhuman medicine, but perfectly transposable to veterinarymedicine. As Pearson [15] remarked, there is a frequent pos-sible confusion between feed and drug in ethnoveterinary.
The number of veterinary plant taxa (101) is inter-mediate between those recorded in the two precedentinvestigations on this subject in the Catalan cultural area(89 in Montseny [31], 195 in Pallars, Pyrenees [36]). Italso occupies a medium position in a ranking going from36 to 280 taxa used for animal health care in European,African, Asian, and American territories [12, 18, 19, 22,23, 33–35]. In fact, it is not far from the average of thedata contained in the 10 studies reported in the precedinglines (121.3 average taxa for the 11 studies), representing alarge geographical range and up to a third of the 451 taxacollected in a world checklist of veterinary botanicals [27].The big differences among plant number in these areas maybe attributed, apart from geographical and possible culturalfacts, to the different extension of the territories prospected(from small communities to entire countries). In any case,we can consider the number of plant taxa reported in thepresent study as rather high, taking into account the decreasein folk animal health practices experienced in industrialisedareas [1].
The ten most reported plants were Tanacetum parthe-nium (24 use reports), Parietaria officinalis (15), Ranunculusparnassifolius (14), Meum athamanticum (13), Olea europaea(13), Quercus ilex (12), Ruta chalepensis (12), Sambucus nigra(10), Thymus vulgaris (10), and Malva sylvestris (9). Amongthese plants, there are some of the most reported also inother Mediterranean territories, especially Malva sylvestris,Parietaria officinalis, Ruta chalepensis, Sambucus nigra, andThymus vulgaris [18, 30, 31, 33, 35, 36]. An originality ofthis study is the report in top position in the ranking ofMeum athamanticum and Ranunculus parnassifolius. Thesetwo central European high mountain plants [53], reported,respectively, for the second and first time in veterinary (seeSection 3.2 and Table 1), are much appreciated in one of theregions studied (AT), the first one as postlabour coadjuvantand the second one for different kinds of uses, antineoplasticincluded. Another high mountain Ranunculus species (R.aconitifolius) has been recorded from Occitan shepherds ofa French Central Massif region with a use (resolutive) coin-cidental with one of those of R. parnassifolius in the studiedarea [26]. It is worth mentioning also the plant occupying the11th position in our list as per number of reports, Eryngiumcampestre. This plant, only reported in veterinary to datewith the same use in another Catalan region [31], and withdifferent uses in Andalusia [34] and Aragon [63], is widelyemployed in two of the areas prospected (AE, AT) as an
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 5
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+su
bsp.
vulg
aris
(Ch
enop
odia
ceae
,BC
N24
724)
bled
aLe
afM
edic
inal
brot
hIn
tern
alPo
stpa
rtu
mco
adju
van
t(e
mol
lien
t)2
0A
T(0
.033
,0.0
07)
Bra
ssic
aol
erac
eaL.
+su
bsp.
oler
acea
(Bra
ssic
acea
e,B
CN
3218
1)br
oqu
ilFl
ower
edae
rial
part
Tis
ane
Inte
rnal
An
tidi
arrh
oeal
10
AE
(0.0
06,0
.003
)
Bry
onia
cret
ica
L.+
subs
p.di
oica
(Jac
q.)
Tuti
n(C
ucu
rbit
acea
e,B
CN
2473
0)
carb
assı
,car
bass
ina
Roo
tB
ath
Ext
ern
alA
nti
para
siti
c1
0A
T(0
.07,
0.01
)Li
nim
ent
(wit
hU
mbi
licus
rupe
stri
s)E
xter
nal
Toh
ealw
oun
ds2
1A
T
Pou
ltic
eE
xter
nal
An
tide
rmat
ose
10
AT
Cal
endu
laoffi
cina
lisL.
(Ast
erac
eae,
BC
N24
732)
cale
ndu
laFl
ower
hea
dE
ssen
ceE
xter
nal
An
tito
xic
11
AT
(0.0
17,0
.003
)
Cap
sella
+bu
rsa-
past
oris
(L.)
Med
ic.
(Bra
ssic
acea
e,B
CN
2473
6)bo
ssa
depa
stor
,cap
sbl
ancs
Flow
ered
aeri
alpa
rtT
isan
eIn
tern
al
Post
part
um
coad
juva
nt
(an
ti-
hem
orrh
agic
and
anti
hyp
erte
nsi
ve)
11
AT
(0.0
17,0
.003
)
Cap
sicu
man
nuum
L.(S
olan
acea
e,B
CN
2473
7)pe
bre
coen
tFr
uit
Mac
erat
ion
inoi
lE
xter
nal
Inse
ctre
pelle
nt
20
MA
(0.0
5,0.
007)
Cen
taur
ium∗
eryt
hrae
aR
afn
subs
p.er
ythr
aea
(Gen
tian
acea
e+,B
CN
2984
9)h
erba
desa
nta
Au
raFl
ower
edae
rial
part
Tis
ane
Inte
rnal
Hyp
erte
nsi
ve1
0A
E(0
.006
,0.0
03)
Cer
aton
iasi
liqua
L.+
(Fab
acea
e,B
CN
3217
7)ga
rrof
a(f
ruit
)G
rain
Dir
ect
inge
stio
nIn
tern
alA
nti
diar
rhoe
al1
0A
E(0
.006
,0.0
03)
Cit
rus
limon
(L.)
Bu
rm.f
.+
(Ru
tace
ae,B
CN
4685
3)
llim
oner
,llim
oner
a,lli
mon
a(f
ruit
)Fr
uit
juic
eD
irec
tap
plic
atio
nE
xter
nal
Ocu
lar
anti
sept
ic1
0A
E(0
.006
,0.0
1)
Dir
ect
inge
stio
nIn
tern
alIn
tern
alan
tise
ptic
11
MA
(0.0
24,0
.01)
Fru
it(e
pica
rp)
Med
icin
also
up
(boi
led
rice
wit
hle
mon
pee
l)In
tern
alA
nti
diar
rhoe
al1
0A
T(0
.017
,0.0
1)
Cle
mat
isfla
mm
ula
L.∗
(Ran
un
cula
ceae
,BC
N29
856)
san
tjoa
net
,vid
auba
No
data
Pou
ltic
eE
xter
nal
For
swin
eer
ysip
elas
10
MA
(0.0
24,0
.003
)C
ucur
bita
max
ima
Du
ch.i
nL
am.
(Cu
curb
itac
eae,
BC
N-S
1499
)ra
bequ
et(f
ruit
)Fr
uit
Oin
tmen
tE
xter
nal
An
ti-
infl
amm
ator
y1
1A
E(0
.006
,0.0
03)
Cuc
urbi
tape
poL.
+
(Cu
curb
itac
eae,
BC
N24
757)
carb
assa
Fru
itO
intm
ent
Ext
ern
alA
nti
sept
ic1
1A
T(0
.017
,0.0
03)
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7
Ta
ble
1:C
onti
nu
ed.
Scie
nti
fic
nam
es(f
amily
,vou
cher
spec
imen
)C
atal
ann
ames
Part
use
dP
har
mac
euti
calf
orm
Adm
inis
trat
ion
way
Vet
erin
ary
use
VR
HR
Are
a(C
I,C
Ig)
Dap
hne
gnid
ium
L.(T
hym
elae
acea
e+,B
CN
2968
7)ti
nto
rell,
mat
apol
lSt
emD
irec
tap
plic
atio
nE
xter
nal
Vu
lner
ary
10
AE
(0.0
1,0.
01)
An
tidi
arrh
oeal
10
AE
,FO
(0.0
7,0.
01)
Dip
lota
xis∗
eruc
oide
s(L
.)D
C.
(Bra
ssic
acea
e,B
CN
2986
1)ca
pbl
anc
Flow
ered
aeri
alpa
rtD
irec
tin
gest
ion
Inte
rnal
Gal
acto
fugu
e1
0A
E(0
.006
,0.
003)
Dra
cunc
ulus∗
vulg
aris
Sch
ott.
(Ara
ceae
,BC
N24
765)
her
baes
curc
oner
aB
ulb
Em
broc
atio
nE
xter
nal
An
tito
xic
22
AT
(0.0
5,0.
01)
Flow
erD
irec
tap
plic
atio
nE
xter
nal
An
tito
xic
11
AT
Erio
botr
ya∗
japo
nica
(Thu
nb.
)L
indl
.(R
osac
eae,
BC
N66
823)
nis
prer
o,n
ispr
o(f
ruit
)Le
afD
ecoc
tion
Inte
rnal
An
tidi
arrh
oeal
24
MA
(0.0
5,0.
007)
Eryn
gium
cam
pest
reL.
(Api
acea
e,B
CN
3127
4)
espi
nac
alFl
ower
edae
rial
part
Oin
tmen
tE
xter
nal
An
tiop
hid
ian
10
AE
(0.0
06,0
.03)
Roo
tLi
nim
ent
Ext
ern
alA
nti
oph
idia
n2
2A
T(0
.12,
0.03
)A
eria
lpar
tD
irec
tap
plic
atio
nE
xter
nal
An
tiop
hid
ian
44
AT
An
tial
gic
10
AT
Eryn
gium
bour
gati
iL.∗
(Api
acea
e,B
CN
2488
1)es
pin
acal
Roo
tLi
nim
ent
Ext
ern
alA
nti
oph
idia
n1
1A
T(0
.08,
0.02
)A
eria
lpar
tD
irec
tap
plic
atio
nE
xter
nal
An
tiop
hid
ian
44
AT
Euca
lypt
usgl
obul
usL
abill
.+
(Myr
tace
ae,B
CN
2969
6)eu
calip
to,c
alip
toLe
afV
apou
rIn
tern
alA
nti
cata
rrh
al2
47
AE
(0.0
06,0
.007
),FO
(0.0
7,0.
007)
Foen
icul
umvu
lgar
eM
ill.
(Api
acea
e,B
CN
2488
8)fo
nol
lA
eria
lpar
tD
irec
tin
gest
ion
Inte
rnal
An
tidi
arrh
oeal
10
MA
(0.0
2,0.
003)
Frax
inus
exce
lsio
rL.
(Ole
acea
e,B
CN
2489
0)
frei
xeC
orti
cal
pare
nch
yma
Lin
imen
t(d
ecoc
tion
wit
hB
ryon
iacr
etic
a)E
xter
nal
Toh
ealw
oun
ds1
1A
T(0
.03,
0.00
7)
Bat
h(d
ecoc
tion
wit
hQ
uerc
uspu
besc
ens)
Ext
ern
alTo
hea
lwou
nds
11
AT
Gen
tian
aac
aulis
L.+
(Gen
tian
acea
e+,B
CN
2489
2)ge
nci
ana
No
data
No
data
Ext
ern
alA
nti
derm
atos
e1
0A
T(0
.02,
0.00
3)
Gen
tian
alu
tea
L.∗
(Gen
tian
acea
e+,B
CN
2489
3)ge
nci
ana
Roo
tB
ath
Ext
ern
alV
uln
erar
y1
0A
T(0
.02,
0.00
3)
Ger
aniu
mro
tund
ifol
ium
L.(G
eran
iace
ae,B
CN
2970
1)ci
cuta
Aer
ialp
art
Oin
tmen
tE
xter
nal
Vu
lner
ary
11
AE
(0.0
06,0
.003
)G
lobu
lari
aal
ypum
L.(G
lobu
lari
acea
e∗,B
CN
5308
2)co
ssia
daTe
nde
rae
rial
part
Dir
ect
inge
stio
nIn
tern
alA
nor
exig
en1
0M
A(0
.02,
0.00
3)
8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Ta
ble
1:C
onti
nu
ed.
Scie
nti
fic
nam
es(f
amily
,vou
cher
spec
imen
)C
atal
ann
ames
Part
use
dP
har
mac
euti
calf
orm
Adm
inis
trat
ion
way
Vet
erin
ary
use
VR
HR
Are
a(C
I,C
Ig)
Her
niar
iahi
rsut
aL.∗
subs
p.ci
nere
a(D
C.)
Arc
ang.
(Car
yoph
ylla
ceae
,BC
N23
330)
tren
cape
dra
Aer
ialp
art
Tis
ane
Inte
rnal
Diu
reti
c2
5M
A(0
.05,
0.00
3)H
erni
aria
glab
raL.
+
(Car
yoph
ylla
ceae
,BC
N24
901)
her
bade
mil
gran
es,h
erba
dele
sm
ilgr
anes
Aer
ialp
art
Tis
ane
Inte
rnal
An
tiic
teri
c1
0A
T(0
.02,
0.00
3)
Hyp
eric
umpe
rfor
atum
L.(C
lusi
acea
e,B
CN
2987
4)h
erba
deSa
nt
Joan
Flow
ered
aeri
alpa
rtO
intm
ent
Ext
ern
alFo
rm
asti
tis
10
AE
(0.0
06,0
.003
)Ju
nipe
rus
com
mun
isL.
subs
p.al
pina
(Su
ter)
Cel
ak∗
(Cu
pres
sace
ae,B
CN
2491
0)
gin
ebre
,gin
ebro
,oli
degi
neb
reFr
uit
Oin
tmen
tE
xter
nal
An
tide
rmat
ose
32
AT
(0.0
5,0.
01)
Juni
peru
sco
mm
unis
L.su
bsp.
com
mun
is(C
upr
essa
ceae
,BC
N29
878)
gin
ebre
Fru
itO
intm
ent
Ext
ern
al
An
ti-
infl
amm
ator
y/A
nti
algi
c/A
nti
ecch
ymot
ic
10
AE
(0.0
1,0.
007)
Vu
lner
ary
10
AE
Juni
peru
sox
yced
rus
L.+
(Cu
pres
sace
ae,B
CN
2987
9)
cade
c,gi
neb
roFr
uit
Oin
tmen
tE
xter
nal
Vu
lner
ary
10
AE
(0.0
3,0.
02)
Dem
ulc
ent
10
AE
An
tifu
nga
l1
0A
EIn
tern
alan
tise
ptic
10
AE
For
asp
rain
edle
g1
0A
E
Lava
ndul
ala
tifo
liaM
edic
.+
(Lam
iace
ae,B
CN
2988
2)es
pıgo
lFl
ower
edst
emD
irec
tap
plic
atio
nE
xter
nal
An
tiop
hid
ian
10
AE
(0.0
06,0
.003
)Li
lium∗
pyre
naic
umG
ouan
(Lili
acea
e,B
CN
2491
8)co
nso
lta,
con
solt
agr
oga
Bu
lbLi
nim
ent
Ext
ern
alTo
hea
lwou
nds
11
AT
(0.0
3,0.
007)
Pou
ltic
eE
xter
nal
Toh
ealw
oun
ds1
1A
T
Linu
mus
itat
issi
mum
L.(L
inac
eae,
BC
N47
281)
lli,l
linet
,oli
delli
nos
a(p
rodu
ct)
Gra
inO
intm
ent
Ext
ern
alV
uln
erar
y1
0A
E(0
.01,
0.00
7)
En
ema
Inte
rnal
Laxa
tive
16
AE
Lith
ospe
rmum
∗offi
cina
leL.
(Bor
agin
acea
e,B
CN
2492
2)h
erba
ped
rera
,mill
dels
ol,
taba
cA
eria
lpar
tw
ith
fru
its
Tis
ane
Inte
rnal
Post
part
um
coad
juva
nt
10
AT
(0.0
06,0
.003
)Ly
thru
msa
licar
iaL.
+
(Lyt
hra
ceae
,BC
N29
724)
tapa
culs
Flow
ered
aeri
alpa
rtT
isan
eIn
tern
alA
nti
diar
rhoe
al3
3A
E(0
.02,
0.01
)
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9
Ta
ble
1:C
onti
nu
ed.
Scie
nti
fic
nam
es(f
amily
,vou
cher
spec
imen
)C
atal
ann
ames
Part
use
dP
har
mac
euti
calf
orm
Adm
inis
trat
ion
way
Vet
erin
ary
use
VR
HR
Are
a(C
I,C
Ig)
Mal
vasy
lves
tris
L.(M
alva
ceae
,BC
N24
924)
mal
vaN
oda
taT
isan
eIn
tern
alA
nti
-in
flam
mat
ory
14
FO(0
.07,
0.00
3)
Flow
erD
ecoc
tion
Inte
rnal
An
tise
ptic
21
AT
(0.1
3,0.
03)
Flow
ered
aeri
alpa
rtT
isan
e(w
ith
Pari
etar
iaoffi
cina
lis)
Inte
rnal
Post
part
um
coad
juva
nt
21
AT
Tis
ane
(wit
hPa
riet
aria
offici
nalis
,P
lant
ago
lanc
eola
ta,
and
Pla
ntag
om
ajor
)
Inte
rnal
Post
part
um
coad
juva
nt
10
AT
Diu
reti
c1
0A
TT
isan
e(w
ith
Um
bilic
usru
pest
ris)
Inte
rnal
Pu
rgat
ive
10
AT
En
ema
(wit
hPa
riet
aria
offici
nalis
)In
tern
alP
urg
ativ
e1
0A
T
Mar
rubi
umvu
lgar
eL.
(Lam
iace
ae,B
CN
2972
6)h
erba
delm
alro
igA
eria
lpar
tT
isan
eIn
tern
alFo
rsw
ine
erys
ipel
as1
0A
E(0
.006
,0.0
03)
Mat
rica
ria
recu
tita
L.+
(Ast
erac
eae,
BC
N29
890)
cam
amill
aIn
flor
esce
nce
Dir
ect
inge
stio
nIn
tern
alD
iges
tive
128
AE
(0.0
1,0.
007)
Gas
tric
and
inte
stin
alan
ti-
infl
amm
ator
y1
13A
E
Men
tha
spic
ata
L.∗
(Lam
iace
ae,B
CN
2999
5)m
enta
delc
onso
lTe
nde
rae
rial
part
Tis
ane
Inte
rnal
Post
part
um
coad
juva
nt
10
AE
(0.0
06,0
.003
)M
enth
asu
aveo
lens
Eh
rh.+
(Lam
iace
ae,B
CN
2999
4)h
erba
san
aA
eria
lpar
tT
isan
eIn
tern
alA
nti
hel
min
thic
11
MA
(0.0
2,0.
003)
Mer
curi
alis
annu
aL.
(Eu
phor
biac
eae,
BC
N29
896)
mu
rcar
olA
eria
lpar
tT
isan
eIn
tern
alL
axat
ive
22
AE
(0.0
2,0.
01)
Dir
ect
inge
stio
nIn
tern
alL
axat
ive
10
AE
Meu
m+
atha
man
ticu
mJa
cq.s
ubs
p.at
ham
anti
cum
(Api
acea
e,B
CN
2493
3)
her
bade
lmeu
,meu
Roo
tT
isan
e(d
ecoc
tion
wit
hSe
neci
ole
ucop
hyllu
s)In
tern
alPo
stpa
rtu
mco
adju
van
t(a
nti
sept
ic)
131
AT
(0.2
3,0.
05)
Wh
ole
plan
tT
isan
e(d
ecoc
tion
wit
hSa
xifr
aga
long
ifol
ia)
Inte
rnal
Post
part
um
coad
juva
nt
10
AT
Nic
otia
naru
stic
aL.
+
(Sol
anac
eae,
BC
N46
839)
taba
cpo
taLe
afD
irec
tin
gest
ion
Inte
rnal
Em
etic
11
FO(0
.14,
0.00
7)
Oci
mum
basi
licum
L.+
(Lam
iace
ae,B
CN
2989
7)
fabr
ega
Aer
ialp
art
Tis
ane
(bat
h)
Ext
ern
alP
uer
per
alan
tise
ptic
10
AE
(0.0
1,0.
007)
Ext
ern
alan
tise
ptic
10
AE
10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Ta
ble
1:C
onti
nu
ed.
Scie
nti
fic
nam
es(f
amily
,vou
cher
spec
imen
)C
atal
ann
ames
Part
use
dP
har
mac
euti
calf
orm
Adm
inis
trat
ion
way
Vet
erin
ary
use
VR
HR
Are
a(C
I,C
Ig)
Ole
aeu
ropa
eaL
.var
.eur
opae
a(O
leac
eae,
BC
N29
898)
oliv
era,
olid
’oliv
a(p
rodu
ct)
Fru
itO
intm
ent
Ext
ern
alFo
rm
asti
tis
10
AE
(0.0
6,0.
04)
An
tisc
abby
10
AE
Vu
lner
ary
10
AE
Cic
atri
zin
g4
0A
E,F
O(0
.07,
0.04
)A
nti
sept
ic1
0A
ED
irec
tap
plic
atio
nE
xter
nal
Hae
mos
tati
c1
0A
T(0
.03,
0.04
)Ta
blet
sIn
tern
alSa
luti
fero
us
11
AE
Pou
ltic
eE
xter
nal
Inse
ctre
pelle
nt
30
AT,
MA
(0.0
5,0.
04)
Ori
ganu
m+
vulg
are∗
L.(L
amia
ceae
,BC
N29
742)
oren
gaFl
ower
edst
emD
irec
tin
gest
ion
Inte
rnal
Post
part
um
coad
juva
nt
10
AE
(0.0
06,0
.007
)
Aer
ialp
art
Tis
ane
Inte
rnal
Inte
rnal
anti
sept
ic1
2FO
(0.0
71,0
.007
)
Ory
zasa
tiva
L.(
Poac
eae,
BC
N39
208)
arro
sG
rain
Tis
ane
(boi
led
rice
wit
hle
mon
pee
l)In
tern
alA
nti
diar
rhoe
al1
2A
T(0
.02,
0.00
3)
Pari
etar
iaoffi
cina
lisL.
subs
p.ju
daic
a(L
.)B
egu
inot
(Urt
icac
eae,
BC
N29
745)
blet
depa
ret,
cam
a-ro
jaA
eria
lpar
tB
oile
dpl
ant
and
its
deco
ctio
nIn
tern
alL
axat
ive
11
AE
(0.0
06,0
.003
)
Pari
etar
iaoffi
cina
lisL.
(Urt
icac
eae,
BC
N24
942)
blet
,ble
tde
pare
tA
eria
lpar
tD
ecoc
tion
(wit
hM
alva
sylv
estr
is)
Inte
rnal
An
tise
ptic
22
AT
(0.3
,0.0
5)
Med
icin
albr
oth
(wit
hB
eta
vulg
aris
,bre
adan
dol
ive
oil)
Inte
rnal
Post
part
um
coad
juva
nt
(em
ollie
nt)
91
AT
Tis
ane
(dec
octi
onw
ith
Mal
vasy
lves
tris
)In
tern
alPo
stpa
rtu
mco
adju
van
t1
0A
T
Diu
reti
c1
0A
TP
urg
ativ
e1
1A
TE
nem
aIn
tern
alP
urg
ativ
e1
1A
T
Petr
osel
inum
cris
pum
(Mill
.)H
ill+
(Api
acea
e,B
CN
2990
5)
juliv
ert
Leaf
Dir
ect
inge
stio
nIn
tern
alA
phro
disi
ac1
0A
E(0
.01,
0.01
)W
hol
epl
ant
Dir
ect
appl
icat
ion
Inte
rnal
Aph
rodi
siac
10
AT
(0.0
2,0.
01)
Roo
tPo
ult
ice
Ext
ern
alA
nti
paro
tid
(for
mu
mps
)1
0A
E
Pim
pine
llaan
isum
L.(A
piac
eae,
BC
N47
278)
anıs
(fru
it)
Fru
itE
lixir
Inte
rnal
Ru
min
ant
anti
stat
ic1
0A
E(0
.006
,0.0
03)
Pin
usha
lepe
nsis
Mill
.+
(Pin
acea
e,B
CN
2982
6)
pi,p
ibor
dB
ark
Dir
ect
appl
icat
ion
Ext
ern
alE
pith
esis
10
AE
(0.0
06,0
.007
)
Res
inO
intm
ent
Ext
ern
alE
xter
nal
anti
sept
ic1
3M
A(0
.02,
0.00
7)
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11
Ta
ble
1:C
onti
nu
ed.
Scie
nti
fic
nam
es(f
amily
,vou
cher
spec
imen
)C
atal
ann
ames
Part
use
dP
har
mac
euti
calf
orm
Adm
inis
trat
ion
way
Vet
erin
ary
use
VR
HR
Are
a(C
I,C
Ig)
Pin
ussp
.(P
inac
eae)
pega
neg
ra(p
rodu
ct)
Res
inO
intm
ent
Ext
ern
alP
uer
per
alan
tise
ptic
10
AE
(0.0
1,0.
007)
Patc
hE
xter
nal
For
asp
rain
edle
g1
0A
E
Pin
ussy
lves
tris
L.+
(Pin
acea
e,B
CN
2725
9)pi
,pir
oig,
peg
an
egra
(pro
duct
)R
esin
Pou
ltic
eE
xter
nal
Epi
thes
is1
0A
T(0
.02,
0.00
3)
Pla
ntag
ola
nceo
lata
L.(P
lan
tagi
nac
eae,
BC
N24
949)
plan
tatg
e,pl
anta
tge
estr
et,
plan
tatg
ella
rgLe
afT
isan
e(w
ith
Pari
etar
iaoffi
cina
lis)
Inte
rnal
Post
part
um
coad
juva
nt
(diu
reti
c)1
0A
T(0
.02,
0.00
3)
Pla
ntag
om
ajor
L.(P
lan
tagi
nac
eae,
BC
N24
950)
plan
tatg
e,pl
anta
tge
ampl
e,pl
anta
tge
rodo
Leaf
Tis
ane
(wit
hPa
riet
aria
offici
nalis
)In
tern
alPo
stpa
rtu
mco
adju
van
t(d
iure
tic)
10
AT
(0.0
2,0.
003)
Pte
ridi
umaq
uilin
um(L
.)K
uh
n(P
olyp
odia
ceae
,BC
N46
068)
falg
uer
aFr
ond
Dir
ect
appl
icat
ion
Ext
ern
alFo
rfl
eain
fest
atio
n1
1A
E(0
.006
,0.0
03)
Que
rcus
ilex
L.su
bsp.
ilex
+
(Fag
acea
e,B
CN
2993
2)
alzi
na,
aulin
aB
ark
Tis
ane
(bat
h)
Ext
ern
alV
uln
erar
y6
2A
E(0
.05,
0.04
)T
isan
eIn
tern
alA
nti
diar
rhoe
al3
0A
EB
ath
Ext
ern
alA
nti
sept
ic3
1A
T(0
.05,
0.04
)
Que
rcus
petr
aea
(Mat
t.)
Lieb
l.∗
(Fag
acea
e,B
CN
2496
4)ro
ure
Inte
rnal
bark
Bat
h(w
ith
Frax
inus
exce
lsio
r)E
xter
nal
An
tise
ptic
30
AT
(0.0
7,0.
01)
Bat
hE
xter
nal
Cic
atri
zin
g1
1A
T
Ram
onda
∗m
ycon
i(L.
)R
eich
enb.
(Ges
ner
iace
ae,B
CN
2496
5)or
ella
d’os
Aer
ialp
art
Tis
ane
Inte
rnal
Post
part
um
coad
juva
nt
(an
tise
ptic
)1
0A
T(0
.02,
0.00
3)
Ran
uncu
lus
parn
assi
foliu
sL.∗
(Ran
un
cula
ceae
,BC
N24
967)
her
bade
lmal
gra
Wh
ole
plan
tLi
nim
ent
Ext
ern
alA
nti
gan
gren
ous
11
AT
(0.2
,0.0
5)Li
nim
ent,
bath
Ext
ern
alA
nti
sept
ic4
5A
TLi
nim
ent,
bath
Ext
ern
alR
esol
uti
ve4
5A
TL
inim
ent,
pou
ltic
eE
xter
nal
An
tin
eopl
asti
c5
6A
T
Ros
mar
inus
offici
nalis
L.(L
amia
ceae
,BC
N29
937)
rom
anı
Flow
ered
stem
Tis
ane
Inte
rnal
Post
part
um
coad
juva
nt
10
AE
(0.0
06,0
.007
)A
eria
lpar
tD
irec
tin
gest
ion
Inte
rnal
An
tidi
arrh
oeal
10
FO(0
.07,
0.00
7)
12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Ta
ble
1:C
onti
nu
ed.
Scie
nti
fic
nam
es(f
amily
,vou
cher
spec
imen
)C
atal
ann
ames
Part
use
dP
har
mac
euti
calf
orm
Adm
inis
trat
ion
way
Vet
erin
ary
use
VR
HR
Are
a(C
I,C
Ig)
Rut
ach
alep
ensi
sL.
(Ru
tace
ae,B
CN
2994
0)
ruda
Aer
ialp
art
Dir
ect
inge
stio
nIn
tern
alC
arm
inat
ive
10
AE
(0.0
06,0
.04)
Ru
min
ant
anti
stat
ic2
0M
A(0
.07,
0.04
)
Dir
ect
appl
icat
ion
Ext
ern
alPo
stpa
rtu
mco
adju
van
t(a
nti
sept
ic)
30
AT
(0.1
0,0.
04)
Tran
quili
zer
10
FO(0
.14,
0.04
)Fl
eare
pel
len
t1
0FO
Em
broc
atio
n(w
ith
Bry
onia
cret
ica
orU
mbi
licus
rupe
stri
s)E
xter
nal
Toh
ealw
oun
ds1
2A
T
Lin
imen
tE
xter
nal
Toh
ealw
oun
ds1
2A
TA
nti
-in
flam
mat
ory
10
AT
No
data
Inte
rnal
An
tih
elm
inth
ic1
10M
A
Sam
bucu
sni
gra
L.(C
apri
folia
ceae
,BC
N29
943)
sabu
quer
,sab
uc,
flor
desa
buc
Infl
ores
cen
ceFu
mig
atio
nE
xter
nal
For
mas
titi
s1
0A
E(0
.006
,0.0
3)
Flow
erT
isan
e(w
ith
Ach
illea
ptar
mic
a)In
tern
alA
nti
diar
rhoe
al2
1A
T(0
.15,
0.03
)
Tis
ane
Inte
rnal
Inte
stin
alan
tise
ptic
214
AT
Ess
ence
(wit
hA
chill
eapt
arm
ica)
Inte
rnal
An
tidi
arrh
oeal
21
AT
Ess
ence
Inte
rnal
Inte
stin
alan
tise
ptic
214
AT
Fru
itSy
rup
Inte
rnal
Inte
stin
alan
tise
ptic
19
AT
Sant
olin
ach
amae
cypa
riss
usL.∗
(Ast
erac
eae,
BC
N29
944)
cam
amill
aFl
ower
hea
dT
isan
eIn
tern
alIn
tern
alan
tise
ptic
15
FO(0
.07,
0.01
)
Bat
hE
xter
nal
Ocu
lar
anti
sept
ic2
8M
A(0
.07,
0.01
)
En
ema
Inte
rnal
Pu
erp
eral
anti
sept
ic1
0M
A
Saxi
frag
alo
ngif
olia
Lap.∗
(Sax
ifra
gace
ae)
coro
na
dere
iA
eria
lpar
t
Tis
ane
(wit
hR
amon
dam
ycon
ior
Meu
mat
ham
anti
cum
)
Inte
rnal
Post
part
um
coad
juva
nt
(an
tise
ptic
)1
0A
T(0
.02,
0.00
3)
Saxi
frag
apa
nicu
lata
Mill
.+
(Sax
ifra
gace
ae,B
CN
2499
2)co
ron
ade
rei
Aer
ialp
art
Tis
ane
Inte
rnal
Inte
stin
alan
ti-
infl
amm
ator
y1
1A
T(0
.03,
0.00
7)
Post
part
um
coad
juva
nt
10
AT
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 13
Ta
ble
1:C
onti
nu
ed.
Scie
nti
fic
nam
es(f
amily
,vou
cher
spec
imen
)C
atal
ann
ames
Part
use
dP
har
mac
euti
calf
orm
Adm
inis
trat
ion
way
Vet
erin
ary
use
VR
HR
Are
a(C
I,C
Ig)
Scab
iosa
colu
mba
ria
L.∗
(Dip
saca
ceae
,BC
N24
993)
esca
bios
a,es
capi
osa,
her
bad’
esca
pios
aA
eria
lpar
tT
isan
eIn
tern
alA
nti
para
siti
c1
0A
T(0
.02,
0.00
3)
Sedu
m+
sedi
form
e(J
acq.
)Pa
u∗
(Cra
ssu
lace
ae,B
CN
2979
2)m
ort-
i-vi
u,h
erba
deSa
nt
Pere
Leaf
Pou
ltic
eE
xter
nal
An
ti-
infl
amm
ator
y/A
nti
algi
c/A
nti
ecch
ymot
ic
10
AE
(0.0
1,0.
007)
An
tise
ptic
10
AE
Sedu
m+
tele
phiu
mL.∗
(Cra
ssu
lace
ae,B
CN
2499
5)ar
ros
depa
ret,
bals
am,h
erba
gras
sa,m
ataf
ocs
Leaf
Oin
tmen
tE
xter
nal
An
tide
rmat
ose
22
AT
(0.0
3,0.
007)
Sem
perv
ivum
mon
tanu
mL.∗
(Cra
ssu
lace
ae,B
CN
2499
6)m
ataf
ocde
mu
nta
nya
Aer
ialp
art
Lin
imen
tE
xter
nal
An
tide
rmat
ose
10
AT
(0.0
2,0.
003)
Sene
cio
leuc
ophy
llus
L.∗
(Ast
erac
eae,
BC
N24
998)
her
babl
anca
Aer
ialp
art
Tis
ane
(dec
octi
onw
ith
Meu
mat
ham
anti
cum
)In
tern
alPo
stpa
rtu
mco
adju
van
t1
0A
T(0
.02,
0.00
3)
Solid
ago
virg
aure
aL.∗
(Ast
erac
eae,
BC
N25
007)
vara
d’or
Flow
ered
aeri
alpa
rtT
isan
eIn
tern
alA
nti
toxi
c1
0A
T(0
.02,
0.00
3)
Sonc
hus
oler
aceu
sL.
(Ast
erac
eae,
BC
N29
953)
llips
o,lle
tiss
oA
eria
lpar
tD
irec
tin
gest
ion
Inte
rnal
Gal
acto
gen
ous
10
AE
(0.0
06,0
.01)
Lin
imen
t(w
ith
Sene
cio
vulg
aris
)E
xter
nal
An
ti-
infl
amm
ator
y1
1A
T(0
.05,
0.01
)
An
tigo
tose
11
AT
Lin
imen
tE
xter
nal
Vu
lner
ary
11
AT
Sorb
usau
cupa
ria
L.∗
(Ros
acea
e,B
CN
2500
9)m
oixe
rade
guill
aA
eria
lpar
tD
irec
tap
plic
atio
nE
xter
nal
An
tivi
ral
10
AT
(0.0
2,0.
003)
Tana
cetu
mpa
rthe
nium
(L.)
Schu
ltz
Bip
.+
(Ast
erac
eae,
BC
N29
960)
tan
arid
a,h
erba
delr
emu
c,ca
mam
illa,
cam
amill
aam
arga
nt,
cam
amill
abo
rda,
cam
amill
ade
pare
ts,d
anar
ida,
her
bada
nar
ida
Flow
ered
aeri
alpa
rtT
isan
eIn
tern
alR
um
inan
tan
tist
atic
30
AE
(0.0
8,0.
08)
Dir
ect
inge
stio
nIn
tern
alR
um
inan
tan
tist
atic
70
AE
Tis
ane
Inte
rnal
An
tiic
teri
c1
0A
EIn
tern
alA
nti
diar
rhoe
al2
0A
T(0
.15,
0.08
)In
tern
alD
iges
tive
23
AT
Inte
rnal
An
tin
ause
a1
1A
TIn
tern
alU
nkn
own
50
AT
Tabl
ets
Inte
rnal
Ru
min
ant
anti
stat
ic2
0A
E
Inte
rnal
An
tiic
teri
c1
0A
E
14 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineT
abl
e1:
Con
tin
ued
.
Scie
nti
fic
nam
es(f
amily
,vou
cher
spec
imen
)C
atal
ann
ames
Part
use
dP
har
mac
euti
calf
orm
Adm
inis
trat
ion
way
Vet
erin
ary
use
VR
HR
Are
a(C
I,C
Ig)
Tara
xacu
m∗
offici
nale
Web
erin
Wig
gers
(Ast
erac
eae,
BC
N25
948)
den
tde
lleo
Leaf
Dir
ect
inge
stio
nIn
tern
alB
one
rein
forc
er1
1A
E(0
.006
,0.0
03)
Thy
mus
vulg
aris
L.(L
amia
ceae
,BC
N29
961)
fari
gola
,frı
gula
,fri
gola
Flow
ered
stem
Tis
ane
(bat
h)
Ext
ern
alA
nti
sept
ic5
40A
E(0
.06,
0.03
)
Ocu
lar
anti
sept
ic2
10A
EV
uln
erar
y1
8A
ED
irec
tin
gest
ion
Inte
rnal
Car
min
ativ
e1
1A
ETe
nde
rae
rial
part
Tis
ane
Inte
rnal
Post
part
um
coad
juva
nt
10
AE
Thy
mus
serp
yllu
mL.
subs
p.ch
amae
drys
(Fri
es)
Cel
ak+
(Lam
iace
ae,B
CN
2501
9)fa
rigo
leta
,far
igol
eta
dem
un
tany
a,se
rpo
Flow
ered
aeri
alpa
rtT
isan
eIn
tern
alA
nti
diar
rhoe
al1
1A
T(0
.02,
0.00
3)
Thy
mus
serp
yllu
mL.
subs
p.ne
rvos
us(G
ayex
Will
k.)
Nym
an∗
(Lam
iace
ae,B
CN
2502
0)
fari
gole
ta,f
arig
ola
dem
un
tany
a,fa
rigo
lade
past
or,
fari
gole
t,xe
rpol
l
Flow
ered
aeri
alpa
rtT
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al3
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T(0
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.)
Ext
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Dir
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Ext
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Tis
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Inte
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03)
Ver
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mal
bum
L.(L
iliac
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BC
N25
034)
vela
dre
Aer
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Tis
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Ext
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raL
.(V
itac
eae,
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N29
972)
viny
a,vi
(pro
duct
),vi
nag
re(p
rodu
ct)
Fru
itju
ice
Vin
egar
Ext
ern
alA
nti
cata
rrh
al1
1A
E(0
.02,
0.02
)
Diu
reti
c1
0A
EA
nti
sept
ic1
1A
ETr
anqu
ilize
r1
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02)
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icin
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10
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(0.0
2,0.
02)
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eco
mb
10
FO
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 15
Table 2: General data on the territories studied, data concerning ethnoveterinary and related aspects, and ethnobotanical indexes.
AE AT FO MA Total
General Data
Extension (km2) 1358 294 81.2 238 1971.2
Population 118718 4526 9147 31764 164155
Number of total informants 179 60 14 42 295
Number of informants with veterinary reports 46 41 4 13 104
Number of taxa in the flora of the territory 1650(1) 1600(2) 574(3) 780(4) —
Total of livestock (includes cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and poultry) 2345153(5) 28088(6) 3229911(7) 5525414
Ethnoveterinary and other ethnobotanical data
Number of taxa with veterinary uses 49 49 11 17 100
Number of species with veterinary uses 48 47 11 17 96
Number of veterinary use reports 106 146 16 28 306
Number of coincidental human and animal medicine use reports 33 104 4 16 157
Number of local Catalan names of plants with veterinary uses 55 70 11 18 154
Number of botanical families containing plants with veterinary uses 31 27 10 13 41
Number of veterinary reports/number of informants with veterinary reports 2.30 3.56 4.00 2.15 2.94
Number of animal feed taxa 73 21 14 16 —
Number of human medicinal taxa 334 220 92 117 —
Percentage of veterinary uses coincidental with human medicinal ones 30.1 52.2 38.5 50 42.9
Ethnobotanical indexes
Ethnoveterinaricity index (EvI) 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 —
Informant consensus factor (FIC) 0.54 0.68 0.33 0.40 0.67
Average index of cultural importance (CI) calculated per area 0.01 0.05 0.10 0.04 0.04
Average index of cultural importance (CI) calculated for all studied areas 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01(1)
[77]; (2)J. Vigo (pers. comm.); (3)[79]; (4)[80]; (5)[81]; (6)[81]; (7)Data for the whole Balearic archipelago [73].
antiophidian. In addition, another species of the same genus(E. bourgatii, not reported to date in veterinary) occupiesthe 13th position in the list also with the same use. Thesetwo taxa were not recorded (as another congeneric one, E.foetidum, was) in a comprehensive checklist of plants usedagainst snake bite, containing 773 taxa [64], and only onereference to an undetermined Eryngium sp. is provided in awork on Turkish ethnoveterinary [65].
The families containing more taxa with claimed veteri-nary uses are Lamiaceae (10 taxa), Asteraceae (9), Apiaceae(6), Liliaceae (6), Pinaceae (6), and Crassulaceae (5). Someof them (Apiaceae, Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Liliaceae) areat the same time large families and typically abundant inMediterranean areas, and they are among the more repre-sented families in most ethnobotanical works in this bio-geographical region ([66] and references therein). Anotherone, Pinaceae, not so big in terms of number of taxa, islandscape dominating in significant parts of the studiedareas. All these families but one (Crassulaceae) are amongthe top ten in the recent world inventory of veterinaryethnobotany [27]. Most of these families are coincidentalwith the main ones appearing in other studies in the Catalanlinguistic area [31, 36], as well as in other Iberian [33–35] and other Mediterranean [18, 30] territories. In an areawithin Argentina, a great distance from those here studied,the cosmopolitan families Asteraceae and Lamiaceae arecoincidental as some of the most reported ones, but others,
such as Verbenaceae and Zygophyllaceae, make a difference[23]. Similarly, in a South African region Asteraceae alsooccupy a preeminent place, but not Lamiaceae, whereasCapparaceae and Euphorbiaceae are particularly relevant[19], contrarily to the currently considered area. Moredifferential families may be recognized in a study performedin an Indian territory, where even the Asteraceae do notappear and the Lamiaceae are only represented by one reportamong results given for 17 families [17]. This predominanceas more reported families of those large and with manyrepresentatives in the flora of the area considered agrees withthe statement of Johns et al. [67] that the closer to the user aplant grows, the more it is employed. We could also verify thispoint in many works on folk plant uses in human medicine([68] and references therein). Of course, the presence ofwell-known medicinal plants in all these particularly relevantfamilies goes in the same sense. The Crassulaceae, located inposition 23 in this catalogue and with only 39 taxa presentin Catalan language territories (an area much larger than theone we cover) [54], constitute a particularity of the studiedzone. One cultivated/subspontaneous and four wild taxa offour genera belonging to this family are profusely used (11reports), mostly externally, for wounds and dermatologicaffections, although the internal use of Aeonium arboreumon the island of Formentera (three reports) as a hens’ eggcalcifier (i.e., to add calcium and so to reinforce the eggshell)should be highlighted.
16 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
232
92
1
01
2 101
MAFO
ATAE
7
41
36
Figure 2: Venn’s diagram showing the coincidences in plant speciesused in the four territories studied. See Figure 1 caption forabbreviations.
3.1. Comparison among the Studied Territories. In this sec-tion, graphical information and descriptive statistics arepresented in order to give a detailed interpretation of thecomparison among prospected territories. On the one hand,and according to the 4-area Venn diagram of Figure 2, onlytwo species (in the very centre of the graph) have been citedin all the territories; these are Olea europaea var. europaeaand Ruta chalepensis. If we look, on the one hand, at theVenn diagram, we notice that the information from AltEmporda and High River Ter Valley is nearly independentin itself, but Formentera shares almost all the uses and plantspecies reported (9 shared versus its total of 11). Meanwhile,Mallorca appears in the crossroad in between the three otherareas, and nearly half of all the species cited by Mallorcans(9) are different from the species of the other places studied.Notwithstanding, there are 8 plant species cited in Mallorcauniformly distributed among the rest of the areas. No plantspecies coincidences were found among the groups AE-AT-FO and AT-MA-FO, probably because of the lesser data fromFormentera included in the analysis.
On the other hand, if we look at the PCA plot (referringsimilarities between use reports (Figure 3)), we also finda convergence zone where several use reports from thefour areas coincide. The condensation of Mallorcan dataat this point could be explained due to the eight largelydistributed species above mentioned, as well as the data fromFormentera, which appear close to this area for sharing manyof its taxa with the other regions. Moreover, the AE dataspread distribution of the PCA plot, as opposed to AT, maybe explained because many use reports are cited by a uniqueinformant, so that the similarity line is upward deflected.In short, PCA plot reveals that, considering not only plantspecies but UR, islands have ethnobotanical similaritiesand there are shared UR citations with the four regionsconsidered in the study.
One-way ANOVA and LSD test show statistically sig-nificant differences in the CI among four studied areas(P < 0.05) excepting for AT versus MA (P > 0.05). WhenMA and FO are grouped, no significant differences between
AEAT
MAFO
9
7
5
3
1
−1
−3
−5−6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8
PCA1
PC
A2
Figure 3: Principal component plot showing the similaritiesbetween use reports in the four studied territories. See Figure 1caption for abbreviations.
these two Balearic Islands and AT were found (P > 0.05).Chi-square tests also show differences between observedand expected frequencies in all studied areas for the threevariables included: part used (χ2 = 199.34 df = 44 P <0.0001), pharmaceutical form (χ2 = 211.96 df = 48P <0.0001), and veterinary uses (χ2 = 338.77 df = 118 P <0.0001).
The comparison of ethnoveterinary data from the fourareas leads us to consider that the common heritage ofplant uses (and specifically for veterinary treatments in thepresent work) throughout the Catalan-speaking territories isnuanced by local features. It has to be emphasized that thisis the first cross-regional ethnobotanical comparison madeup with Catalan data. Similarly to other comparative studiesusing coordinated methodology and dealing with ethnob-otanical data [18, 68, 69], it is very difficult to assure thatthere is a standard traditional veterinary knowledge amongthe four areas without contemplating floristic, bioclimaticand sociohistorical aspects.
3.2. Comparison with Previous Reports and Novelty in Usesin the Regions Studied. A certain number of plant speciesand plant uses are new or very scarcely previously reportedin ethnoveterinary. We have first compared our results witha recent world catalogue of plants used in this field [27],built with information from 222 publications and includingdata on 451 taxa at specific or subspecific levels, 308 generaand 116 families. From this comparison, we found that 42species and one subspecies, 17 genera and five families do notappear in this inventory and must thus be considered newor very scarcely reported as useful in veterinary. In addition,27 taxa are also not very commonly used in veterinary, sincethey were reported only once in the world inventory, 17 ofthem with data coming from a previous work of our teamin Montseny [31], an area belonging to the same culturalcommunity of the currently considered zones. These newor rarely recorded taxa have been crossed with a review ofplants used in ethnoveterinary in Italy ([30], not quoted in
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 17
[27]), containing information on 280 species or infraspecifictaxa belonging to 71 families. In this review, eight species,six genera, and two families not listed in [27] appeared,as well as six of the species cited only once. Thus, thenovelties contributed in the present paper are 34 speciesand one subspecies, 11 genera, and three families, plus 21species only mentioned once. Irrespective of the wide reachof the two reviews considered, it is sure that the amount ofnew taxa could be reduced with a still more comprehensiveliterature cross (e.g., four plants reported in this study andonly previously cited once in veterinary according to theabove-mentioned sources have been very recently mentionedin Andalusia [34], and one, Meum athamanticum, notappearing in any of the checklists mentioned was alreadyreported by Font Quer in 1961 [70]). Nonetheless, we believethat in any case the number of taxa of different taxonomiclevel not, or very rarely, previously reported as used inveterinary is significant. The comparatively small amountof work on ethnoveterinary in Europe could contribute toexplain this high level of new information.
3.3. Parts of Plant Used, Preparation and AdministrationForms, and Plant Use Categories. A summary of the top tenused plant parts, preparation and administration forms, isgraphically represented in Figure 4. This figure also includesthe ten most cited veterinary use categories, which arecompared to human medical indications in Section 3.5. Theplant parts most commonly used for veterinary remediespreparation, concerning the general overview of the fourareas, are aerial parts (leaves and stems; 71 reports), floweredaerial parts (44 reports), fruits (26 reports), roots (25reports), and leaves (19 reports). However, it is outstandingthat only aerial parts and leaves are represented in the fourareas, meaning that leaves (alone, or together with the stemsin which they are inserted) are the most popular organ interms of geographical extension. These numbers do not differmuch from other ethnoveterinary studies [31, 33–35] neitherdo they from human ethnopharmacological works for thesame areas [66, 71, 72], where aerial parts and leaves areat the top of list of plant part analysis. The percentage ofinternal administration form (54.03%) is not much higherthan the external (45.97%), but still tisanes are the preferredpreparation method (with 86 reports) for animal traditionaltherapies. Tisanes are not difficult to prepare but, aftertisane, we count the direct ingestion (34 reports) and directapplication (31 reports), which are even easier ways to treatanimals (most of them are grass-eating domestic animals).With particular regard to excipients—apart from water—olive oil has to be counted as the most important in thefour areas. The use of olive oil ointments for externaladministration appears in a fourth place in the preparationclassification, and it is especially formulated as vulnerary,cicatrizing, and against dermatologic ailments.
The most cited veterinary use category as an absolutevalue for all the territories altogether is the postpartumcoadjuvant. However, this is not a significant set since thereare 42 reports out of 46 that have been collected for the ATarea. For the whole area prospection, the most representative
veterinary indication is the antidiarrhoeal. Indeed, plantsaimed to treat gastrointestinal disorders are frequently onthe top of the latest ethnoveterinary usage lists [23, 34,35]. Top veterinary uses concerning every study territoryseparately are diverse enough: vulnerary for AE, postpartumcoadjuvant for AT, egg calcifier for FO, and insect repellentfor MA. The reason of these differences may lie on the typeof livestock treated; for example, results from Mallorca havea socioeconomic bias on sheep treatment since these animalshave historically been the first islander meat resource, wellahead of the pig [73]. The treatment of sheep against flylarvae explains that many plant citations have been made forinsect repellent.
3.4. Quantitative Ethnobotany: Indices Assessing the Impor-tance, Persistence, and Reliability of Veterinary Plant Usesin the Regions Studied. The ethnoveterinaricity index (EvI),which we have defined here adapting the classical eth-nobotanicity index to include only use reports of plantsconcerning animal health, is low in all the studied areas.It oscillates between 0.02 and 0.03, this meaning that onlyaround 2-3% of plants present in these territories are claimedto be useful in veterinary. General ethnobotanicity indices orindices referring to all medicinal plant uses in Mediterraneanterritories oscillate between 0.05 and 0.51, the average valuefor 21 territories being 0.22 [66]. The percentage of plantsused in veterinary is, logically and in all cases, lower thangeneral ethnobotanicity indices. In the present case, it isalso lower than in the two previous reports on Catalanethnoveterinary (0.06 in Montseny [31] and 0.13 in Pallars[36]), but similar to that recorded in another Iberian area(0.02 in Navarra [33]).
The mean informant consensus factor (FIC) consideringthe four areas studied is 0.67, and it ranges from 0.33 to 0.68,being bigger in the two Catalonian areas (AE 0.54, AT 0.68)than in the Balearic ones (FO 0.33, MA 0.40). This index,with the maximum value of 1, shows the consistency of usesamong the informants of a given territory, and thus it is oneof the indicators of reliability for such uses. The values of theCatalonian areas are close to that from Montseny, 0.66 [31].In general, FIC values for ethnoveterinary are clearly lowerthan those of works on human medicinal uses in the sameterritories (AE 0.91, AT 0.87, MA 0.71, FO 0.73) ([66, 71, 74],Mayans, Carrio, and Valles, unpubl. res.). This suggests apreeminence of human medicine over veterinary, at least incurrent times, in the society prospected: veterinary uses areless homogeneous and consistent that human medical ones,since they are in fact perceived nowadays as less relevant,less necessary. In any case, it is interesting to remark thatthe ethnoveterinary FICs are proportional to the general (forall medicinal plant uses) ones in each territory, confirmingthe above-described fact. Most works on ethnobotany ofveterinarian plants do not mention FIC values. The onesreported for eight zones of Navarra (Western Pyrenees,Spain) range from 0 (in the main cities areas) to 0.63, themean being of 0.37 [33]. These values are slightly lower, butsimilar to those recorded in the present paper; in Navarra,the FIC for general medical ethnobotany is also higher than
18 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Plant parts
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Aerial part
Flowered aerial part
Fruit
Root
Leaf
Bark
Bulb
Whole plant
Flower
Fruit juice
(a)
0 20 40 60 80 100
Tisane
Direct ingestion
Direct application
Ointment
Liniment
Tisane (bath)
Bath
Medicinal broth
Decoction
Poultice
Pharmaceutical forms
(b)
Administration ways
0 50 100 150 200
Internal
External
AEAT
FOMA
(c)
0 10 20 30 40 50
Postpartum coadjuvant
AntisepticVulnerary
Ruminant antistaticSnake antivenom
To heal wounds
Insect repellent
AEAT
FOMA
AntidermatoseAnti-inflammatory
Veterinary uses
Antidiarrhoeal
(d)
Figure 4: Summary of the top ten used plant parts, preparation and administration forms, and of the top ten veterinary uses in the fourterritories studied. See Figure 1 caption for abbreviations. The figures in the graphics mean number of use reports.
the veterinary one (0.65 [75]). Finally, it is worth mentioningthat FIC of the whole territory studied (0.67) are lowerbut not very far from those for human medicinal uses insome Mexican and Indian regions (0.75, 0.79 [76–78]). Thelatter were recorded in countries where folk medicinal plantknowledge is considered relevant and currently in use. Tosummarize, there is not a very pronounced agreement inethnoveterinary plant uses, but neither it is extremely low,when taking into account the indicative figures from otherterritories and the current relevance of domestic animalsalong with the modern way to address their health troubles.
Another way to assess the relevance of folk plant uses isthe recently described cultural importance index (CI, [59]).The global values of this index are low in the areas prospected(Table 1), ranging from 0.01 to 0.02. This is not surprisingtaking into account that in each territory, and in all of themtogether, the number of plants claimed as useful is high,and for many of them a scarce number of reports has beencollected. In addition, even the interviewees who did notreport any veterinary use are counted. The CI ranges perarea, also calculated on the basis of all informants, not onlythose having provided veterinarian information, are slightlyor clearly—depending on the cases—higher: 0.06–0.08 (AE),0.02–0.27 (AT), 0.07–0.21 (FO), and 0.02–0.07 (MA). Justto give an example of the different CI values in a veterinary
and in a human medicinal ethnobotanical survey, Santolinachamaecyparissus in MA has 0.07 for ethnoveterinary and0.81 for human pharmaceutical ethnobotany [74], thisindicating the much higher number of informants thatreport medical uses as opposed to those claiming veterinaryones. This index was rather designed to highlight the mostrelevant plants used for a specific purpose in a particularcultural area; this is why the most reported plants bear thelarger indices. This index assesses the relevance of a plant ina culture. Here culture can be understood either in its broadsense (in our case, the Catalan one, common to all studiedareas) or in its restricted sense, distinguishing in the presentcase high mountain (AT), medium mountain and plain (AE)and insular (FO, MA) cultures. All these cultures in a morerestricted sense are shaped on the one hand by belonging to alinguistic community and on the other hand by geographicaland socioeconomic conditions: as stated above (Section 3.1);the common base is modelled by and diversified with localspecificities. The top ten plants regarding report number,quoted in the first paragraphs Section 3, have, logically, thehighest CIs in the whole area studied, but some plantsnot present in this list bear the highest CIs in particularterritories, such as Aeonium arboreum (FO), Allium sativum,and Santolina chamaecyparissus (MA). The description ofthis index is recent, and so very few papers include it in
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 19
their analyses. Nevertheless, an ethnoveterinary study of anIberian area, Arribes del Duero (Salamanca, Western Spain),also shows a high number of low CIs (with a minimum valueof 0.04), but at the same time some very high, four of themhigher than 1.
3.5. Comparison between Veterinarian and Human MedicinalPlant Uses. Table 1 shows the agreements between veterinaryand human medicinal plant uses in the areas studied, mean-ing the strict coincidence not only of the plant employed butof its claimed properties as well. The number of total humanand veterinary medicine uses is presented in Table 2. Thereare of course many more human medicinal uses differentfrom those addressed to animal health ([66, 71, 74], Mayans,Carrio, and Valles, unpubl. res.), but we have highlightedhere only the uses that are common to both people andanimals.
Table 2 shows that the number of plants reported tobe useful in veterinary medicine is dramatically low ascompared with that of those indicated to be used in humanmedicine in the same territories (15.3% in AE, 21.8% in AT,12% in FO, 14.5% in MA). Yet the proportion of informantswho reported veterinary uses is low, also in every areaprospected (absolute figures in Table 2; 25.7% in AE, 68.3%in AT, 28.6% in FO, 31% in MA). Facing this situation, thequestion arises as to whether it could be the consequenceof a bias in data recording. It is true that when talkingabout medicinal plants (one of the main focuses in ourethnobotanical interviews), it is implicitly clear for bothinterviewers and interviewees that human medicinal useshave to be addressed, whereas the reference to veterinaryuses is not so evident. So, we must admit a slight weightof this factor in this difference between human and animalmedicinal plant use reports. Nevertheless, in many cases inwhich the point of ethnoveterinary uses is explicitly presentin the conversations, this does not significantly increase theinformation on animal health care. In addition, the numberof veterinary plants recorded in the areas prospected is notlower than those published for other studies in the samebiogeographical region [18, 31, 33–36]. Moreover, 68.3% ofAT informants provided ethnoveterinary data as comparedwith 25.7% in AE, but the increase of information onlyrepresented 6.5%. We believe that the decline in humandependence on domestic animals in so-called western soci-eties explains basically the unbalance between both kinds ofmedicinal plant uses. In this sense, it is interesting to remarkthat AT (the territory studied with a larger proportion ofinformants supplying ethnoveterinary information and ofveterinary uses recorded) is a high mountain area in whichdomestic animals still play a significant role, at least morethan in the other places.
In any case, the 306 veterinary use reports of 101 taxain the four areas considered constitute a large therapeuticcorpus, with a not insignificant part in agreement withhuman medicinal uses also claimed by the informants. Theproportion of coincidental human and animal plant-usecategories in all the studied areas is 42.9%, ranging from30.1% to 52.2% in the different territories (Table 2). In
terms of number of reports of the same use of a plantin human and animal health, the figures are also high(Table 2), representing a 52.7% of agreement when all areasare considered together, and being of 31.1% in AE, 69.8%in AT, 25% in FO, and 59.3% in MA. Again, AT is theterritory with the highest coincidence in use categories andreports, this indicating a still important degree of validity ofveterinary practices in this area since the more animal healthcare uses persist, the more they may coincide with those forhuman health troubles, in general more operative and easilyrecalled.
In most cases, the plants for which human medicinereports are coincidental with veterinary ones are among themost commonly used to address people’s ailments. As anexample, in MA, four of the plants so considered (Alliumsativum, Citrus limon, Herniaria hirsuta, and Santolinachamaecyparissus) appear in the list of the top five medicinalspecies in the area. In these cases plant preparations foranimals are often similar to those for humans [74], showingon the one hand how important animals were in times goneby and on the other hand the proximity of veterinary andhuman medicine and so the relevance of ethnoveterinarydata as evidences for phytotherapy in general. In AE thepanorama is similar (present data and [66]) to one of the topspecies (Allium sativum) coincidental with MA.
Two use categories in which there is a convergence ofveterinary and human medical uses are gastrointestinal andskin troubles. On the one hand, digestive, antidiarrhoeal,gastrointestinal antialgic and anti-inflammatory are usescorresponding to usually nonsevere chronic illnesses veryoften treated with folk phytotherapeutic remedies ([34, 66]and references therein). On the other hand, skin affectionsmay also be nonsevere troubles (such as warts) and havea particular incidence in rural societies, in people dealingwith agricultural and livestock-raising activities (wounds andsome kinds of skin infections), this kind of affection beingalmost as common in humans as in the animals they take careof. Conversely, a use category that was once shared by peopleand domestic animals, labour and postlabour coadjuvant, isnow almost exclusively restricted to animals, basically cows.The explanation is evident: the medical assistance in labourhas increased dramatically more in human beings than inlivestock, apart from the fact that many labour coadjuvantsmay have abortive effects if used in a nonadequate manner orperiod of time, and there is a higher vigilance of this aspectin people than in domestic animals.
3.6. Concluding Remarks. Our research in four Europeanareas has verified that, as Mathias et al. [3] wrote, ethnovet-erinary practices constitute viable alternatives or comple-ments to conventional, Western-style veterinary medicine.The collection of information on ethnobotanical uses ofplants in veterinary medicine, as done in the present work, isthe first step of the process that can permit the passage fromfolk, often small-scale, uses to industrial or at least medium-scale applications. It is undoubtedly one of the beneficial andappropriate ethnoveterinary interventions that, in words ofWanzala et al. [1], represent a major challenge in the devel-opment of this discipline in the 21st century. Muhammad
20 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
et al. [16] stated that these data provide a basis for furthervalidation of practices and plant uses in the context of aprofessional approach to ethnoveterinary medicine. Addi-tionally, we stress that recording these data is already in itselfa part of this validation, since it provides scientific evidenceof plant uses, after which, chemical, pharmacological, andother issues should be addressed. Some examples of legis-lation and herbal products development in western Europe[82] make us believe that further ethnobotanical studies inthe field of veterinary are needed, followed by a coordinationwith different stakeholders (livestock raisers, veterinarysurgeons, chemists, health policy managers and deciders,pharmaceutical firms, among others) in order to integrateethnoveterinary knowledge—as we have seen, closely relatedto human ethnomedicinal one—in health policies.
As for all domains of ethnobiology, the inventory ofethnoveterinary practices is urgent, mostly in industrialisedcountries. Concerning specifically animal health care, inrelatively few years we have passed, at least in southwesternEurope, from a lifestyle in which, according to a popularsaying, the illness of the mule was considered worse for arural family than a trouble in a member of the family toa situation of almost no dependence on domestic animalsand from the practical absence of veterinary doctors andindustrial medicines to the inverse situation even in thesmaller population nuclei. The popular saying regardingthe mule, obviously an exaggeration, can still be heardamongst elderly people in the regions prospected, buttoday the situation is different. Thus, a certain amountof ethnoveterinary knowledge in the areas described is nolonger in practice and must be collected—not only as acultural and biological heritage, but also as possible sourcesfor new drugs for animals and humans—before it is too late.
Acknowledgments
First of all the authors thank all the informants, whowanted to share with them their considerable and oftenprofound knowledge of plant uses and, in general, bio-diversity management. Dr. J. M. Campanera, Universitatde Barcelona, is thanked for his support in statisticalquestions, Professor J. Vigo, Universitat de Barcelona, forfloristic information, and S. Pyke, Jardı Botanic de Barcelona,for his revision of the English language. Research waspartially supported by projects subsidized by the MunicipalCouncil of Figueres (XI Beca de Recerca “Ciutat de Figueres”,2009), the Catalan Agency for University and ResearchGrants Management (AGAUR, projects 2009ACOM00012and 2009ACOM00013), and the Spanish Ministry for Scienceand Innovation (MICINN, projects SEJ2007-60873/SOCIand CSO2011-27565). The support of the Centre d’EstudisComarcals del Ripolles is also thanked. E. Carrio receiveda predoctoral grant of the Spanish Ministry of Educa-tion, Culture and Sport (AP2007-00766). The authors alsoreceived funding from GReB (from the abbreviation inCatalan, Biodiversity and Plant Biosystematics ResearchGroup, Catalan government, AGAUR 2009SGR439).
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