Planting a Green Future:

The Quest for Food Security in the Philippines

Institute for Policy, Strategy and Developmental Studies, Inc.

July 2015

Planting a Green Future:

The Quest for Food Security in the Philippines

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Planting a Green Future:

The Quest for Food Security in the Philippines

Jore-Annie Rico

Abstract:

The world is headed towards a looming crisis as the problem of food insecurity worsens.

Long-term lack of food security, which eventually becomes hunger, afflicts developing nations

the hardest. Estimates from the United Nations World Food Programme suggest that one in

every nine people on earth is suffering from hunger. So alarming is the problem of hunger that

it is recognized as the number one risk to health worldwide - greater than AIDS, malaria and

tuberculosis combined.

The Philippines is ranked as the second Asia’s fastest growing economy in 2014, next to

China. Despite soaring economic growth rates, many Filipinos remain hungry. The 2014 Global

Hunger Index identified the Philippines to have a “serious” hunger problem. 2015 survey results

from the Social Weather Stations indicated that 7.9 million Filipino families – comprising 36% of

the population - believed themselves to be food-poor.

This paper aims to shed light on the prospects of food security in the Philippines,

focusing on the issues and challenges on rice self-sufficiency. The study outlines the centrality

of rice as the major food staple in the Philippines – in terms of its economic, political and cultural

significance. Next, issues and challenges confronting rice self-sufficiency are discussed. Lastly,

conclusions were drawn based on the merits and inadequacies of the Philippine rice self-

sufficiency policy.

Keywords: food security, rice self-sufficiency, Philippines

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The Quest for Food Security in the Philippines

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I. Introduction

Over the years, the definition of food security has significantly expanded and evolved.

During the early 1950s and 1960s, food security was only associated with self-sufficiency in

major food staples (UN Albania, n.d.). A decade later, the 1974 World Food Conference

introduced the concept of right to food; thereby equating food security with food access. It was

during the 1996 World Food Summit when food security was fully defined as a situation “when

all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and

active life.”

As one of the three world’s major food staples, rice is an essential commodity next to

maize and wheat. That rice sustains “half of mankind” rings truer than ever. Rice provides half of

the calorie requirements, one-third of protein intake, and more than one-fifth of the calories

consumed by humans on a worldwide scale (Gumapac, 2012). In Asia, where 90% of rice is

produced and consumed, food security has been historically associated with rice. A 1973 Time

magazine article succinctly captured the primacy of rice particularly in Southeast Asian

countries, “rice is life itself in Southeast Asia.”

It is therefore not surprising to note that the Filipino concept of food security is

traditionally focused on, and closely linked with, rice. As the country’s most important food

staple, rice is consumed by 85% of the entire population (Tecson, 2015). Interviews conducted

by Aguilar (2005) concluded that a meal without rice is not seen as a meal at all. Gumapac

(2012) seconded the notion, positing that rice is “rarely ever missing on the table, be it

breakfast, lunch, or dinner.”

The overwhelming preference for rice inevitably became the main reason why the

Philippines struggles to feed its own population. Huge reliance on imported rice from

neighboring ASEAN countries like Thailand and Vietnam has debilitating impacts on food

security in the Philippines. According to the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), the

Philippines has the highest prevalence of food inadequacy among Asia’s tiger cub economies

from 2005 to 2012 (Rodriguez, 2014). In 2010, the Philippines imported 2.45 million tons of rice,

making it the biggest rice importing country worldwide that year (IRRI, 2015).

Economic growth appears to have not have trickled down to the poor as evidenced by

worsening hunger. The Philippines ranked as Asia’s second fastest growing economy in 2014.

Despite soaring economic growth rates, many Filipinos remain hungry. 2015 survey results from

the Social Weather Stations indicated that 7.9 million Filipino families – comprising 36% of the

population - believed themselves to be food-poor. The 2014 Global Hunger Index identified the

Philippines to have a “serious” hunger problem (Rodriguez, 2015).

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The Quest for Food Security in the Philippines

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II. Digesting the Importance of Rice

Rice is such an integral and irreplaceable staple in the Philippines. However, much has

been changed about how Filipinos view rice. During the precolonial times, the difficulty of

producing, harvesting and obtaining rice caused it to become as a prestige marker and mainly

elite food (Aguilar, 2005). Today, scientific and technological advancements enabled mass

production of rice. In fact, it has leveled the playing field between the rich and the poor. People

from all walks of life – regardless of wealth or income – depend on rice as a source of nutrition.

Undoubtedly, the centrality of rice is mirrored by its role in the Philippine economy, politics and

culture.

A. Economics

Rice is an important economic commodity in the Philippines. In 2013, rice accounted for

21% of the gross value added in agriculture. As a major food staple, rice accounts for 25% of

food expenditures of the poorest 30% of the population (Balisacan, 2006). PhilRice estimates

that 30 to 70% of daily caloric intake of Filipinos depends mainly on rice consumption (Amoyan,

2013).

Overall, the agricultural sector employs 11.84 million people or almost 60% of the

country’s labor force (Bureau of Agricultural Statistics, 2013). Rice employs 2.5 million

households, broken down into 2.1 million farmers, 110,000 workers for post-farm activities and

320,000 for ancillary activities (Gonzales, 2013 as cited in FAO, 2015).

The dismal economic situation of Filipino farmers is highlighted by the fact that the

average Filipino farmer only makes roughly $529 a year. On the average, a Chinese farmer

annually earns around $967 while a Thai farmer gets $1,370 (Ranada, 2014). Worst, the

farming sector ranked second highest poverty incidence in 2012, at 38.3% (PSA, 2014).

B. Politics

Aside from being an economic good, rice is also used as a political commodity. Rice has

been used as a tool for political leverage, especially in times of elections. From 1950s to 1960s,

insufficient rice supply and spiraling price of rice were used by the opposition to discredit the

incumbent administration; thus undermining legitimacy and eroding public trust in the

government (Mata, 2004 & Tadem, n.d. as cited in Intal & Garcia, 2005). Consequently, it is

surmised that the 1961 electoral defeat of President Garcia and Macapagal are attributed to the

failure of their term’s rice policy.

Aguilar (2005) observed

that rice was a potent symbol in

political propaganda. Former

President Ferdinand Marcos

immortalized himself in stamps

depicting him planting rice. In

1973, a year after Marcos

President Marcos and his wife, Imelda, shown planting rice

Rice for Progress Issue of June 12, 1969 (Source: The Philippine Philatelist)

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The Quest for Food Security in the Philippines

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declared Martial Law, his eighth State of the Nation Address repeatedly accentuated the efforts

made by his administration to stabilize the supply of rice. Responding to the rice crisis brought

by the worst drought, Marcos trumpeted Masagana 99 which was aimed at doubling rice

production. Marcos’ rice policy – anchored on the Green Revolution and Masagana 99 – was

used as a means to legitimize the first years of his dictatorial rule.

C. Culture

Rice has a special place in the Filipino culture and heritage. Having been cultivated for

thousands of years, it has become part of everyday life. In fact, rice has become so ingrained in

the Filipino culture that everyone knows how to sing the Filipino folk song, “Magtanim ay Di

Biro.”

The famed 2000-year old Banaue Rice Terraces, commonly regarded as the eighth

wonder of the world, serve as a testament on how ancient Ifugaos treasure rice. It is also in the

Mountain Province where tapuy, a traditional beverage made from fermented rice, is produced.

Fernando Amorsolo, the first National Artist in Visual Arts, spent his lifetime depicting

quaint rural sceneries through his famous works, Planting Rice (1922) and Plowing the Rice

Field (1951). His depictions of fields and farmers were a staple in tourist brochures and

postcards.

Plowing the Rice Field (1951) Planting Rice (1922)

Every fifteenth of May, tourist flock to Lucban, Quezon to witness the colorful harvest

festival of Pahiyas. Celebrated in honor of the patron saint of farmers, San Isidro Labrador,

Pahiyas is known for its use of kiping or leaf-shaped wafer made of rice. During the Christmas

season, bibingka or rice cake is a traditional treat.

As a symbol for good luck and prosperity, there are several Filipino myths and practices

surrounding rice. First, it is said that throwing rice grains to newly-wed couples can amplify

blessings. Eating sticky rice can also tighten the marital bond of newly-weds. Occupants of a

newly-built house have to throw rice grains to ward off evil spirits. Elders instruct children to

finish even the last morsel of rice as a way of respecting the grace of God. On the other hand,

leaving a meal unfinished can cause hunger or famine (Aguilar, 2005).

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The Quest for Food Security in the Philippines

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Rice is deeply rooted in the Filipino language. There are more than seven words for rice

in the Filipino language: palay (unmilled rice), bigas (milled rice), kanin (cooked rice), lugaw

(rice porridge) tutong (burned rice), bahaw (left over rice), and sinangag (fried rice). Each

province features delicacies made of rice such as rice cakes (puto, tinapay), sweetened

fermented rice gruel (tapay of Maranao; inuruban of Tarlac; binubudan of the Ilocos; binuboran

of Pangasinan), fermented cooked rice and shrimp (balaobalao or balobalo of Southern

Tagalog), fermented cooked rice and fish (buro of Pampanga), and of course, the fermented

rice wine (tapuy, tapey, bubod of the Cordilleras, pangasi of Visayas) (Nocheseda, 2013).

III. Rice self-sufficiency: Issues and Challenges

The Oxford dictionaries defines self-sufficiency as “needing no outside help in satisfying

one’s basic needs, especially with regard to the production of food.”

Despite being an agricultural nation endowed with abundant natural resources, the

Philippines ironically relies on rice imports. Aside from being one of the world’s top importers of

rice, the Philippines is under pressure over high rice prices. Price of rice in the Philippines

(US$318.8/MT) is the most expensive among its neighboring Southeast Asian countries like

Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam (Naz, 2012). Blessed with arable lands,

tropical climate and plenty of water resources, it is but puzzling to find the Philippines struggling

to feed its rapidly increasing population. That leaves us with the million dollar question: why

does the Philippines still have to import rice?

Rice self-sufficiency is considered a paramount national concern that it is often included

in every president’s agenda. From the Philippine Commonwealth Era led by Manuel Quezon up

to the current administration of President Benigno Aquino III, rice self-sufficiency program is

included in every State of the Nation Address. Over the years, rice has become a powerful

symbol of economic nationalism; such that importing rice has been a source of shame and

ridicule among Filipinos.

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3Rice Self-Sufficiency Ratio in the Philippines,

1990-2013

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Table 1: Rice Self-Sufficiency Ratio in the Philippines, 1990-2013 Source:

Bureau of Agricultural Statistics

As seen in the graph, decreasing rice self-sufficiency ratio has been the trend from the

1990s to 2010. From 2011 onwards, self-sufficiency ratio continues to increase. There are

numerous challenges that prevent the realization of rice self-sufficiency in the Philippines. First

is geographical location. Dawe (2015) posits that island countries, like the Philippines, tend to

be rice importers. As an archipelago, the Philippines has lesser land area for rice cultivation. On

the other hand, mainland rice exporters such as Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Myanmar

are situated in river deltas and have lots of land (see Table 2).

Table 2: Percentage of crop area planted to rice, selected Asian countries, 1990-2001.

Source: IRRI, 2006.

Second, increasing demand for rice due to soaring population presents a daunting

challenge. As the number of people increases, so is the demand for food. Feeding a growing

population require a simultaneous increase in food supply. Registering one of the highest

population growth rates in Asia, the Philippines is projected to have a whopping population of

142 million by 2045 (PSA, 2014). Needless to say, farmers have to continuously drive up their

production in order to meet the demand for rice.

Third, technological backwardness produces a ripple effect in the agricultural sector.

Philippine Center for Postharvest Development and Mechanization (PhilMech) Executive

Director Rex Bingabing laments that Filipino farmers are among the least mechanized in

Southeast Asia, utilizing only half a horsepower (.5 hp) per hectare (hp/ha). Other agricultural

countries in the region like Vietnam and Thailand–both of which export rice–have a much higher

mechanization rate at .7 hp/ha. Fully industrialized Japan utilizes 7 hp/ha, while developed

South Korea recorded 4 hp/ha (Alave, 2012). The failure of farms to mechanize, as well as

unsuccessful agrarian reform programs, result in the ghastly state of Philippine agriculture.

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Fourth, corruption allegations hurled against the National Food Authority is a serious

blow to the government’s rice program. The reputation of NFA has been notoriously lambasted

due to inefficiency and even connivance with rice smugglers. As of June 2014, NFA has total

outstanding obligations of Php. 160 billion. Relying on NFA as it is currently operated does not

appear to be viable and sustainable simply because the agency cannot continue to finance

operational losses from continued borrowing with an ever increasing interest and debt payment

(Intal, et.al., 2012). Moreover, large leakage errors and poor availability of subsidized rice to its

intended target both contribute to the ineffectiveness of this policy measure, and seemingly

does not justify the considerable subsidies it receives from the national government (SEPO,

2010).

IV. Zero Rice Imports: Is it Attainable?

Anchored on the goal of the current Aquino administration to attain zero imports, the

Food Staples Sufficiency Program (FSSP) was introduced. Simply put, FSSP seeks to achieve

self-sufficiency in major food staples and end rice importation. To realize this goal, the budget of

the Department of Agriculture was increased to Php. 55 billion and was centered on improving

irrigation, sustaining research and development for new crop varieties, promoting mechanized

on-farm and postharvest strategies, and harnessing the potential of high-elevation and upland

rice ecosystems. However, numerous economists and experts warned that the goal of rice self-

sufficiency might cause more harm than good.

Economists from the Foundation for Economic Freedom (FEF), which include Former

Prime Minister Cesar Virata, calls for the abandonment of the rice self-sufficiency program due

to the continued failure and inefficiency in the NFA as well as the persistence of rice smuggling.

Dr. Ramon Clarete, former dean of the University of the Philippines School of

Economics, argues that rice self-sufficiency in the Philippines is “very unlikely to succeed,” as

evidenced by findings from the simulations made using the Arkansas Global Rice Model

(AGRM). Dr. Clarete underscored that continuing FSSP would only result in more expensive

rice prices; thus, penalizing the poorest consumers. He suggests that regional cooperation

measures, like ASEAN, will promote greater rice security.

Dr. Roehlano Briones, a senior research fellow at the Philippine Institute for

Development Studies, affirms the conclusion that rice self-sufficiency in the Philippines is

“untenable” and “unfeasible”. Dr. Briones describes the FSSP as a coherent plan but identifies

the pitfalls such as being “an ambitious goal,” “a dangerous dream” and “a risky policy” for the

Philippines. He pinpoints the FSSP targets to be based on highly ambitious and unrealistic

projections. Also, protectionist policies on rice would only cause the price of rice unreasonably

costlier. Dr. Briones urges the government that instead of equating self-sufficiency with zero

imports, the goal must be set in a broader scale such as ensuring rice affordability.

V. Putting rice on the table: Security or Self-Sufficiency?

Rice self-sufficiency in the Philippine is viewed through two opposing lenses. On one

hand, the government equates rice self-sufficiency with zero imports. On the contrary,

economists assert that rice self-sufficiency is basically rice security. They deem rice self-

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sufficiency as unreachable while further opining that regional trade cooperation must be

pursued to stabilize the price of rice. Both camps have their own merits and drawbacks but at

the end of the day, it all boils down to practicality.

Ideally, rice self-sufficiency is achievable in agriculture-based countries like the

Philippines. It is not only a hallmark of economic progress but more importantly, not having to

rely on an external supply of rice radiates pride and optimism. While self-sufficiency is a noble

objective, recent findings point to the fact that continuing the program might just be detrimental

to the country’s food security. If rice self-sufficiency comes with a hefty price tag, is it still

worthwhile? Rice self-sufficiency is predicated on rice security.

Short-term goals must first focus on stabilizing the price of rice. Rice self-sufficiency

should be viewed as a medium- to long-term goal which requires continuous upgrading of farm

machineries and post-harvest facilities, construction of irrigation systems, strengthening of credit

mechanisms and farming cooperatives, provision of skills training and education programs for

farmers and youths, increased funding for agricultural research and development, among

others.

.

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