Platform Work in the UK 2016-2019

Statist ical Services and Consultancy Unit (SSCU), University of Hertfordshire and Hertfordshire Business School (HBS)

Summary Anonlinesurveyof2,235UKresidentsbetweentheagesof16and75wascarriedout26thApriland1stMay2019bytheUniversityofHertfordshirewithfieldworkanddatacollectionbyIpsosMORI,fundedinassociationwiththeFoundationforEuropeanProgressiveStudies(FEPS),theTradesUnionCongress(TUC)andUNIEuropa.ThisbuiltonanearliersurveycarriedoutbetweenJanuary22ndandJanuary26th.2016of2,238adultsaged16-75alsobytheUniversityofHertfordshire,withfieldworkcarriedoutbyIpsosMORIandfundingfromFEPSandUNIEuropa.Acomparisonofthetwosurveysshowedthat:

• Thenumberofpeopleworkingforonlineplatformsatleastonceaweekhasdoubledfrom4.7%oftheadultpopulationto9.6%.

• Themajorityofpeopledoingthisworkdoitasatop-uptootherearnings.For71.5%itrepresentslessthanhalfoftheirincome(comparedwith67.1%in2016).

• Nearlyhalf(48.1%)ofpeopledoingplatformworksaytheyareinfull-timeemployment,with10.7%sayingtheyareself-employed.Platformworkerscannotbeseenasadistinctandseparatecategoryonthelabourmarketbutcanbefoundinallcategoriesandformpartofadiversecontinuumofcasual,precariousandon-callwork.

• Platformworkisonlyonewaythatpeopleincreasinglyderiveanincomefromonlineactivities.ThosemakingmoneyfromrentingoutroomsviaonlineonplatformssuchasAirbnbmorethandoubledfrom8.2%in2016to18.7%in2019.Thesaleofself-madeproductsviaplatformssuchasEtsywentupfrom10%in2016to20.2%in2019.

• Manyofthepracticesofonlineplatformsarespreadingacrossthelabourmarket.In2016onepersonintenreportedusinganapporwebsitetobeinformedofnewtasksbutby2019thishadmorethandoubledto21.0%oftheadultworking-agepopulation.Ineachcase,justunderhalfoftheseworkerswerenotplatformworkers.Theuseofappsorwebsitestorecordworkdoneroseoverthesameperiodfrom14.2%to24.6%.Themajorityofpeople

reportingthesepracticeswerenotplatformworkers.Nearlyaquarter(24%)ofadultssurveyedalsoreportedhavingtheirworkratedbycustomers,ofwhomnearlyhalf(11.7%)werenotplatformworkers.

• Men(at16.5%)aresomewhatmorelikelythanwomen(at14.1%)todoplatformwork.Platformworkersarefoundinallagegroupsbutaremorelikelytobeyoungwith31.5%aged16-24and28.7%aged25-34.

• Mostpeoplewhodoplatformworkreportdoingmorethanonetypeofplatformwork.Themostpopularcategory,at7.8%oftheadultpopulation,isonlinework.Thisisfollowed,at5.4%,byworkinvolvingtheprovisionofservicesinotherpeople’shomes.Thirdinorderofimportance,at5.1%,isdrivinganddeliverywork,followed,at3.5%,byrunningerrands.

• AhighproportionoftheUKpopulation(60.7%)havebeenusersofplatformservicesatsometime.Althoughwealthierhouseholdsaremorelikelytodoso,morethanhalf(50.9%)ofthoseearninglessthan£20,000peryearareplatformcustomers,includingmanywhoarethemselvesplatformworkers.Threequarters(76%)ofpeoplewhosaytheyprovidedrivingordeliveryservicesviaplatformsatleastweeklyarealsousersofsuchplatformsatleastmonthly(risingto92.8%whodosoatleastyearly),whiletwothirds(67.2%)ofthosewhoprovideservicesinotherpeople’shomesatleastweeklyarealsocustomersforsuchservicesatleastmonthly(89.6%atleastyearly).

Survey results point to strong growth in platform work in the UK ResultsarenowavailablefromanonlinesurveybytheUniversityofHertfordshirewithfieldworkanddatacollectionbyIpsosMORI,fundedinassociationwiththeFoundationforEuropeanProgressiveStudies(FEPS),theTradesUnionCongress(TUC)andUNIEuropa,whichshowstronggrowthintheparticipationofUKcitizensinthegrowingonlineeconomy.

Inanonlinesurveyof2,235UKresidentsbetweentheagesof16and75in2019,9.6%ofthesample(afterweighting)claimedtobedoingwork(viaso-called“gigeconomy”platformssuchasUpwork,UberorHandy)atleastonceaweek,usingthebroadestdefinitionofthistypeofwork1.Thisrepresentsadoublinginthesizeoftheplatformworkforcesince2016,whentheproportionclaimingtodothistypeofworkatleastweeklystoodat4.7%oftheadultpopulation.

Whenthedefinitionwasnarrowedtothosesayingthattheycarriedoutworkthattheyhadfoundviaawebsiteorappandusedan‘app’tonotifythemwhenworkwasavailable,asdetailedbelow,theproportionwasreducedto5.4%(comparedwith1.9%

1Weusetheterm‘platformwork’inabroadsensetorefertopaidtasksthatarefoundviaawebsiteor‘app’accessedviaalaptop,smartphoneorotherinternet-connecteddevice.Otherformsofonlineincomegeneration,suchastherentingofroomsviaAirbnb(orsimilar)andbuying/sellinggoodsonlineareexcluded.

in2016)whoreportedundertakingsuchworkatleastonceaweekandusingappstobeinformedofitsavailabilityatleastonceaweek.

Theproportionfromthe2019surveywhohadeverundertakensuchworkwas15.3%,equivalenttoapproximately7,480,700peopleacrosstheworkingagepopulationofUK(aged16-75).

FIGURE1:UKPLATFORMWORKERS-SUMMARY[Base:4473UKcitizensaged16-75:2238in2016,2235in2019(weighted)]

In2019,overaquarter(28.2%)ofthepopulationsaidtheyhadtriedtofindworkviaonlineplatformsbutnotallofthemsucceeded.Thenumbersofpeopleseekingworkinthiswaygreatlyexceedthosewhoactuallyfindit.Outofevery2.4peoplelookingforthiskindofwork,onlyoneactuallyfounditonamonthlybasis,andevenfeweronaweeklybasis.

Platform work is part of a broader continuum of casual, on-cal l work Despitethebroadspreadofplatformworkreportedin2019,themajorityofplatformworkersdonotdosofulltimebutcarryitoutasasupplementtootherformsofincome.Forovertwo-thirdsofplatformworkers(71.5%)itrepresentslessthanhalftheirincome.Butforasubstantialminorityitistheonlyormainsourceofincomewith9.4%ofplatformworkerssayingitistheironlysourceofincome(equivalentto565,800peopleacrosstheworkingageUKpopulation)and28.5%sayingthatitrepresentsatleasthalfoftheirincome(equivalentto1,725,100people).Asubstantialproportion

(25.0%)didnotknowordidnotwishtodivulgethisinformation.Acomparisonofthesefigureswiththosefromthe2016surveycanbeseeninFigure2.

FIGURE2:PROPORTIONOFPERSONALINCOMEFROMPLATFORMWORK[Base:444UKplatformworkersaged16-75:168in2016,276in2019(weighted,refusalsexcluded)]

Theroleplayedbyplatformworkasasupplementtootherformsofincomebecomesclearerwhenwelookattheemploymentandlabourmarketstatusofplatformworkers.

Labour market and employment status reported in 2019 survey Full-time/part-time/self-employed/full-time parents/retired/students

48.1%ofplatformworkerssaidtheywereinfull-timeemploymentwith12.4%part-time,10.7%self-employed,5.7%full-timeparents,3.8%retiredand11.3%students2.

Amongstintensiveplatformworkers(thosewhodosoatleastonceaweek),thefiguresaresimilarwith52.8%sayingtheywereemployedfull-time,12.8%part-time,9.3%self-employed,3.5%full-timeparents,3.2%retiredand11.4%students.

Forthosewhogainatleasthalfoftheirincomefromplatformwork,thepatternisagainsimilarwith51.9%sayingthattheyareemployedfull-time,14.0%part-time,16.0%self-employed,7.6%full-timeparents,1.3%retiredand9.9%students.

2Percentagesdonotsumto100%hereandbelow,asrespondentscategorisingthemselvesaseitherunemployed,long-termsickordisabledarenotlisted.

FIGURE3:EMPLOYMENTSTATUSOFPLATFORMWORKERS[Base:349UKplatformworkersin2019surveyaged16-75(weighted)]

Temporary Contracts

9.8%ofplatformworkersdescribedthemselvesasbeingontemporarycontractswiththefigurebeingslightlyhigherforthoseundertakingplatformworkatleastweekly(11.9%)andforthosewhoearnatleasthalfoftheirincomefromplatformwork(10.5%).

More than one paid job

13.5%ofplatformworkerssaythattheyhavemorethanonepaidjobwhichrisesto16.2%forthoseundertakingplatformworkatleastweeklyand22.0%forthosewhoearnatleasthalfoftheirincomefromplatformwork.

Benefits or Retirement Income

Peoplethatreceivebenefitsorpensionsmakeup6.3%ofplatformworkers.Forthoseundertakingplatformworkatleastweekly,thefigureissimilarat9.0%butlower,at4.8%,forthosewhogetatleasthalfoftheirincomefromplatformwork.

Income from Investments

Theproportionwhoreceiveincomefromrentsand/orinvestmentsis13.3%ofallplatformworkers,13.9%ofthoseundertakingplatformworkatleastweeklyand24.2%ofplatformworkerswhogetatleasthalfoftheirincomefromplatformwork.ThosewhoreceivesuchincomeweremorelikelythanthegeneralpopulationtouseonlineplatformssuchasAirbnbtofindpayingguestsforaccommodation(33.0%vs18.7%).Thisisconsistentwithabroader

pictureofplatformworkersasindividualsputtingtogetheranincomefrommultiplesources.

Independent Contractors

Giventhatmanyonlineplatformsusetheterm‘independentcontractor’todescribetheworkerswhousetheirservices,thesurveyalsoinvestigatedtheextenttowhichplatformworkerscharacterisedthemselvesasindependentcontractors.Ofallplatformworkers,6.9%gavethemselvesthislabel.Forthoseundertakingplatformworkatleastweekly,thefigurewas7.6%andforthosewhogainatleasthalfoftheirincomefromplatformwork,thefigurewas8.8%.Itisclearthatthemajorityofplatformworkersdonotidentifywiththisstatus.

Agency workers

Ofallplatformworkers,4.8%saidtheyworkedforanagency.Forthoseundertakingplatformworkatleastweekly,thefigurewas5.5%andforthosewhogainatleasthalfoftheirincomefromplatformwork,thefigurewas7.8%.

Self-employed but work for just one person/company

Ofallplatformworkers,7.2%saidtheywereself-employedbutonlyworkedforoneperson/company.Forthoseundertakingplatformworkatleastweekly,thefigurewas7.8%andforthosewhogainatleasthalfoftheirincomefromplatformwork,thefigurewas9.4%.

Self-employed and work for multiple companies

Ofallplatformworkers,5.4%saidtheywereself-employedandworkedformultiplecompanies.Forthoseundertakingplatformworkatleastweekly,thefigurewas3.1%andforthosewhogainatleasthalfoftheirincomefromplatformwork,thefigurewas4.6%.

Employed on zero hours contract

Ofallplatformworkers,3.4%saidtheywereonazerohourscontract.Forthoseundertakingplatformworkatleastweekly,thefigurewas2.1%andforthosewhogainedatleasthalfoftheirincomefromplatformwork,thefigurewas4.8%.

FIGURE4:OTHERCHARACTERISTICSOFPLATFORMWORKERS[Base:349UKplatformworkersin2019surveyaged16-75(weighted)]

Toputthesefiguresinperspective,wealsolookatthespreadoftheseformsofwork/incomestatusacrossthewholeUKlabourmarket,bearinginmindthatmanyrespondentswillhaverespondedyestomorethanonequestion,sothatthetotalsexceed100%.Ascanbeseen,fromFigure5platformworkrepresentsonlypartofastronglyvariegatedlabourmarketwithmanydivergencesfromstandardemploymentmodels.

Itisthereforenotpossibleregard‘platformworkers’asadistinctandseparatecategoryonthelabourmarket.Peoplewhodoplatformworkcanbefoundineverycategoryofemploymentandincomestatus.Giventhatthevastmajorityofthesepeopleareusingtheplatformworktotopuptheirincomefromothersources,itisthereforemoreaccuratetoregardplatformworkasasourceofextraincomeusedbyawiderangeofworkers,whethertheyareemployedfull-timeorpart-time,self-employed,temporaryorpermanentorworkingonzerohourscontracts.

FIGURE5:FREQUENCYOFTYPESOFINCOME/WORKINWORKINGAGEPOPULATION(95%CONFIDENCEINTERVALANDPERCENTAGE)[Base:2235UKcitizensin2019surveyaged16-75(weighted)]

Platform Labour in the Context of other Types of Online Income Generation FurtherevidencefromthesurveyaddstoapictureofaUKpopulationincreasinglytryingtopatchanincometogetherfrommultiplesources,withtheInternetplayingagrowingroleinthisincomegeneration.

Percentageofpeoplesellinggoodsorservicesonline

Activity Percentagein2019(2016)FindpayingguestviaAirbnborsimilar 18.7%(8.2%)Sellproductsonownwebsite 18.9%(9.5%)Re-sellproductsforaprofit 36.7%(31.3%)Sellproductsyouhavemadeyourself 20.2%(10.0%)Sellyourpossessionsorbelongingsonawebsite 55.1%(54.4%)

FIGURE6:PLATFORMWORKINTHEGENERALCONTEXTOFPARTICIPATIONINTHEONLINEECONOMYASASOURCEOFINCOME[Base:2235UKcitizensin2019surveyaged16-75(weighted)]

AscanbeseenfromFigure6,setinthiscontext,sellingone’slabourviaanonlineplatformislessimportantasasourceofincomethansellingone’spossessions,sellingorresellingproductsboughtforresale,sellingpersonallymadecraftitemsorrentingoutaroomviaaplatformsuchasAirbnb.Allofthesehavegrowninimportancesince2016,withthesmallestgrowth(from54.4%to55.1%)inthelargest-scaleactivity:sellingone’spossessionsonasitesuchaseBay.

Furtherresearchwouldberequiredtoexploretheextenttowhichthislargegrowthinonlineincome-seekingbehaviourislinkedtoadroporstagnationinincomefromwagesand/orbenefits.Itis,however,entirelyconsistentwithapictureofplatformworkaspartofastrategyforpiecingtogetheranincomefromasmanysourcesaspossiblebypeoplewhowouldstruggletosurvivefromtheirmainoronlysourceofearnings.

A general trend towards the platformisation of work? Aswehaveseen,platformworkrepresentsjustonecomponentofaspectrumofcasualon-calltypesofworkanddiverseformsofincomegenerationthatincreasinglycharacterisetheUKlabourforce.ThegrowinguseoftheInternetforgainingaccesstotheseformsofworkandincomeincombinationwiththefactthatmostplatformworkersarecombiningseveraldifferentformsmakesforgenerallyfuzzyboundariesbetweenthem:notonlyisitdifficulttodistinguishbetweena‘platform’andsomeotherformofemploymentthatcanbefoundviaawebsite;workersthemselvesmaybeswitchingseamlesslybetweenformsofworkfoundonlineandothersfoundbyothermeans,suchasword-of-mouthcontacts.

Tomakemattersevenmorecomplicateditisclearfromthesesurveyresultsthatmanyofthedigitalpracticesusedbyonlineplatformsfortheorganisationandmanagementofworkarewidespreadacrossthelabourmarket,includingamong‘traditional’employers.Welookfirstattheuseofthesedigitalpracticesamongplatformworkersbeforeturningourattentiontothebroaderworkingpopulation.

Use of digital ‘apps’/websites

Manyofthetasksnowcarriedoutbyplatformworkersarenotnewinthemselvesbuthavebeencarriedoutinthepastbycasually-employedorself-employedpeople,bothinsideandoutsidetheformaleconomy.Itisthereforenecessarytoasktowhatextentthesesurveyfindingsrepresentnewdevelopmentsrelatedtodigitalisationandthedevelopmentofonlineplatforms.Furtherdetailedresearchwillberequiredtoinvestigatethis,butitwaspossibleinthissurveytoisolatethoseworkerswhoreportedusingthistechnologyontheirsmartphone,tabletorcomputertonotifythemwhenworkisavailable.

Narrowingourdefinitionof‘platformworkers’onlytothoseusingsuchtechnologyforthispurposerisksexcludingsomeplatformworkers,forinstancethoseworkingonhigh-skillonlineplatformssuchasUpwork,whomayrelyonthiskindofworkfortheirincomebutmaynotusesuchtechnologytofindwork.Howeveritisausefulwayoffocusingonthoseplatformworkerswhoseworkorganisationisdigitallyenabled.

Lookingatpeoplewhoreporteverhavingcarriedoutplatformwork(whocomprise15.3%ofthetotalUKworkingagepopulationinthe2019survey),applyingthisdefinitionreducestheproportionto11.2%oftheworkingagepopulation(anestimated5,494,200people,ascomparedwith7,480,700).Howeveritisinterestingtonotethatthemoreintensivetheplatformworkis,thegreaterthepropensitytousethistechnologytobenotifiedoftheavailabilityofwork.

AscanbeseenfromFigure7,80.4%ofthosewhoreportplatformworkingatleasteveryweekhave,atsometime,beennotifiedofworkviasuchtechnology,andforthosewhosaythatplatformworkconstitutesatleasthalfoftheirincome,thepercentageis87.0%.Amongstnon-platformworkers,11.6%reportthattheyalsousesuch‘apps’/websitestobenotifiedofworkavailability.

Turningtotheloggingofworkviaan‘app’/website,weseethat73.1%ofplatformworkershave,atsometime,doneso,withhigherproportionsforthosewhoundertakeplatformworkeveryweek(81.9%)andthoseforwhomplatformworkisatleasthalftheirincome(87.9%).However,thisisnotrestrictedjusttoplatformworkers,with15.8%ofnon-platformworkersalsoreportingthattheyhave,atsometime,loggedworkviathistechnology.Althoughinpercentageterms,theuseof‘apps’/websitesisloweramongnon-platformworkers,becausetheyrepresentahigherproportionofthepopulationthisusageisnumericallyverysignificant.Onthebasisoftheseresults,weestimatethat5,522,200platformworkershaveusedsuchtechnologybut6,526,200non-platformworkershavedoneso.Inotherwordsforeveryplatformworkerwhohasusedan‘app’/websitetologwork,thereare1.2non-platformworkerswhohavedoneso.

Thedigitalmanagementpracticesassociatedwiththe‘gigeconomy’arethereforewidespreadacrosstheUKlabourmarket.

FIGURE7:PROPORTIONSUSINGANAPP/WEBSITETOBENOTIFIEDWHENWORKISAVAILABLEORLOGGINGWORKVIAANAPP/WEBSITE[Base:2235UKcitizensin2019surveyaged16-75(weighted)]

Use of customer ratings

Anotherimportantfeatureofplatformworkistheuseofratingsbycustomers,enablingthequalityofeachworker’sworktobeassessed.Suchratingscanplayanimportantroleonsomeplatformsindeterminingwhatearningsaplatformworkercancommand.Someplatformsdropworkerswhoseratingsfallbelowacertainlevel.

Amongstallplatformworkersinthe2019survey,theproportionwhohaveeverdoneworkthatcanberatedbycustomers/clientsis78.9%(84.3%formales,72.7%forfemales).Amongstnon-platformworkers,thisfigureisnotinsignificantat13.9%(14.4%formales,13.4%forfemales).Figure8belowshowsthatmorefrequentplatformworkingisassociatedwithgreaterchancesofbeingrated.

Turningtothegivingofratings,weseethatintheworkingagepopulation,6.6%giveratingsatleastweekly,14.4%atleastmonthly,43.8%atleastyearlyand57.9%haveevergivenratings.

Liketheuseofapps,theuseofcustomerratingsisnotrestrictedtoplatformworkersbutisspreadmorebroadlyacrosstheworkingagepopulation.Indeed,almostathirdofthosewhoarenotplatformworkersreporthavingtheirworkratedbycustomersorclients.Overall,halfoftheUKworkingagepopulationreportbeingratedinthisway.

Onceagain,itisapparentthatthepracticesofthe‘gigeconomy’arewidespreadacrosstheUKlabourmarket,andnotrestrictedtoplatformworkers.

FIGURE8:PROPORTIONSHAVINGWORKRATEDBYCUSTOMERS[Base:2235UKcitizensin2019surveyaged16-75(weighted)]

Wedonothavedataforcustomerratingsfrom2016,butdohavesuchinformationforotherdigitalpractices,makingitpossibletoseehowtheyhavegrownbetweenJanuary2016andApril2019.Figure9showsgraphicallynotonlytheextenttowhichthesedigitalpracticesextendacrosstheeconomybutalsohowtheyhavegrownsince2016.

Asmightbeexpected,averyhighproportionofthepopulationhas,atsomepoint,sentorreceivedemailsfromanemployerofclientfromhome,risingfrom39.3%in2016to43.8%in2019,withthegrowthcomingfromplatformworkers(upfrom7.7%to13.7%),althoughthesearegreatlyoutnumberedbynon-platformworkers.Perhapslessexpectedhasbeenthesharpriseintheuseofdigitalmeans(appsorwebsites)fornotifyingworkerswhennewtasksarewaitingforthem.In2016onepersonintenwasreportingthispractice,butby2019thishadmorethandoubledto21.0%oftheadultworking-agepopulation.Ineachcase,justunderhalfoftheseworkerswerenotplatformworkers.Theuseofappsorwebsitestorecordworkdoneroseoverthesameperiodfrom14.2%to24.6%(nearlyaquarteroftheworking-agepopulation).Here,themajorityofaffectedworkerswerenotplatformworkersinbothcases.ThissuggestsasignificantspreadofdigitalmanagementpracticesacrosstheUKworkforce.Finally,welookedattheuseofcustomerratingstoevaluateworkers’performance.Wedonothavedataonthispracticefrom2016butitisclearfromthe2019resultsthatthisisalsowidespread,with24.0%ofrespondentsreportingit,ofwhomnearlyhalf(11.7%)werenotplatformworkers.

FIGURE9:USEOFDIGITALTECHNOLOGYBYUKWORKERS[Base:4473UKcitizensaged16-75:2238in2016,2235in2019(weighted)].Note:the2016surveydidnotincludeaquestionaboutcustomerratings.

Who are the platform workers? Gender Lookingatallthosewhohadevercarriedoutplatformwork,menweremorelikelytodoso(at16.5%)thanwomen(at14.1%),areversalofthesituationin2016whenwomen(at9.7%)weresomewhatmorelikelythanmen(at8.9%)tobedoingsomesortofplatformworkalthoughinbothsurveys,themarginsoferroraresuchthatthesedifferencesbetweengendersarenotstatisticallysignificant.

Amongallplatformworkersinthe2019survey,womenthereforerepresented46.5%,aproportionwhichwasalmostunchangedat46.3%amongthosedoingplatformworkatleastmonthlyand44.2%amongthosedoingsoatleastweekly.

Femaleplatformworkersweremorelikelytorespondthatplatformworkwastheironlysourceofincome:7.6%ofthemaleplatformworkersstatedthatthiswastheironlysourceofincomecomparedto11.6%ofthefemaleplatformworkers.

Age

Platformworkerscanbefoundinallagegroupsbutaremorelikelytobeintheyoungestagegroups.Figure10showsthebreakdownoftheUKplatformworkforceinthe2019surveybyagewith31.5%aged16-24,28.7%aged25-34,16.4%aged35-44,13.4%aged45-54,5.7%aged55-64and4.3%aged65-75.Itisofinteresttonotethatofthoseaged16-24

whoareplatformworkers,29.4%identifythemselvesasbeingstudents.Ofthosethatundertakeplatformworkatleastweekly,28.3%identifythemselvesasstudents.

Afocusonintensiveplatformworkers(thosewhodosoatleastonceaweek)showssimilarresultswith34.0%aged16-24,28.9%aged25-34,19.1%aged35-44,10.4%aged45-54,4.3%aged55-64and3.3%aged65-75.

Intermsofrelianceonplatformworkforincome(morethanhalfofpersonalincomecomesfromplatformwork),theagedistributionisagainsimilarwith30.1%aged16-24,29.5%aged25-34,19.8%aged35-44,12.7%aged45-54,3.4%aged55-64and4.5%aged65-75.

FIGURE10:PLATFORMWORKERSBYAGE[Base:349UKplatformworkersin2019surveyaged16-75(weighted)]

Location

The2019surveyfoundthatplatformworkwasquiteevenlyspreadthroughouttheUK,withthestrongestconcentrationbeinginGreaterLondon.Furtherinvestigationwillberequiredtoinvestigatetowhatextentthismaybecorrelatedtosuchfactorsasurbanisation,poverty,seasonalityofemploymentorthepre-existenceofalargeinformaleconomy.

PlatformworkersbyRegionin2019survey

Frequency(weighted) PercentageofworkingagepopulationNorthEast 15 16.29%NorthWest 34 13.80%YorkshireandTheHumber 32 16.38%WestMidlands 33 16.64%EastMidlands 16 9.44%EastofEngland 26 12.69%SouthWest 26 13.68%SouthEast 47 16.09%GreaterLondon 60 21.07%Wales 16 14.78%Scotland 26 14.07%NorthernIreland 10 14.97%

FIGURE11:GEOGRAPHICALDISTRIBUTIONOFPLATFORMWORKERSINUKFROM2019SURVEY

What types of work are platform workers doing?

Turningtotheworkreportedinthe2019surveythatplatformworkersactuallydointheUK,oneofthemoststrikingfeaturesoftheseresultswasthepropensityofrespondentstonamemorethanonekindofwork.Thissuggeststhattheyweretryingtogainanincomefromasmanysourcesaspossiblebutmakesitdifficulttogainanaccuratepictureofthebreakdownoftheplatformworkforce.39.0%ofplatformworkerssaidthattheycarriedoutofficework,shorttasksor‘clickwork’ontheirowncomputerorotheronlinedeviceatleastonceaweek(anestimated5.8%oftheworkingagepopulationofUK,aged16-75;2,860,500individuals)and27.9%ofplatformworkerscarriedoutmorehighskilledonlinework(suchasdesign,editing,softwaredevelopmentortranslation)atleastonceaweek(4.2%ofworkingagepopulation;2,066,900individuals).

Fewer(23.3%)hadrunerrandsorcarriedoutroutineoffice-typeworkinotherpeople’spremisesatleastonceaweek(3.5%ofworkingagepopulation;1,731,300individuals),carriedoutoccasionalworkinotherpeople’shomes,suchasplumbingorhouseholdrepairs

atleastonceaweek(20.0%ofplatformworkers;3.0%ofworkingagepopulation;1,458,200individuals),doneregular,scheduledworkinotherpeople’shomes(suchascleaning,gardeningorbabysitting)atleastonceaweek(25.9%ofplatformworkers;3.9%ofworkingagepopulation;1,904,100individuals),orprofessionalwork(suchaslegalservices,accounting)atleastonceaweek(25.6%ofplatformworkers;3.8%ofworkingagepopulation;1,869,500individuals).

Similarnumbershaddonetaxiwork,usinganapporwebsitesuchasUberatleastonceaweek(22.6%ofplatformworkers;3.4%ofworkingagepopulation;1,647,200individuals)andpersonalservicework(suchashairdressingormassage)atleastonceaweek(22.7%ofplatformworkers;3.4%ofworkingagepopulation;1,660,300individuals).

Whenitcomestomakingdeliveries,18.9%ofplatformworkersusedacarorvantodelivermealsfromarestaurantortakeawayatleastonceaweek(2.8%ofworkingagepopulation;1,373,500individuals)withthefigureforusingabicycle,mopedorscooterbeing17.4%(2.6%ofworkingagepopulation;1,266,600individuals).Fordeliveryofotheritemsatleastonceaweek,21.5%ofplatformworkersusedacarorvan(3.2%ofworkingagepopulation;1,556,300individuals)withthefigureforusingabicycle,mopedorscooterbeing18.4%(2.7%ofworkingagepopulation;1,340,400individuals).

Simplifyingthispicturebyaggregatingcategoriesintofourmaintypesshowsthatthelargestcategory,at7.8%oftheadultpopulation,isonlinework.Thisisfollowed,at5.4%,byworkinvolvingtheprovisionofservicesinotherpeople’shomes.Thirdinorderofimportance,at5.1%,isdrivinganddeliverywork,followed,at3.5%byrunningerrands.

FIGURE12:TYPESOFPLATFORMWORKCARRIEDOUTATLEASTONCEAWEEK(%OFWORKINGAGEPOPULATION)[Base:349UKplatformworkersin2019surveyaged16-75(weighted)]

For whom are the platform workers working?

The2019surveyalsolookedatcustomersforonlinework.Thiscapturesinformationrelatingtoservicesdelivereddirectlytoconsumersbut,not,ofcourse,thosekindsofonlineworkthataredelivereddirectlytocorporatecustomers.Overall,60.7%ofthesamplesaidthattheyhadeverboughttheservicesofaplatformworker.Thisisequivalentto29,727,700peopleacrossthewholeUKworkingagepopulation.

Peopleinhigherincomebracketsaremorelikelytobecustomersforplatformwork,ataroundtwo-thirdsforthoseearning£20,000to£34,999andataroundthree-quartersforthoseearningover£35,000.Thisproportionfallsto50.9%amongthoseearninglessthan£20,000.Thisdoes,nevertheless,revealthatasubstantialproportionoftheusersofplatformservicesarethemselveslowearners.Indeednofewerthan76.0%ofpeoplewhosaythattheyprovidedrivinganddeliveryplatformservicesatleastweeklyarealsocustomersforthematleastmonthly(92.8%atleastyearly)whilethan67.2%ofpeoplewhosaythattheyprovideplatformservicesinotherpeoples’homesatleastweeklyarealsocustomersforthematleastmonthly(89.6%atleastyearly).

FIGURE13:PROPORTIONOFPLATFORMWORKERSWHOUNDERTAKETAXI/DELIVERYWORKATLEASTWEEKLYWHOAREALSOCUSTOMERSFORTHESAMETYPEOFWORKATLEASTONCEAYEAR[Base:4473UKcitizensaged16-75:2238in2016,2235in2019(weighted)].

FIGURE14:PROPORTIONOFPLATFORMWORKERSWHOUNDERTAKEHOUSEHOLDSERVICESWORKATLEASTWEEKLYWHOAREALSOCUSTOMERSFORTHESAMETYPEOFWORKATLEASTONCEAYEAR[Base:4473UKcitizensaged16-75:2238in2016,2235in2019(weighted)].

Percentageofpeoplepurchasingworkonlinebyincomebracket

PercentageUpto£19,999 50.9%£20,000to£34,999 64.8%£35,000to£54,999 74.0%£55,000+ 78.3%

How does this compare with other European countries?

AcomparisonwiththefirstUKsurvey,carriedoutin2016,andsurveyscarriedoutintwelveotherEuropeancountriesbetween2016and2019showsthatplatformworkhasgrownconsiderablyintheUKinrecentyears.Itisstillnotatthelevelsestimatedtoexistinsomecountriesbutitcanbesupposedthatthisincreasewouldalsobeobservedifsurveysweretoberepeatedinothercountries.Itshouldalsobenotedthattheupperageincludedinthesurveydifferedduetosamplingpracticalities.Whereastheupperlimitwas75intheUK(forbothsurveys),itwas65inSweden,Austria,FinlandandSpain,70intheNetherlands,Germany,SwitzerlandandItaly,55inEstonia,SloveniaandCzechia.

Ingeneral,thereappearstobeacorrelationbetweenhighlevelsofplatformworkandhighlevelsofinformalwork.Platformworkisparticularlyprevalentinruralregions(whichhavelevelsofseasonalworkinindustriessuchasagricultureandtourism;hence,perhapsahigherdemandforothersourcesofincomein‘low’seasons)andinpartsofCentralandEasternEurope,SouthernSpainandItaly,whichhavebeencharacterisedhistoricallybylargeinformalsectors.

FIGURE15:COMPARISONWITHOTHEREUROPEANCOUNTRIES-SEEKINGPLATFORMWORKANDUNDERTAKINGWEEKLYPLATFORMWORK[Base:2235respondentsintheUK2019survey,2000inCzechia,2001inSlovenia,2182inSpain,2000inFinland,2000inEstonia,2199inItaly,2001inSwitzerland,1969inAustria,2180inGermany,2125intheNetherlands,2146inSwedenand2238intheUK2016survey(weighted).DatafromFranceisstilltobecollectedandanalysed.]

FIGURE16:COMPARISONWITHOTHEREUROPEANCOUNTRIES-FREQUENCYOFPLATFORMWORKLESSTHANWEEKLY[Base:2235respondentsintheUK2019survey,2000inCzechia,2001inSlovenia,2182inSpain,2000inFinland,2000inEstonia,2199inItaly,2001inSwitzerland,1969inAustria,2180inGermany,2125intheNetherlands,2146inSwedenand2238intheUK2016survey(weighted).DatafromFranceisstilltobecollectedandanalysed.]

Conclusions WecanconcludefromthisresearchthatitisnotpossibletoidentifyplatformworkersasadistinctandseparatecategoryintheUKlabourmarket.Onthecontrary,platformworkistakenupbyawidevarietyofpeopleasawayofsupplementingtheirincomefromothersources–oftenadoptedontopofafull-timejob.Thefactthatmanymorepeopleareseekingsuchworkthanareactuallyfindingit,andthewaythatiscombinedwithothermeansofgeneratinganincomeonline(suchassellingsecond-handgoodsorrentingoutaroom)suggestthatitisdrivenmainlybyeconomicneed.ThispictureisconfirmedbylookingatotherEuropeancountrieswhereitisapparentthathighlevelsofplatformworkingarecorrelatedwithlowaverageearninglevelscomparedwithothercountries.Theimplicationsofthisarethatmeasuresdesignedtotargetplatformworkasadistinctcategoryareunlikelytobeeffectiveandthatconsiderationshouldbegiventobroaderstrategiesaddressinglowpay,povertyandprecaritymorebroadly.

Althoughpublicattentiononthegigeconomyhastendedtofocusonthetaxidriving,fooddeliveryandcourierservicesthatarevisiblypresentonourstreets,theseresultsshowthattheworkersprovidingtheseservicesareoutnumberedbythoseworkinginmorehiddenways,eitherprovidinghouseholdservicesinotherpeople’shomesorworkinginisolationontheirownelectronicdevicescarryingoutonlinetasksinwhatis

essentiallyagloballabourmarket.Thissuggeststheneedforfurtherindepthresearchontheselessvisibleformsofplatformwork.

Anotherimportantconclusionfromthisresearchrelatestothespreadofdigitalpracticesfororganisingandmanagingworkbeyondthescopeofthosewhoworkdirectlyforonlineplatformsintoothersectorsoftheeconomy.Relativelylittleisknownabouttheimpactsofthesepracticesonorganisationalculture,jobsatisfactionandprofessionaldevelopment.Thereisalsoaneedtoexploretheirimplicationsfordataprivacyandequity.

Notes

Note1:Percentagesgivenabovearebasedonweightedcalculationstoadjustforsmalldeviationsofthesamplefrompopulationcharacteristics.Missingand“don’tknow”responseshavebeenexcluded.Wherepercentageshavebeenexpressedasnumberofpeople,thesefiguresaresimilarlyweighted.Wherecountsofrespondents(notbasedonpercentages)arereported,thesearenotweighted.

Note2:Confidenceintervalshavenotbeengivenaboveforthesakeofbrevity.Forthosepercentagesbasedonthewholesample(2238respondentsinthe2016survey,2235respondentsinthe2019survey),allconfidenceintervalswouldbewithin+/-2.1%ofthefiguresquoted.Forpercentagesbasedonplatformworkersalone,confidenceintervalswouldbewithin+/-6.8%forthe2016surveyand+/-5.2%forthe2019survey.

Note3:OfflinesurveyshavebeencarriedoutintheUK(facetoface)andSwitzerland(telephone)inordertoassesstheeffectofsurveymodeonresults.Resultshavebeenbroadlyreplicated.Investigationsindicatethatwheredifferencesinresultsexist,thesearelargelyduetoinevitableissuesinconvertinganonlinequestionnaireintofacetofaceortelephonemode.

UniversityofHertfordshire,EuropeanthinktankFEPS,UNIEuropa,theTradesUnionCongress(TUC)andotherorganisationsacrossEuropearecollaboratingonaresearchprojecttoexplorethescaleandimpactofthegrowthofplatformworking,andprovideamorecomprehensivepictureofthedigitalisedlabourmarketacrosstheEuropeanUnion.

ResultshavebeenpublishedsofarfortheUnitedKingdom,Sweden,theNetherlands,Austria,Germany(surveysconductedin2016),Switzerland,Italy(in2017),Estonia,Finland,Spain(in2018),Slovenia,Czechia(2019).

IntheUK,2238adultsaged16-75weresurveyedonlinebyIpsosMORIforthe2016survey.Responseswerecollectedbetween22ndand26thJanuary2016.Forthe2019survey,2235adultsaged16-75weresurveyedonlinebyIpsosMORIincollaborationwithAmparioandCINT.Responseswerecollectedbetween26thApriland1stMay2019.Dataareweightedbyage,gender,region,socialgradeandworkingstatustomatchtheprofileoftheadultpopulationaged16-75intheUK.IpsosMORIwasresponsibleforthefieldworkanddatacollectiononly.UniversityofHertfordshirewasresponsiblefortheanalysis,reportingandinterpretationoftheresults.

Forthe2016survey,ppopulationestimatesarederivedaccordingtoestimatedpopulationfiguresformid-2016foradultsaged16-75intheUK,estimatedat48,400,000.Forthe2019survey,populationestimatesarederivedaccordingtoestimatedpopulationfiguresfor2019foradultsaged16-75intheUK,estimatedat48,950,000.Surveypercentagesaregrossedupasaproportionofthisfigure.

Appendix ThisappendixprovidesestimatesofnumbersofwomenandmenintheUKin2016and2019fallingintothefollowingcategories:

1. Havingeverdoneanyplatformwork;2. Havingdoneplatformworkatleastmonthly;3. Havingdoneplatformworkatleastweekly;4. Platformworkconstitutes100%ofincome;5. Platformworkconstitutesmorethan50%ofpersonalincome;6. Generalpopulationusingapps/websitestonotifywhenworkisavailable;7. Generalpopulationusingapps/websitestologworkdone;8. Generalpopulationusingapps/websitesbothfornotificationofwhenworkis

availableandforloggingworkdone;9. Generalpopulationinwhichworkisratedbycustomers(2019only);10. Generalpopulationusingapps/websitesbothfornotificationofwhenworkis

availableandforloggingworkdoneandhavingworkratedbycustomers(2019only).

2016

Men Women All

%(95%CI)

Numberofpeople(95%CI)

%(95%CI)

Numberofpeople(95%CI)

%(95%CI)

Numberofpeople(95%CI)

Undertakinganyplatformwork

8.9%(7.3,10.6)

2.15M(1.74,2.55)

9.7%(8.0,11.4)

2.36M(1.94,2.78)

9.3%(8.1,10.5)

4.51M(3.92,5.09)

Undertakingplatformworkatleastmonthly

5.7%(4.4,7.1)

1.38M(1.05,1.71)

5.7%(4.4,7.1)

1.40M(1.07,1.73)

5.7%(4.8,6.7)

2.78M(2.31,3.24)

Undertakingplatformworkatleastweekly

4.5%(3.2,5.7)

1.07M(0.78,1.36)

4.9%(3.6,6.1)

1.19M(0.88,1.49)

4.7%(3.8,5.5)

2.25M(1.83,2.68)

ObtainingAllPersonalIncomefromPlatformWork

0.2%(0.0,0.5)

48K(0,111)

0.6%(0.1,1.0)

140K(32,247)

0.4%(0.1,0.6)

188K(63,312)

ObtainingatLeast50%ofPersonalIncomefromPlatformWork

2.8%(1.9,3.8)

683K(448,918)

2.1%(1.3,2.9)

513K(309,717)

2.5%(1.8,3.1)

1195K(884,1507)

EverBeenNotifiedofWorkvia‘App’/Website

8.7%(7.1,10.4)

2.10M(1.70,2.50)

11.1%(9.2,12.9)

2.70M(2.24,3.16)

9.9%(8.7,11.2)

4.80M(4.19,5.41)

EverLoggedWorkvia‘App’/Website

13.4%(11.3,15.4)

3.21M(2.72,3.69)

15.0%(12.8,17.1)

3.64M(3.13,4.16)

14.2%(12.7,15.6)

6.85M(6.14,7.56)

EverBeenNotifiedofWorkandEverLoggedWorkvia‘App’/Website

7.9%(6.3,9.5)

1.90M(1.52,2.29)

8.2%(6.6,9.8)

1.99M(1.60,2.39)

8.1%(6.9,9.2)

3.90M(3.35,4.45)

Base:2238respondentsintheUK

2019

Men Women All

%(95%CI)

Numberofpeople(95%CI)

%(95%CI)

Numberofpeople(95%CI)

%(95%CI)

Numberofpeople(95%CI)

Undertakinganyplatformwork

16.5%(14.3,18.7)

4.02M(3.48,4.55)

14.1%(12.0,16.1)

3.47M(2.97,3.97)

15.3%(13.8,16.8)

7.48M(6.75,8.21)

Undertakingplatformworkatleastmonthly

13.2%(11.2,15.2)

3.20M(2.72,3.69)

10.4%(8.6,12.2)

2.56M(2.12,3.00)

11.8%(10.4,13.1)

5.76M(5.10,6.41)

Undertakingplatformworkatleastweekly

10.9%(9.0,12.7)

2.64M(2.19,3.09)

8.4%(6.8,10.0)

2.08M(1.68,2.48)

9.6%(8.4,10.9)

4.72M(4.12,5.32)

ObtainingAllPersonalIncomefromPlatformWork

1.1%(0.5,1.7)

265K(116,413)

1.2%(0.6,1.9)

302K(144,461)

1.2%(0.7,1.6)

567K(350,785)

ObtainingatLeast50%ofPersonalIncomefromPlatformWork

3.8%(2.7,5.0)

931K(656,1206)

3.2%(2.2,4.3)

799K(544,1054)

3.5%(2.8,4.3)

1730K(1354,2105)

EverBeenNotifiedofWorkvia‘App’/Website

24.0%(21.4,26.5)

5.83M(5.20,6.45)

18.2%(15.9,20.5)

4.49M(3.92,5.05)

21.0%(19.3,22.8)

10.29M(9.45,11.14)

EverLoggedWorkvia‘App’/Website

27.1%(24.4,29.8)

6.59M(5.93,7.24)

22.2%(19.7,24.7)

5.48M(4.87,6.09)

24.6%(22.8,26.4)

12.05M(11.16,12.95)

EverBeenNotifiedofWorkandEverLoggedWorkvia‘App’/Website

20.9%(18.5,23.4)

5.09M(4.49,5.69)

15.2%(13.1,17.3)

3.74M(3.22,4.27)

18.0%(16.4,19.6)

8.82M(8.02,9.61)

EverHavingHadWorkRatedbyCustomers

26.2%(23.6,28.9)

6.38M(5.73,7.03)

21.9%(19.4,24.4)

5.40M(4.79,6.01)

24.0%(22.2,25.9)

11.77M(10.87,12.66)

EverBeenNotifiedofWorkandLoggedWorkvia‘App’/WebsiteandHadWorkRatedbyCustomers

17.9%(15.6,20.2)

4.36M(3.80,4.92)

13.0%(11.0,15.0)

3.20M(2.71,3.69)

15.4%(13.9,16.9)

7.55M(6.81,8.29)

Base:2235respondentsintheUK