PLPLURURAALILISMSMA Presentation in Political Science 004A Presentation in Political Science 004

By Jeremiah CarlosBy Jeremiah Carlos

Six Fundamental Points For Discussion:Six Fundamental Points For Discussion:

I.I. WhatWhat is pluralism? is pluralism?II.II. WhoWho founded the theories of pluralism? founded the theories of pluralism?III.III. WhenWhen did pluralism start and develop? did pluralism start and develop?IV.IV. HowHow does pluralism work? does pluralism work?V.V. WhereWhere is pluralism being applied today? is pluralism being applied today?VI.VI. WhyWhy choose pluralism? choose pluralism?

I. What is PLURALISM?I. What is PLURALISM?

Pluralism – Pluralism – In its broader sense, pluralism is a belief In its broader sense, pluralism is a belief in, or a commitment to, diversity or multiplicity. in, or a commitment to, diversity or multiplicity. More narrowly, it is a theory of the distribution of More narrowly, it is a theory of the distribution of political power, that is widely and evenly dispersed in political power, that is widely and evenly dispersed in society rather than concentrated in the hands of an society rather than concentrated in the hands of an elite or a ruling class. It is usually seen as a theory of elite or a ruling class. It is usually seen as a theory of 'group politics' in which individuals are represented 'group politics' in which individuals are represented largely through their membership of organized largely through their membership of organized groups, and all such groups have access to the policy groups, and all such groups have access to the policy process.process.

Pluralism – Pluralism – Literally “rule by the many”, it refers to a Literally “rule by the many”, it refers to a political system in which numerous competing political system in which numerous competing interest groups* exert strong influence over a interest groups* exert strong influence over a responsive government. However, each of these responsive government. However, each of these groups concentrates on its own area so no single groups concentrates on its own area so no single elite dominates all sectors. New groups can emerge elite dominates all sectors. New groups can emerge easily, bringing further competition to the political easily, bringing further competition to the political marketplace.marketplace.

**Interest groupsInterest groups are associations that pressure are associations that pressure government for policies they favor.government for policies they favor.

Simply put:Simply put:

PLURALISM is the theory that politics is the PLURALISM is the theory that politics is the interaction of many groups.interaction of many groups.

Key features:Key features:1. 1. Citizenship rights, including one-person-one-vote, Citizenship rights, including one-person-one-vote, freedom of expression, freedom of organizationfreedom of expression, freedom of organization2. 2. System of checks and balances between the System of checks and balances between the legislature, executive, judiciary and bureaucracylegislature, executive, judiciary and bureaucracy3. 3. Competitive electoral system with at least two Competitive electoral system with at least two partiesparties

Four Major Tenets of PluralismFour Major Tenets of Pluralism1. 1. Resources and hence potential power are Resources and hence potential power are widely scattered throughout societywidely scattered throughout society2. 2. At least some resources are available to nearly At least some resources are available to nearly everyoneeveryone3. 3. At any time the amount of potential power At any time the amount of potential power exceeds the amount of actual powerexceeds the amount of actual power4. 4. No one is all-powerfulNo one is all-powerful

II. Who founded the theories of pluralism?II. Who founded the theories of pluralism?

There are two widely-recognized pluralist schools of There are two widely-recognized pluralist schools of thought namely, thought namely, Classic Pluralism Classic Pluralism and and Neo-Neo-pluralism.pluralism.

Classic Pluralism Classic Pluralism was founded by was founded by James Madison,James Madison, the “Father of the American Constitution.”the “Father of the American Constitution.”

Neo-pluralism Neo-pluralism was developed by was developed by Robert Dahl, Robert Dahl, an an American political scientist and Yale University American political scientist and Yale University professor.professor.

James Madison (1751-1836) was an American politician and political philosopher.

- the fourth President of the United States- one of the Founding Fathers of the United States- the principal author of the US Constitution, and is often called the "Father of the Constitution" - wrote over a third of the Federalist Papers, an influential commentary on the US Constitution.

In Federalist No. 10, (1787) James Madison addresses the question of "factions." He states that:

- source of faction is the diversity of opinion in political life which leads to dispute over fundamental issues

- it is impossible to remove causes of faction because a) it will destroy Liberty and b) create a society homogeneous in opinions and interests

- damage caused by factions can be limited only by controlling its effects through separation of powers and system of checks and balances

Key Ideas on Classic Pluralism1. Diverse range of overlapping interest groups seeking political influence2. Governments mediate and adjudicate between demands3. Constitutional rules embedded in a supportive political culture4. Power is shared and bartered by numerous groups in society5. Different types of resource dispersed throughout population

Key Ideas on Classic Pluralism (continued)6. Value consensus on political procedures, range of policy alternatives and legitimate scope of politics7. Balance between active and passive citizenry sufficient for political stability8. International framework upholding the rules of pluralist and free-market societies

Robert A. Dahl (1915-present) is the Sterling Professor emeritus of political science at Yale University.

- former president of the American Political Science Association

- one of the most distinguished political scientists writing today

- "The Dean" of American political scientists

In Who Governs? Democracy and Power in an American Who Governs? Democracy and Power in an American CityCity (1961) Robert Dahl developed a radicalized form of (1961) Robert Dahl developed a radicalized form of pluralism, called neo-pluralism. He further stated that:pluralism, called neo-pluralism. He further stated that:

- Group politics is the very stuff of the democratic - Group politics is the very stuff of the democratic processprocess

- Group and organized interests had replaced - Group and organized interests had replaced political parties as principal link between government political parties as principal link between government and governedand governed

- Coined the term 'polyarchy' to mean “rule by - Coined the term 'polyarchy' to mean “rule by many”many”

- There is an increasing concern with the power of - There is an increasing concern with the power of major capitalist corporationsmajor capitalist corporations

Key Ideas on Neo-Pluralism1. Multiple pressure groups but political agenda biased towards corporate power2. The state and its departments forge their own sectional interests3. Constitutional rules function in context of diverse political culture and system of radically unequal economic resources4. Power is contested by numerous groups5. Poor resource base of many groups prevents their full political participation

Key Ideas on Neo-Pluralism (continued)6. Uneven distribution of socioeconomic power provides opportunities for and limits to political options7. Unequal involvement in politics; insufficiently open government8. International order compromised by powerful multinational economic interests and dominant states

III.III. When did pluralism start and develop?When did pluralism start and develop?

Pluralist ideas can be traced back to early liberal Pluralist ideas can be traced back to early liberal political philosophy:political philosophy:

- - John LockeJohn Locke ( (Two Treatises of GovernmentTwo Treatises of Government 1689) 1689) proposed representative government of a parliament proposed representative government of a parliament elected by citizens who owned property.elected by citizens who owned property.

- - Charles MontesquieuCharles Montesquieu ( (The Spirit of the LawsThe Spirit of the Laws 1748) advocated the separation of state powers into 1748) advocated the separation of state powers into three branches, namely the executive, legislative and three branches, namely the executive, legislative and judicial branches.judicial branches.

The first systematic development of pluralist ideas is The first systematic development of pluralist ideas is found in the contributions of found in the contributions of James MadisonJames Madison to to The The Federalist Papers Federalist Papers (1787-1789). He pointed out that:(1787-1789). He pointed out that:

- There is a problem of “factions” in a democracy- There is a problem of “factions” in a democracy- Unchecked democratic rule might simply lead to - Unchecked democratic rule might simply lead to

majoritarianismmajoritarianism- There should be multiplicity of interests and - There should be multiplicity of interests and

groups with political voice in a society for stability groups with political voice in a society for stability and orderand order

- There must be a system of divided government - There must be a system of divided government based on separation of powers, bicameralism and based on separation of powers, bicameralism and federalismfederalism

Robert Dahl Robert Dahl ((Who Governs? Democracy and Power Who Governs? Democracy and Power in an American Cityin an American City 1961) carried out an empirical 1961) carried out an empirical study of the distribution of power in New Haven, study of the distribution of power in New Haven, Connecticut, USA. He concluded that:Connecticut, USA. He concluded that:

- No ruling or permanent elite was able to - No ruling or permanent elite was able to dominate the political processdominate the political process

- Modern democracy is a rule by many, not by all - Modern democracy is a rule by many, not by all citizenscitizens

- Pluralist democracy features competition - Pluralist democracy features competition between parties at election time and the ability of between parties at election time and the ability of interest or pressure groups to articulate their view interest or pressure groups to articulate their view freelyfreely

IV. How does pluralism work?IV. How does pluralism work?

In pluralism, politics is a competition between a In pluralism, politics is a competition between a multitude of freely organized interest groups. These multitude of freely organized interest groups. These compete for influence over a government that is compete for influence over a government that is willing to listen to all the voices it can distinguish in willing to listen to all the voices it can distinguish in the political din. The state becomes little more than the political din. The state becomes little more than an arena for competition between interest groups. an arena for competition between interest groups. The governing party is an arbitrator, not an initiator The governing party is an arbitrator, not an initiator of change. Groups compete on a level playing field, of change. Groups compete on a level playing field, with the government showing little bias to all groups.with the government showing little bias to all groups.

Example:Example:

a) Same-sex marriage issue arises.a) Same-sex marriage issue arises.b) Only a small number of groups take interest in it.b) Only a small number of groups take interest in it.c) Church and conservative organizations oppose it. c) Church and conservative organizations oppose it.

LGBT groups and civil libertarian organizations LGBT groups and civil libertarian organizations favor it.favor it.

d) These interest groups use their power to influence d) These interest groups use their power to influence legislation.legislation.

e) The victorious side of this issue will be the one e) The victorious side of this issue will be the one with greatest power, not the one with the most with greatest power, not the one with the most “body count.”“body count.”

Power Sources of Interest GroupsPower Sources of Interest Groups

1. Money1. Money2. Charismatic leaders2. Charismatic leaders3. Efficient organizational apparatus3. Efficient organizational apparatus4. Associating issues with dominant values of society4. Associating issues with dominant values of society5. Knowledge5. Knowledge

Lobbying - Lobbying - is a form of advocacy with the intention is a form of advocacy with the intention of influencing decisions made by legislators and of influencing decisions made by legislators and officials in the government by individuals, other officials in the government by individuals, other legislators, constituents, or interest groupslegislators, constituents, or interest groups

Comparison of Democratic ProcessesComparison of Democratic Processes

Democratic Society Hierarchy ModelsDemocratic Society Hierarchy Models

V. Where is pluralism being applied today?V. Where is pluralism being applied today?

Pluralism is being applied in almost all countries Pluralism is being applied in almost all countries with “democratic” governments.with “democratic” governments.

Example #1:Example #1: Russian Federation Russian FederationIn the late 1980s, President Gorbachev replaced In the late 1980s, President Gorbachev replaced

the docile Supreme Soviet with a two-tier parliament the docile Supreme Soviet with a two-tier parliament called the Congress of People's Deputies (CPSU). called the Congress of People's Deputies (CPSU). CPSU abandoned its monopoly of power in 1990 and CPSU abandoned its monopoly of power in 1990 and similar parliaments were elected in the 15 Soviet similar parliaments were elected in the 15 Soviet republics, under the conditions of republics, under the conditions of political pluralism.political pluralism.

Example #2:Example #2: The United States of America The United States of America

In the US, interest groups patterns come closer to In the US, interest groups patterns come closer to the pluralist model than anywhere else. Tens of the pluralist model than anywhere else. Tens of thousands of groups, ranging from Happiness of thousands of groups, ranging from Happiness of Motherhood Eternal to the United Autoworkers of Motherhood Eternal to the United Autoworkers of America, seek to influence policy at federal, state America, seek to influence policy at federal, state and local levels. If one interest seems to be gaining and local levels. If one interest seems to be gaining the upper hand, others will form to counter its the upper hand, others will form to counter its influence. Vigorous, independent and competitive influence. Vigorous, independent and competitive media are always willing to listen to new groups with media are always willing to listen to new groups with a story to tell.a story to tell.

VI. Why choose pluralism?VI. Why choose pluralism?1. It secures government by minorities and hence, 1. It secures government by minorities and hence,

political liberty.political liberty.2. It is a crucial obstacle to the development of 2. It is a crucial obstacle to the development of

excessively powerful factions and an unresponsive excessively powerful factions and an unresponsive state.state.

3. It reflects the constitutional right to assembly, 3. It reflects the constitutional right to assembly, and to petition the government for redress of and to petition the government for redress of grievances.grievances.

4. It ensures that the government is too fragmented 4. It ensures that the government is too fragmented to be anything more than an unbiased umpire of to be anything more than an unbiased umpire of group demands.group demands.