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Policing Social Tension: The Long View
Cumberland Lodge 2016
Dr Timothy Brain
Alternative: the British Policing model has historically implicitly recognised the use of extreme force in extreme circumstances
‘Social Tension’?
• Stress in society, or sections of society, which are • a consequence of adverse factors
– Economic – Social – racial – political
• which may lead to serious disorder • The social tension may go unnoticed and
unaddressed until after serious disorder has occurred
CoP Public Order Planning and Deployment
?
Riot 12 or more persons Use or threaten Unlawful violence For a common purpose Conduct cause a person of Reasonable firmness To fear for their personal safety
‘Social Tension Curve’
Preconditions
Precipitants
Trigger(s)
Riot Containment/ suppression/ exhaustion/
absence of leadership?
Extended tension (sporadic recurrences)
New normality?/ ‘learn the lessons’
Investigation/ Exemplary sentencing?/
Inquiries(?)
Dynamics
Stone, Le Bon & Brain
Political interventions
Opportunities for avoidance
Uncertain consequences
‘Nurturing the British Policing model’?
• 18th century theories on prevention – quasi social control?
• Value in PO situations apparent as early as 1833
• Consideration of ‘Third Force’ – Special Constables
• An important factor in role out of ‘New Police’ 1835-1856
• Specialist selection and training • Troops (‘Yeomanry’ (early) and
regulars (later) continued to be used in support until 1920s
• Special constables sanctioned but used less in PO situations after 1848 until 1926
Evolution – 1870s-1960s
Transition 1968 ‘Winning by appearing to lose’
1976
1977
1980
1981
Rapid change
ACPO PO Manual 1983
Scarman Report 1981
‘Crisis of legitimacy’
1981
1981
1985
Categories of disorder – by estimated ‘common purpose’
• Political • Sectarian • Labour dispute • Communal (‘Racial’) • Environmental • Anti Police • Football(?) • Social protest • Commodity
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Riots & civil disobedience categories since 1900
1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919
Boer War
TDA S 2
Syndicalism
Suffrattes
Lock out
HOC WW1 Russian Rev
Europe Revs
1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938
1939
Emg Powers Act
NUWCM
Miners’ Strike
Gen Strike
Cut in benefit
POA 1936
WW2
1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959
Palestine
N C’wealth
Communist Ifit
Short Recession
B’ham & L’pool Pro war
Girmbsy Dock Pehrhyn Quarry
Liverpool Sectarian
Liverpool Sectarian Liverpool Sectarian
Suffragettes Black Friday
S Wales Mining (Tonypandy)
Liverpool Dock
London Dock Strike
Cornish Clay Workers
WW1 anti German
WW1 anti German
Pro Bolshevism (Luton)
Police Strike London
Miners’ Strike S Wales, Yorks,
Violent picketing
General Strike ,2000+ arrests mainly NE
National Unemployed marches Hyde Park;
Liverpool; Old Market (Bristol)
Battle of Cable St (BUF)
White on black Nottingham, Notting
Hill
Somali/Arab/White employment riots
S Shields
Anti Jewish Riots M'chester & L'pool
BUF formed Benefit cut
Unemployed march Liverpool
Unemployed march on Downing St
Pro Bolshevism Sheffield
Wall St NUWM
Unemp marches Bristol, S Wales,
Manchester
Police Strikes x2
Communal x7 (S Shields, L’pool etc
Canadian demob
Unemp marches
Desborough HO Pol Dept Comintern
Blaina
Unemp march peaceful
Oldham, Bradford, Leeds, Burnley
Football x3
1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979
US Civil Rts
V’nam esc
TDA RRA
Radical St u Al
US riots
In PlaceStrife
Ind Rel Act
‘U turn’
Oil shock
Winter of Dis’t
Con elect
1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Recession
Unemp 3m
ACPO PO Man
Miners’ Strike
SA Townships
Com Charge
Rodney King
Los Angeles Rt
Fuel Esc tax
Vancouver APEC
HRA 1998
Seattle
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Cisse case
Iraq War
Recession
HMIC ‘Adapting’
Grosvenor Sq
Saltley Coke Depot
Left v right Red Lion Sq (K Gately) Lewisham
(Shields deployed)
Southall (Blair Peach)
Grunwick
Steel Strike (2ndaries)
St Paul's
Brixton, (London), Toxteth, Moss Side,
Handsworth, + others
Greenham Common
begins
CEGB Devon
Warrington Print
Miners’ Strike Orgreave + others?
'Stonehenge'
Handsworth, Brixton,
Tottenham
Wapping
Op Delivery
Student loans/
anti Thatcher
Dewsbury
Poll Tax riots
Ely (Cardiff)
Castlemorton Common & Twyford Down
Blackburn & Burnley
Blackbird Leys + others
Hartcliffe
Welling ANL
Anti SA Rugby
Reclaim St B'ham & Camden/Shoreham
Disability Rights
Bradford & Brixton
Newbury Bypass
Luton B'ham G8
Carnival Against C'ism
J18
Fuel Dispute
May Day Carnival
Guido Mask Demo
Millwall v B'ham
Trafalgar Sq/Fairford/Menwith
Asian/Balack Lozells, Handsworth
Drax, Mk Pov Hist, Pro Hunting
Heathrow CC
Kingsnorth CC
G20 London/B'heath/
Ratcliffe W Ham v M'wall
Students
Stock Exchnage/Occupy
Bristol Tescos
Tottenham
August 2011
Sussex Fracking
GK Riots/2.5 m unemp
Notting Hill
3rd Miners’ strike
NI Civ Rts ‘Rivers of
Blood’ MP Com Rel Dept
-15.00
-10.00
-5.00
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00 1
90
0
19
03
19
06
19
09
19
12
19
15
19
18
19
21
19
24
19
27
19
30
19
33
19
36
19
39
19
42
19
45
19
48
19
51
19
54
19
57
19
60
19
63
19
66
19
69
19
72
19
75
19
78
19
81
19
84
19
87
19
90
19
93
19
96
19
99
20
02
20
05
20
08
20
11
20
14
An
nu
al %
UK Unemployment and GDP Rates since 1900
GDP % Unemployment %
War
Oil Shock, Miners’ strike, 3 day week
Wall St crash
Suez
Labour elected
Coalition
National Government
War War War
Heath U turn Conservatives elected
Liberal landslide
Lloyd George budget
SPG formed RMS Windrush
First black officer recruited
Mugging panic
-15.00
-10.00
-5.00
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00 1
90
0
19
03
19
06
19
09
19
12
19
15
19
18
19
21
19
24
19
27
19
30
19
33
19
36
19
39
19
42
19
45
19
48
19
51
19
54
19
57
19
60
19
63
19
66
19
69
19
72
19
75
19
78
19
81
19
84
19
87
19
90
19
93
19
96
19
99
20
02
20
05
20
08
20
11
20
14
An
nu
al %
UK Unemployment and GDP Rates since 1900
GDP % Unemployment %
Miners’ Strike S Wales, Yorks,
Violent picketing
Girmbsy Dock Pehrhyn Quarry
Blaina
Pro Bolshevism (Luton) Police Strikes (x2)
Communal (x7)
General Strike ,2000+ arrests mainly NE
National Unemployed Marches Hyde Park;
Liverpool; Old Market (Bristol)
White on black Nottingham, Notting
Hill
Saltley Coke Depot
Steel Strike (2ndaries)
Warrington Print
Miners’ Strike Orgreave + others?
Wapping
S Wales Mining (Tonypandy)
London Dock
August 2011
Police Strike London
Liverpool Dock Grunwick
Cornish Clay Workers
Unemp marches Bristol, S Wales,
Manchester
-15.00
-10.00
-5.00
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00 1
90
0
19
03
19
06
19
09
19
12
19
15
19
18
19
21
19
24
19
27
19
30
19
33
19
36
19
39
19
42
19
45
19
48
19
51
19
54
19
57
19
60
19
63
19
66
19
69
19
72
19
75
19
78
19
81
19
84
19
87
19
90
19
93
19
96
19
99
20
02
20
05
20
08
20
11
20
14
An
nu
al %
UK Unemployment and GDP Rates since 1900
GDP % Unemployment %
Anti Jewish
Notting Hill
Tottenham, etc
Hartcliffe etc
Students
August 2011 Brixton etc
Bradford & Brixton
St Paul’s
Cable St
Notting Hill
Tottenham
Lewisham (Shields deployed)
Tonypandy 1910
Capt Lionel Lindsay (CC 1891-1937)
South Wales 1910
Preconditions • Trades Disputes Act 1906 • Syndicalism - direct political action • ‘Great Unrest’ • 1908 slump; French railways strike • Cut in value of real wages • Series of lock outs and strikes • 1910 heated political environment
Precipitants – autumn 1910 • 1.9.10 Rhondda Ely Pit seem
dispute Lock out • 5.9.10 All Cambrian Collieries
out in sympathy • Oct – official conciliation fails • Oct – French rail strike leaders
arrested • 1.11.10 all Rhondda and
Aberdare pits on strike (30,000) • Llwynypia pit remains
functioning • By management • Lindsay concentrates on
Llwynypia; asks for reinforcements
• AM 7.11.10 crowds gather • At request of magistrates
Lindsay asks for military assistance and mutual aid from Swansea, Cardiff and Bristol
Extended tension • Troops and extra police remain • Rigorous enforcement of picket discipline by ‘the Met’ • Blackleg labour? • 22.11.10 – ‘Battle of Penycraig’ • 23.3.15 - Blaenclydach
New normality – legend Troops delpoyed to Llanelli Aug 1911
‘learn the lessons’ – HOC 1911
Investigation – 530 prosecutions Keir Hardy calls for inquiry; ignored
Political interventions • Churchill criticised for being too conciliatory • Churchill ‘orders’ arrest and prosecutions to
follow; takes credit; deletes subsequent references to ‘vigorous baton charges’
• 21.12.10 – conciliatory(?): summary trials of 13 for intimidation; 1 imprisoned, other variable; offences reduced
Containment/suppression/exhaustion/absence of leadership? • 9.11.10 Troops and police reinforcements arrive • Churchill places all resources under Maj Gen Macready • Troops deployed forward but not used • Picket line disciple resumes; some window breaking • Loss of faith in official leaders
Trigger(s) • 7 pm 7.11.10 – march on Llwynypia gates • common purpose – close powerhouse • 9 pm Gate rushed; line held by 100 police • Attempt at pacification by local leader fails • Diverted from gates to wooden palisade
Riot • Tore it down; stoned police • Lindsay orders(?) baton charge • Bystanders injured • Repeated stoning and baton charges • Powerhouse wrecked but functions • Rioting lasts till midnight
Dynamics • 8.11.10 police and military reinforcements arrive • Conciliation promised at mass meeting • 5 pm youths drinking all day throw stones at collery • Lindsey orders police mounted charge • Charge and counter charge for 2 hours • Miner Samuel Boyce dies of head injuries • Rioters retreat to town square, which they wreck and loot • Spread to Aberaman
The new extremes
2011
2012
‘The New Riot Act’? Dispersal Orders under Anti Social, Crime and Policing Act 2014 + National Decision
Making Model + Tactical Options
Manual
Laporte Judgment Kettling?
Conclusions • Police at fulcrum of social tension since origins of New Police • Police will not be the focus of the political, economic and social
preconditions • May be a contributory precipitant cause, but history does not support that
this is frequently the case • Police are ikely to be involved in the trigger to a riot • Range of preconditions and precipitants have become more varied in late
20th century • Increased incidence in first, third and fourth quarters of 20th century • Anti police may be ‘common purpose’, but rarely before 1975 • Tactical police responses have become increasingly sophisticated • But • Even with the sophistication of the national Decision Making Model etc,
police will be left facing criticism and inquiry in the mid to long term after the events which have occasioned the use of force
• Policing political protest has become a more difficult balancing act since the Laporte judgment
