political and economic institutions.pdf

8/9/2019 Political and Economic Institutions.pdf

1/12

.

Politial

Stutwe

Tlurgl'

ttre Ch'irg

was ar

alicn

dyrasty, it

ac .FcA $e

uad;tioml

Cm-

ruc,aD

ords drd

r@ited

Chn:ev

shol..s

into

rlc

oEcialdoh

to

worl

$ith the Nladch{r, toniDg

a

tdnd

of eilnic

dyarhy 4ithi

a

politiei

nomrcby.

The gdernnent

** el@rially an

aureay-

Tlne w*

m

divnion

ol

power

jn

r.he l

restern

sensc:

ti€

eDp-{or

was rhe ,bsolut€

ruhr in dqy bhrdr

of

rhe regrne, whethcr cxeclrivc,

Iegisiative, or

jldicial.

He

goverftd

wnAot

a pritr

niDislq,

ard

qas

trult

qualified

tl

tro,od.e:

'Lttat,

cst hoil" Ti,js fiigh

@..enr

tion

oipowcrplaced

6r

grater denalds

on thc emp6or

in.r

on

Ery

othc

nir

in tle

enpire;

('e8-hn

o@

.€b.il@l

th.t

rh@gh

hB hidsteE

wcrc

fre ro @m.nd

so,

Ic

rvas

not. Ch'r'ng abs.ludsb

war

doul,rles

an iDlr€li.n.e lrom tLe

Min&

.s

inde€d

wde

ndr

of

irs

'Fftutions

aDd

Facdces;

only

a

few

&dd:doB we

&da

to

suir iFbl @sions

Jnd

needi

olr.

The

@per6,

rr

ile $nhir.ot

the

bicnrchy,

gavc

to

srer

afait

a

Frs,l

atbrion

eldon

End€red by

eldid

ru1.8. H€ EEd ill th.

mcnorials

lrcm

erey

comer

of Ae €opirF

ftoD

ro

or

66

to r.o daily-,rd wrce

dargiral or irErliDear

cohn.Dts

a

dch

of

d@

in

Emiim

in}.

In

[ir

e(atiw

€Fcitt he deided

aII

iiiporr.nt

srat€

po[cie5,

Mde

tPpoinrdcnt

conlened

tidtl

apgwd

?o@do s,

dehotioDs,

sDd

Jismi$als,

awrid€d

peDsions,

eDhanded

the

rDy,

. d dti6cd rMri6

eidr

toeigo

psvs.

As

rhc

sl,leh.

legidatft

[c

ereted,

rou]led, *d

aoendcd

lau

by

&rc

and edicB.

Judictally,

46

'rh.

Pqste,ce of'frcditiotul

lnsn]a,ti 6

[.

sJ\

rl,e

lr8hesr

'

ou', ot apr" I. g'aht'r8 pardrn,

an{] FpdevFs

N

t

mtl

ot

favor- Inaea,

the

lri8hclt lon

ot rbmlute

ndaehis

m3

@chcd uhder Ge

Ch'in8.

The

ehsror was

the

retigious

lead,

roo. He sanctioned

*c

D ].i

tama,

th. clier

T@i,i

ad

tl'c

Dlle

Knns

(di@r

d€sdarft

of

Co"-

tucius),

and

otfq


2/12

w€rc ihe dircct

male deshd,nts

or

Nurlu.i'

dhbellg

about

7oo

from

d,.,arc

'611,

ccnEry rh'dgh

Gc

od

of

'hc

rerh.

Thcy woe gwcr"dl

ty

rh

lnperi.l

Clrn

C@n

(Trrs-i.r

f )

$he ftDction

it

@5

'o

leP

tbFh

'denrny.

Tl'i, Coua

lepr uords

ot

rho

froo

bilA

o delrh,,fr

dudrns

tuDrase'. aruo,ntf,rnts,

ptuEorioD


3/12

Politiaol

MA

Eena',n

Instihdihs

19

Tljs

anbiguny

lcads to the

corclusion

t[.at

rl,e Gnnd

C,nnci]

evllved

infom.llr.nd gndually de several

ycan

Dd

t)Jr ,e

/4..,

gnnd codn-

olloB wftc

llNb

trg b.f@ rhe o$,ul

6raLh\hme,,r

of

'hc

o6c

dur

ins r}€hiJdlc

ol

the

Y{ng.chenit

F.jod

(

t?23

rr).

Th€ GBtul

Couicil

was

qc.red

paidy as

r rcsuh of [mperor

Yqns

ckng's led

for

a sh,ll,

tiShtly

Inlt group

of

r;dcs

Lo

le dntt

edicLs

.nd

to

ofiq @nf'ddd"l

advi@

on

nitirary

and

state

aF"i$,

and

Fnly

as

a

clever devie to

bypass

tL<

powerf"l pr;rces,

turthu erlaei"g

tle

@-

Fort

pwer

and

elicacio

sncss.

TI{s,

tie

cr.ltion ot

tlte

omce .onst;

toed

an

eslonc

ih $edevdopnent of

ch

ins

a"tosacy.

The

grand

oudllor

wcre

genally

selcted

fom

tlr

gra"d

secrc-

lancs,

pEsi&

t

and

vi.e-Eesi&nts o(

$e

Sii Bdrdi ind otha

olGcials

of

rle sdld

civil

seivice

€nk

or ligl,cr,

althougb

ccasionaily

a lourtl'.

or

fifth-orling

o$cial nighr be

appojnred ai

a

nar)<

of

inirftidl

livo..

bitially,

thc

number of thc o{ dll6

was thrcc

Lut

i"crcased rc

ren i.

t74j; theu av€mge nsber,

however,

D.t

nve

o. six,

dividcd

bcMec.

M.ncnls

and

C[i..*.

O6cially,

rle couftillors

wcre

equa]i,

but

.chl

ally

rhce

w*

almys a orl;ne ncnber

(L;rglo

.hnn.hi

ta.h

en),

who

e uoaliya Marlu

gnrd

crc.,ry

ir

rt'e earb, p€nod and

o

Mon

chu

hlood

pinc

afto

dr

mi+'ed

(nhxy-

They .€re

sradon€d

wnhin

the

pala.e

prccincts

(,s

opposed

to

tl,e

gnnd seudori6,

rlb

tuintaired

ofrdr @tside ihe

6lace)

and

w€re

d,*etorc h

a

posirioo

to

r6Pnd

in

dsdiaely

to,hpqial

$nnons.

Tncy bcszD thcn

d,il/

s'ork

$ctore

day-

h{sl,

u$ally

b.tseD

j aD-

io

r

a.m.,

and

$udicd lhe

mdori,ls

that

hrd

been reviewed

by

ihe

erDp€rcr ord

borc iis

'€

nilion

€.dorsenEnts.

Ncxr,

audierces

witi

thc edperor-bowecn

7

a.n.

cnd

e

. h., convened

individ@ly

bcfoc

r7a9

and

colletlvely

rhoeartd-were

]'eld.

Dnrirg

rlis

rwchor p€riod

rLe/ discus*d

tlc aflairs

oI

thc

srac

wid'

rhe

rulet,

sugg4sted

actioo

to

[e

raken

rsa

xig

delnor:a]5

nor

y€t

cndo6ld

by him,

hendizd tle

iDper'al inrruclio.s

as b6t

dty

could, ind

tl:en

retircd

to

dEft

edicts

dlat dne

to b€ tnow

ar

".Nt

letr^"

(rirg'crt)

Ater

rz4e rhe


4/12

Politiel

ad E .no

ic

l^stit

ti6s

r,

far

and *rer

d6nour, ns mtr.ncocnr

of

iDpenal

po$.R,

J'd

i$

srr.nSrhening

or

th.

hnks

bes6

tn.

'rn;e."d

;h.

p.-r*.

1."rft4

itt

onrinuanm

afln

rhc

niliirry

canpaign

rSdjnlr rhe DzunS{s had

bm

.oncluded.

Only in ,7Jt wa5 n

cDpodriit

$spord.d

by

Enptu

Clihn-luFg.

and

when n

was

raived

thc

ncxi

yc.r

ir

pem.ne

t

re.

plo,

ed rhe

Grnd s..,c@,6, s ttrc

lM|mpo,'*i qs; i"

d*

";hr

Ndt

to

lhe

cra.d

S?c€tariat

oDd

d.

Ctud C@sil

'€e

drc Six

B€rds, which

fofred

rhe

b3ckbor€ of

rle

cerrral

adhinisr.ation.

These

weqhc

b$r,I

of

csil ofie

(

Li

"r

),

Rehue

(r

, ",

),

tura

(,

,""

),

w,r

/Pt'q

r,',

P{hh)\tunrs

(Hd,g

pd), rnd

Public Wols

'( 'g.p

).

Fkl.

8@'d

}ad

rwo

ptudoB

and

ftu

vtFpErd@rs,

&"

o6c,*

bci.S

.{Ja'lv

d,,

idcd

bcreeeD rhe

M,nclrus

"nd

rhe

Chine.e,

and

ca.f

boo

nod fdr Lur6u

eeF for

$e B@d

of

R@u.

which had

forten

b$€aus

and

rle

Boa

of

PuDislmens

whicl

Lld

eishteen.

Consti.u

dsly rbqr

in

.1. mrEl

govetr'br ws

rhc

Forcign

Oe , fq

rfie

Canlrian unv"rol

opn"

rndir:oalL

nantoi,red

njequdt

dipjnmad.

,ela

ona s

undaood

in rh W6r;,t

l@8ni4d

no t@ign

r{ai6 but

unly

mbumry,or

barl,anrn,

"rtrodraq,

afiair.

Ot

'lF

sir

B@ds, llrl

ot

Ci' 6m*

lodc,l

rt e

tis.

,tppoinr*.ns.

r,ccpt rhor

of

rh"

Sand

rcarr"es

ond SDnd

(ounc,Uod,

wqe u,@

y

dide

td

Jne

r.xr,

ar

.[c

.nd

ot which

.ift

a

mmin.t

dah,,.rDn

wds iEld

to

dcteminc

pt@orion

or

dsorion.

The

,,hw

ot

Awidanc€,,

equjrcd,hd

noonc be

appo'nrcl.o

iiel'

po{rions

in

fik

nar;vc

prryin.e

rnd

no

Mo

m.hbars

Lr ti'"

-."

r".:i

t"

"rro,"a

to

sdl

,.

ih" ..m"

la.liry

or

wF,

e a to

p@{r

d.pori3m and

'h.

f(hio8

of ct,.lu€s.

Tl€rp

dcle

.\cepriors

b

rl,N

ruIe,,

bu

tlEv

wcr. r*.,

Rdi,enrnr'rs.

@s

f'red

ar

r5

i

in

'zi7

.nd

ni*d

ro

65

in 1768.

bur r}s,,tc.,.

n-ot

r.

Frc

-r

8id,

crr,rer4i

cJ'r, t i

chr

tuih

.Li ct

*h6e

chth

.,ahtu

(a

3iudr

o{ dr

d8ucriul

snd

'woi"b

ot

lI,

CEnd c.eil

"r

rh. cd,ng

FD;)

.JiF.

'06?1.,n,

',f,

r66i

.6',

r,,,;jL w

FUu

r,e&

Lihilsht chu{r,,

c[u

c[rrJifi

n sj.6,.b.re"

a;.-pp;-l

or

dr

.9iJ,h6r

d

rl.

G.,n Grbt

,&

d.

c[ iv), clird Dtu;l

d

N,

,iotd

pJtt

M8-,4,

"fli?d.

tr'.:r'..'

loiblq

rr;,):

^rr-;

k,

L H",

Tl.

G

nd

c.rni

jl

in

rln

c[

D3

DFsry." Tt.

Fq

FN6

9re6t',

xt

..

'67s

L

\F.\

ud

,er )

Pd

HEng,

"

+da

oa

q . Ad6a.

A

IrctolonJ

S,

jdv

,6..

t7r.:

rtue

H'"

tMat

ot cike so&4.

N.{

%ri.. vr,

d.

,

:

(D;

qbc,

'9az),

r'r

a,

'

ra

Th@

Maasc,T*.

t-tu A

o{lu;idiq

t4

C\'tZ S

'a-.,

I

red,

\o

tuv 6a c6Du' i.d6

/1l?4c

'

cdhbrds., l\tss,,

,

7J).

+

b

136r.

rtr

d.q Li

}{uig


5/12

Pol]&tl

@A Enoanc

latib'ri6'

53

ds

i€bavie-t}crefore

an

,pear.ncc

in cou(

was

a

blow

ro ones s@jal

Ptstige.

Only d

hn r&rr


6/12

cillor

on

d'e

delring

of replie$.

Thc DenroriaL werc

ifi€n

re'ud€d

to

the

odgi

l

rcndes,

wlD

ierd

ile

impcn;t

anmrts

and

Et .ned rle

ednDirk 1o th.

catit.l

In t}is

rDnncr,

d,a

empemr

kepr hiErlf

wel

infonn€d

on

the

condjdons of

rhc

ctuntrt.

Polj&al

d'd

E

da"nc

l*ntui,A

The

"rcurin€

henori.l"

systen,

ho@vea

feli incresinSly

n,to

disuse

rfiq the

Chi.rh'ing

pcdod

(1796-1820).

In

'9or

n

was 6nal)y abo)ished

lDd

five nonths ldter

rl)e

OGce

of

TnnDi$jon

w€nt oul

of

qistcn@.

Loc.{r

eMrNE

urloN-

Cl,inat

la.al

adDihislratior d.lusire ol

sttial

adninistative

a,@s

Nch

.s

Mongolia,

Manchuria,

Sinli,n&

Tiber,

aDd

Chingh.i-wa

of

fou

hnds:

province,

cirdit,

lrefecule,

..d dhrrid.

Therc

wrc

altogethd r8

prdiD6,6

92

circuits,

&two

r77

utl

r85

pretftturcs,

ard

dholt r,

joo

dist.icts and

departnenk.

TIB eighec.

r€Bu .r prcrj,c.s

wqe

pur

under rle coD'rol

ol

goeehus

Sodal

sd

s@qno6

(nunbcring

e'8[t and

iften rest€cdvely

dunng

tlle

Ch'i.nlulg

ci8n, but

varyng

fron

oDe

rejsn

lo tL;

"*D.

T*'

"i

le

govcnrrsjercral

contrclled

only

one

province

each-Chillli and

ShhwD-bur

d'e o$er sii

@ally

l, d

juridiction

oyer two

or rhree

provirces.'The

lifteen

goyernos.acl

contrcll.d

o,c

prdiEe, .nd

in

the

tuaiDirg

+re

ponDccs,

Cli}li,

S,eclwan,

aDd

(ansu,

'tr€

govanors

gcnsal

p€rfohen

ihe

dubies

of sovdDor.

Tlc

lanks

for

go'.*o.g-'e-l

and

Sddbor

kre

2

a and a.L

respectiv+.

The

cotrrt

in

Pcking rmed

to

deti . some sse ot

secDnry

in

inler

pciDg

Manchus

wih

Chinesc

in rb€*

hiSh

?rov'Dcial

}Dsrs;

whenever

a

NIaDcIu

was

appoi,t€d

Soveraor

gcroal,

rhe

governori

u.der

Lin wele

tr'urlly

(ttincs.

rnd vrc

\"rs.

Tahns

rhe

ChinB

pelod

as

"

whole.

rhe

(d

nic dhr'iblrion

was

lai'ly

even

tT

pcrdr

ol

Jr

8@rihJ6gen(nl

rnd

48

a

percnr

of rhe

SorernoF

$re lrahchu..

mmp"red

s

ith

;

I

per

c€nr

and

tr.6

p€rc.ni,

rcspectively,

Han Chinc*.?

Under

cr.h

sovemor

w

a finaDcial,

judicial,

and

6D

edu€rioDal

n

Cfiihli, Sllerr&

SIE

r,

Hoi4

xi.ry$,

.^

*j, IGD84

Ch.Liz.&

Fulia

HrF ,

Hur4

shq{

IalR,

\d}En

XmoBun&

trwng ,

1n;, n.

rd

Kw,

krow.

A.'uj]v,

j

rh.

t.gr ,nS

of rt,

C[

nS

dFd;y

r\a

;,e rt,/ ,(

Eo.

lEr

3d:*

or

rho

L3.

a

flnFd t(rnS

hi

I

i6r,2,,

ptr,c;Sih

inb

K.hgr ,n.t

^n[,.,.


7/12

Palitic.l.rd

Lcd.*i

Inan

in^

57

58

T[.

P

rs6 d.'

.f

Tr&tdio"d

l-..i.''b*

mmDr:ionrr-"1.

xppoin,ed

Dr

rt enter..

'Il(

Borc'nmcn,

\"t,plic,l

tlidn

w'rh

r

iall

bur

u

d.l'v

rt ,

nr.xtr',.d \..rnt\.,c,.,n.r@.

Baidcs

fiq

iust

listed,

ihcre

*qd

o

Dlmhd of 3tEial moni$ioners

wlo wctc

pkccd ln

clarge

of

s k,

gonr

rhnspor, cusrobs,

rivar

and

mroup, and

posnods.

A povincial

@hrDnderin.hi.l

hol.

.haqc

Frnn-.r

down rhe

Iaddd

in

d'.

tn'viDci.l adnnrishalio

.iDrc

d,e

n)

rm.diJry

o6ce,

of

rhe creu'r

tsJiDL'

rnd pktdh. rntl,r

'he

Lo'rnm

r

3

tI,

'l,.hc|

rBi",).

qon.

Jrrg.

drnirr

wei

bigser rl'rn

.Lc nrll

iates

in

rhe

Lhir.d

Sbrcq thc

avcBge

poptrlaiion

of a

Jistricr uos

2oo,ooo.

]lie

d;strict nEsistratc

.lltccred

l.xc',

ruled

ljds.rioni, rd

BereEllt

nailr.

€d pea.e and

onler

in d:e

localtry.

H.

rvas

l.ow.

Js

([c

'fidEr'morhs

omcial"

(/*"

ld)

lxs@

lc

d.alt

dtedy wrrl

rhe

pcoplc.nd was

supposed ro

rlkc

c,re of en. Lkually, xpon

ssump-

don

oI

06@

he cnEEd

inro $'ne

(ind

of

lndc6hndin8 or

conkiddal

rejario$lip

wtuI

s local

grcup

qcli

.onve rht

wni

tb€

rfi.n'

of

rlt die

tn:d.

Tlis

group

fuDctiorcd

s

aD

rD.frcbl

Jftil peflnrnent

civil

s.L'icc,

oraanirng iB..lf irto

si1

1hs"

(1,r8)i (r)

civil

md

adhrni..lariv€

ftiE;

(2)

ccrNs

d.{i

rakdon;

(r)

rotaol

an,l

cden,oniA,

(4)

milirili

(t)

criN

d

@Ntibulrr): anJ

16)

rrbli"

wo

ls.

ltch,bpF

or

lhi

(,

L-

legalburcarcdcy

rcca,cd

,'.

p3J

'r

m,t,(

hrqi.,,de

bur

L L,r.llow€J

to

ollet

snrch.rg6

jn

lis

nahc.

lhey

wcrc

'equ, ed

ro land

over a prc-

iixed

omoqt ol

thcir

olletions whjl:

l@piig

th€

rcsr tor rhcnElvd.

I(

is rnis

littlepublicized

body wlicir

perlrned

tle bulk of

tlc rlav ro-day

ol@tioh

of

d'.

tugirtnrds y.mcn.r

.4t

tle stn€

l.vel is *e district woc

lone

slthly

ldrser

adBiri*orivd

lnits

ciued dcpanncDr

(crd)

rd

subprefc.n"e

(''n

8).

Soft

deparr-

nmts

qere

wda

rhc

di€t

conml

ol

rbe

Plovircial

[email protected],

in

whictr

€se

tley

enjoyed

a

hglrr

stxtus

fie {he reguld

deprtn.ot.

oMnoL

In eacl

disuict

rhcre wse

a nunla

or

'ilb8s

('s'"'

d ct a,s),

cnies

(.t

ed, towDs

(.jl'e'),

cou,trysidc

*tdehents

(ltdg),

and

ru./l

d.tkers

(shih,

.hi, ch

dE).

OP.nlio. of

tiee

nml di'isiou w.s lcft

ro

rlt lo€l

inhalitarts

rarircr

tia"

to

goven.

lMt

otrci.ls,

as

th

inpdial .dminniFdo

noppcd

d

rhc

(lkrict

I'vet.

Inpcial control, \owcver,

was still

tn.d. m.Ditisr

th$usl,

ihc

develop

s. of

two

neighborhood or8lnizdioh

syndnj

.illed

the

?d-ulta

iod

ih. li.ln

TL€

fome Bas

6r.blish.d

,644

ro lacilii.rc policc

.onr.ol

and .l.tGrin

1618ro hclpwirh t

xcollcction.

L

X.c Wu, "lEl cov.D,'cnr

in lDr^nd

chi'r"

in lis

w,l'

I

rll#iqNat Bdkr

Inlaned

4

jraan

Alla*

(slv,

:h, c.orsia,

'

e63),

&q

In rha

u@l'i.

lrstoD

aery

t

n

}ou*lFl'dr

(lr)

fntud

pa, wifi a

hc.tlnah

calLd

t|e

p'ai-;hade

ere.y

len

?'at

cors*ut€d

.

.lta,

tor

irhicl

tle.c s,r

a

h.adhm

€I€A

chiaahdg,

(o.

cl'iaaolt

dA

dery to .l'i

;r

turn nade

up

a

2o,

hed€d

ty

i

p@€tua8.

Eal

za

thB.orsirld

of

r,mo

Lou*Iolds.

Eac}

}olsellold

[ung

on

ils

d@r

an otrci.I

p]acad

b€adna

tle nanes

ol

its se$b.F-

The

?.eclio

minlairtatl

a

cen$s,

lep

aacl

oI

tJ."

mo"emats of

iDdivnluais,

,nd

nadc

p€riodic

ftounts

of

fte

kEl

popul,tion.

I|cn}.6

of

drc

talclid

w@ suppor.n

to wat

h for

,nd .eport

crimes

aDd

crinirEls

jr

I[c

.eishbo'ho.dr

lo

the

lrad,

ot

dr

p@chia,

w\a

reldyeit

de

infoffiation

to

rhc

djstd.t

mrSisn61e.

Evd]

@ber of

rbe

?dclt.

@

rhercr@

a

Fl€'d.l

inf@ on

asy odr{

nenrbd.

Tn€

k€..hd

sustjcion

rhu

creted

iriibit

d $e

villageE

froh

cnhnng

into

seaidous plors wig rheir

fellow

citizos, and tlu

du.d

th€

.}a.ccs of

rpisinSs .(

rcvol$.

Fend. to

rcporr

dilE aDd dct

plots

rvould

br;ng colleclve

rrdishrE

t.

AI

de

€hd

of ttre honth tlc

heal of

dch

1"o

us Gtuired ro

erbhii

a

"talunb.y Ldt'

(kft


8/12

,9

tle

li-.lria heds

wdc

held GPonsible

for th€ hilure

or

rhc

vilags

to

houor

drdr

lax

obliFationt

By usjnp

S.

loJlinhab,r,nr

ro

@rDt

drmsdv.'

'r

rhe

Nb€ddtin'e

'ooi"

tdt,

rt'.

ct';"g

sow'mdr

..'eied

,n

ilgtuid'3

mea's

or

oded'ns

inDcEl

mnEol to

tbc

verv

roo of

.i€ *iet/.

ar

dr

same

dm

obvlrins

rh"

*p."s.'

of

l@i

6;vomcnr

and

'hc

ned

ro aPPoint

r rh.

v"ry borroh

of rLc

ru61

.omounttv

ws

dr.

do,

ilc

Pa$iv"'I'd

["',i-*"'Li"o *a.rnr. w]ro

ror]ed

a)l

vei

ro,'d

to,

a hand

ro mouth

",S.i.re"c..ii'e

oo-.r

*cr

mo'rlv rairn€d

ro

rhcir hrc

and

rccled

ri,"

*,t

.irerrlne

+

rl,c

rcte

rhev h;d

b be.r.

Np"rrfiele$

if

the

os

b"cam

ro

o'','ms

aod

rheir lirns

ro

h:rd

rnev

wo'd

rebcl

nnd€.

'-1,.

lcdeshin ol

'hr

mrc

brurdm

duhb

or nmbeB

of

'be

lenrry

Th.

qovanrcnr rherefoe

ee

ro i' Lhar

Pdiodh

iavon

we

q-

i.aJa

.

'r'i-,

r'.*

"*'lv,oo[

the

foft

ot

d

dmision

inveAof

bunDe,

croos

A

pocl

eo";rm".t

was

one

whicb coJd

proide

rne

p"*J"'y

*i t

, p,-",Uii'ing

"'a

",

*"

'ame

rine

rPtnPe cont@l

wirh

a.. .in

deglceof

l.tttld€'

E@nodic

l"stitdtions

ln

g

prdomin.ndy

oAd

Jn

co,nr.y

rch

as

C,hna'

roil nnd

l

uoan

hbor

mnirutd

the

cr.nmi

tourdations

of

rore Tlr

brrllt

of

rl'c

rcven"e

mn. fton

rhe

land

aDd

poll

hr-

(,id'3),

supplcncnrcd

by incom*

ftm d€

sh d. ro

o*,

,h. *tiu.

rusrm

hos

r

comnd'al

licen*

rar,

and othcr-

on

the

*hole, rrycDre

did

nd im'ac

nohlry

durjng

rhc hdt cen

ry

rd

.

IJI d

rnt

Jyusry'

During

dhe

SLrmhrh

p.riJ(,644-,),

rh" ,"n ,1

inc6.

wN,bdt

18 tuillion

klr

dritr8

ihe

K'onsh.l

palod

(t66r

r72'),

.bour

35

rullim:

dunng rh.

Yun3'

"I'eng

pa'"d

i'zr:':y),

4o

nillion;

and

during

rhe

Ch'ienlung

Period

(rzr6ps),

bet*en

r:

and

48

nillior,

a8linst

'n

'nnual

c{e'diture

oI

roughly

35

million

(1755).

The

sloy,

ns.

in

ircme

wd

a 8€ly a

r

nnt of

tn;

nod6t

iDcrce

in

l.nd dltivatifr;

in r66t thdc

wc .

total

oi

5a9

rnillior

nou of

arable

laDd .nd in

1765

it

r@ to oDly

74r

lDilli@.

rEMs

Tl'e

land

t.x

ws

Iy tar ihe gr4 $t

of

all

taxes

in tle

arly and

nl


9/12

Politiql dd F.otunic

lllrtitathnt

61

The m.tlod ol colection ws thc 'Single.whf

s}'sted"

( rsr

beguD

ir

,r8,), Bhidr oMlidar€d

all

tars

inro

oc

ongc'nd sh

to

be paid

twicc a

)rar.

fi€

$nDd

paymenr {€s

genenlly

nde

lErw€en

rhe se

ond.id 6fth llh$,,

3nd

thc

autum

plymnr

bct{ee rhc

ei8hrh

.rd

clacnth

nond8. Tl,e

two

pcnods

of

paymr Ee

popol.rly

bM

a'

'Tfie

Uppa

D$/

(sc rcn)"

,nd

"Tle

Lowei

BosJ'

(S@D)."

Tfie

followiDg tdNe

shows

dE

lrd-poll

r,I

in tuney .nd

i.

F{io

during

diFftnt

yas:t"

TR h 5hih

(

'

tta

tb'

)

6'

The.Pd'kta..

ol

Ttubrto"t

lantuew

ga:Bl

this

tn@De, dre h ge*

iltns

of

deb

9@

Eilildt

e?a

;

tura a

oficials'

slmi.s &d alloams. Ttc Muochu barec

aod the

Cftioe

Gro Stan&rd

Aor, ...din8

mE

th.E

2@,eo

.nd

6s,@o

'nen

€stctiv.ly,

r.piclented

one

zo onlion

taeh

of

the expcndlture.

ll'c atipehds

fo thc

nobl6

and

the

slgrl* of

ilc

o6cjals

&€ shun

i

d'c

iollorvins *lecdle

ql€:

"

.12,84r,474

Ead,

Civil a4fr.i.|, Grde

ra, b

t.a,

b

: : I

6.I

J.6,b

AnDu.lsjrbry Ri..

stipod

(tu&)

(d'i,')

tFs

76 3to

6io

to,

tta

t55

4ro

2o5

3 o

rtt

att

les

In addirio

ro rhc

landpdl

'ax,

r

alnb€r

o[ orher

snaller

&,e

made up

a

considenhle pilt

of

thc rcvcnue.

The

$flax cald Isal@,

d alloM@ io.

m,hg.

iD

rilvc'tuking,

w.s

onSibllly

&lleted

by diskict

h.8irrlates

illegally,

bdt since

jr

dld not

lE

.top:od io

s?ite of cpal.d F?singr,

Enpercr

YuhS'cheDs

decidcd

thal

6e

sdernment sl,tuki

rak.

it

over.

The

lar€

of

deldo

i.rgcd b.

te€tr

4

pe'Mt

or

t

ldceDt

io zo

pscert

of

$e

rcsrJ.r

(i.e.

l.nd)

rax.

FmD thn

souc.

t . gddn ]gt

ddivci

aD

aDDD,l

i@@

of

abolr

a.t

hillion

raels

durnrg the

Ch'jealDng pdiod.

Thc robl

revcnue

of

skte

rdard

rh€ cnd

ot

the r 8d,

@tuly

dy be

shmarird

a' follo*s:,r

r.

l4d.poll d

sppqimkly

1o,(e,o@

r c s

2. Wa$ e€ rll@anc€

(h@, .o)

4,60.,0@

"

3.

Mis.lhn@us

dax

o. &ihb8bnr

a,

Salt

tax

guola

7,']a.o.a

"

t.

Cu{6.d 6

4,ooo,oo"

"

6.

Ijnd

rac :3qm

'

7.

'l'66,

7a,o'a

"

8.

Trtbuk

grii

fd Peling

.$(b,o6 ihih

A@ding

to

t}€r.

Iigurer dte

toral

i@ft

of

na.c should havc

beo

i@Dd

48

mirlion

,r

15 .nd

/ mill'on rrr,&

ol

sr

n.

bu

.,n.

p

rr-

{1,

Bx

q .{a

oJ

2.5

ollion

r.cL

srs

dfkn

frlled only

to

pctur

ro

(6

p.lmr.

dtacnral

esere

w:s amuad

4j

or

44

njliion.

rj, I{i-

lslri,

x,

33&37,

-

lt io

I-+d,

E,.}

77.5

65

It will

bt

noFd

tlEt

rhe civil o0rials

Geivcd

v€ry

l@ger

el.ri6

,.dc€d.

n

grand

seaer.ry

at

the dnk of r

a

deiv€d

oniy

'8o

bcL

a

yar,

ond I

g@mr

sencol,

who*.r*

ms

z- , *c.ired

oDly

r5r bels.

To

cofr

pcnsate

for tl,e low

salary

rale, ofrci.ls wd€

givo

rh.t

wd

ctrPhoir

dcall)

called 'i.lcsriry

nollishins

.llowancci'

Ohdid

fei):B

r

l\i\

wqe frequ'ilr

a hDdred

riDe

rlre orort

of

the

nguhr

pa1

A

sovenlorsencEl

wlDse

rcgllar

sal.ry

ws

,5j

rlels

rdeivcd .i

"intcgrirrnourishing

r[(Mne" of

r3,eo

ro

2o,@

ia€ls; lna iD

addiiio

he

rd

given somc

"offci.l

expcncs."

Thc tor.l

"inrcSrityhourislring

al

loM,s'for.ll

civil

lbd hiljtary

ofrcials anountcd to

hore

rhan

tour

hillion

taels a yor, while

"otrEjal

dT€|g"

m

ro.

qulter

of a nillioD.

A berldown

of

tle

approriDate

qpcndiiur€s

of

ihe ccntral and

lmal

g@ennent3 of

rhe

rar

r76s

is

slrem * foll.*:

tr.

lldaril.n,

II,.r116.

'6,

Son.rin6

rildakJ

$

'oriornlPrtoo

{.."

or'l' ft5ry.fcrJng

oW_"


10/12

PolitT:at

dd

r@oni

L^1ir.&rc

cdral Covd@nt

ExtqdituBi

r-

Saldi6

td

pdn

e5 ndr .t

rnd

oSciils

j.

Mili.orr

6 elc

in

Mold6

od

JcM

4.

Stip6&

fd

Mogolirn

Dd

Mcl6 @bl6

j-

O6e

dd

r@d

drpe€ fo.

neEopolilan o6.i.ls

6

Md,llffi fd rLe

GBnd Seid.n.t,.tc-

z

"InEgriry{ouljsling

allowdat'

for

$e

Bords

of

clvn OGe

ed BiB

8.

CifB t Mo8oli.n

.d Kq@

dibut

b..EE

Idl

(imrcnt

ErFndina:

r.

"lnbSritt

ntuihin8

.IloDdc"

a.

"F,r*.s"

slbmLs

j,

fulaiF

o[

dws md ponds

6.

Mi*ell,n.ous

(pct

ibliG,

chadty, dc.)

67

TIE

rotnl ery€'ses

ot rh.

cothl

gqdDDcrr

ws. appuimt

ly

9.t

hiilio'

bels,

{Dd

tLqe of rhe local

governme"t

a}ot

25.8

-llllon,

rrak

ing

a

gntui tol2l

o{

35

millio. tels,

lg.ist

a

q€nue

of

a3

d

44

Dilion

m€ls.

Thc

gorehnot &rib8 the

Cl"icrl,D8

Fiod

diqed

a

3urplus

of

eigtrt

or

niDc hillion

t

els

annually."

lopuunoN.

ID an

agricuitqral

eommy

lan


11/12

Politi.al4

Eodofli.

I4stitttia6

65

was fond

ol

larye

frgur*

o

rhev rrcrrpd

o

rhc

prorpe'.tt or his

r(ieD,

and he

rcx:tedb

qmed

th.

lral

o6ci.k nor

ro

@err

rb.

'd.

cers (

lgure. Peple {omerly

eRluded rro

rhe ccDsus-rvonen,

the clderly,

d,ildrcn,

slave,

,nd

mh

pemDs

nN ,fte

all

;"cluded. Hcna

the

$dden

ircreas

in

74r.

Chi,ee

t,tsto.iars

.nd

d€Dosraplers

rend

ro

belidc rhai

thc

.en5us

0gqr6

aftq

tTar

re u]a

EtLd

than

@a

rcpncd;

tc

.large

e

tion of

tlre genty Larlored an invcierdte

'esenrDent

or

bcing nBrlc

ro

Fal dr

siz of

their

[ou*holds. md

dsrepented whc@ft

FBible.

Om nodern

denogmptrer

suSSests

dBt

dre ulder.epoltins

oi

rhc

census

letlei

r74r

.nd

r

nj

niglrr

te

$

Iigh .s

20

I'cG

ofrherot l.'

Acrually, tbe growl

of

populrtion

fron z7t nillion

in

1779

io.l3o

nilltd

jn

8to repsenrcd.n incftse

of

16.3

pdcenr

at an annual

Ere

of o.6j

Fcent,

whic[ i5

much lower

than

rhe

z percenr annual imdF

in hany

of

rle

ftpidly cr?.nii,g

idunri,ljz€d

courrries

roda).'r Tle

sh*p

i*E*

frcD

rZ4 ro

1779

migltt

L.

a$ihbL ro

rh"

Secdlly

Iavftable

tunohic ,nd

ll.litical

corditions

and tle long period of

peac€

dnriDs th.

Clliolung

cn. MoIw6, the

inc@

of

.6blc l&d .nd

thc

inkoductioD

of

forcign

food

poducts

lil


12/12

Pditicd and Ftononic

lltstitttionr

67

cfiin

M'n.firi,'nr il4

rs,

Ct'rrq.q

3

.hih

tstt?]..

ti

f'

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