pollution of lakes and rivers chapter 5: reading the records stored in sediments: the present is a...

Pollution of Lakes and Rivers

Chapter 5:Reading the records stored in sediments:

the present is a key to the past

Copyright © 2008 by DBS

Contents

• Environmental proxy data in sediments• Visual inspection and logging techniques• Determining the relative proportions of organic matter, carbonates,

and siliciclastic matter in the sediment matrix• Particle size analysis• Magnetic properties of sediments• Geochemical methods• Isotope analysis• Fly-ash particles• Biological indicators• Other approaches• The importance and challenges of multi-proxy inferences

Reading the Records Stored in SedimentsEnvironmental Proxy Data in Sediments

• Extracting paleoenvironmental records from lake sediments

• This section contains brief summaries of the main sources of proxy data

Proxy: A measurement of one physical quantity that is used as an indicator of the value of another

Last and Smol (2001)

Reading the Records Stored in SedimentsVisual inspection of Sediments and Logging techniques

• Color, texture, laminations

• Increased sedimentation of material due to changing land use

– Inorganic – silts/clays/sand indicates enhanced erosion

– Organic – dependent on biological productivity / DO levels

• Digital imaging using radiography and X-ray imaging:

– Chemistry, mineralogy, density

– Microfossils

Reading the Records Stored in SedimentsDetermining the Relative Proportions

• Components:

– Organic matter

– Carbonates

– Clastic matter (rock pieces)

• % Water (porosity) = (wet wt. - dry wt.)/wet wt.Shows extent of compaction

• Further characterization using weight-loss techniques (Dean, 1974)

– Ashing at 550 °C - % organic matter (% LOI)

– Ashing at 925 °C - % carbonates

– Leftover material - % siliclastic material

“Closed data” - Results are normally inconclusive due to total proportion always equaling 100 %

Reading the Records Stored in SedimentsDetermining the Relative Proportions

“Closed data” - inconclusive results due to total proportion always equaling 100 %

Deforestation + ploughing

Inc. nutrients

Inc. organic matter

Inc. productivityInc. soil erosion

Inc. input clay minerals

Lowers %-age organic matter in seds.

Inc. in productivity may be hidden by inorganic inputs

Change in sed. organic matter

Reading the Records Stored in SedimentsParticle Size Analysis

• Inorganic matrix can be further classified:

< 0.002 mm 0.002 - 0.06 mm 0.06 - 2.00 mm

Used to determine process and source of sedimenting materials:

e.g. large amount of clay = erosional signale.g. large amount of gravle = high-energy input (a river)

Gravel, stones etc.

Reading the Records Stored in SedimentsMagnetic Properties

• Sediments record temporal changes in Earth’s geomagnetic field

– Magnetization (M) – response of a material to a magnetic field moving through it

– Magnetic field strength (H) – due to motion of e-

– Magnetic susceptibility (k = M/H) how easily a material can be magnetized

• Core k peaks linked with deforestation and erosional inputs (Sandgren and Snowball, 2001)

Reading the Records Stored in SedimentsGeochemical Methods

• Metal pollution (Boyle, 2001)– Total element, residual and available fractions– Natural-Anthropogenic source determination– Fe and Mn cycling– Trace elements– Absorption by particles– Pore-water diffusion

Reading the Records Stored in SedimentsIsotope Analysis

• Radioactive – dating and transport tracers

– 210Pb, 137Cs, 14C

– 7Be

– etc.

• Stable element isotopes

– 13C – eutrophication studies

– 34S – acid rain studies

– 14N/15N – fish and bird population tracking

– 206Pb/207Pb – sources of Pb pollution

– Compound specific isotope ratios from biomarkers

Ito, 2001; Talbot, 2001; Wolfe et al, 2001

Reading the Records Stored in SedimentsFly-ash Particles

• Fly ash: Produced by high-temperature combustion of fossil fuels

– Spheroidal Carbonaceous Particles

– Inorganic Ash Spheres

• Increases in SCP and IAS at the same time as decreases in diatom inferred lake water pH

• Also useful dating tool (start of industrial revolution)

• Increase in particles correlates well with increases in fossil fuel uses

Rose, 2001

Reading the Records Stored in SedimentsBiological Indicators

• “Chemical measurements are like taking snapshots of an ecosystem, biological measurements are like making a videotape”

Rosenberg (1998)

• Biological indicators – morphological fossils

– e.g. diatoms, invertebrate exoskeletons, pollen grains, spores

– Require microscopy (microfossils)

• Requirements:

– Identifiable (resistant to degradation)

– Have known ecological characteristics (used to infer past conditions)may be generalists or specialists (restricted to certain physiochemical conditions)


• Pollen + spores– Most common microfossil– Land use changes– Vegetation succession (terrestrial and aquatic)– Dating (Ambrosia or ragweed)– Climate change

Figure 5.3. Light micrographs of pollen grains. A) ragweed (Ambrosia). B) pine (Pinus).


• Plant macrofossils– Identifiable plant remains– Seeds, fruit, cones, needles etc.– Reconstruction of past plant environment

• Charcoal– Information on regional fire frequencies– Larger particles reflect wood burning– Slash and burn agriculture

• Algae– Plant-like organisms that lack roots, stems, leaves or vascular tissue– Responsible for majority of primary production (besides plants)– Morphological records (diatom, chrysophyte)– Biogeochemical (algal pigments)


• Diatoms– Most frequently used algal indicator– Thousands of species– Different environmental optima and tolerances for pH, nutrients, salinity etc.– Fast migration rates means close tracking of environmental changes– Silaceous cell walls resistant to decomposition

Figure 5.4. Light micrographs of diatom valves. A: Cymbella hebridica. B: Pinnularia microstauron. C: Aulacoseira ambigua. D: Tabellaria flocculosa str. IV. E: Cyclotella antiqua.


• Chrysophyte (golden algae) scales

Figure 5.5 Micrographs of fossil chrysophyte scales. A: Transmission electron micrograph of a Mallomonas hindonii scale. B: Scanning electron micrograph of M. pseuodocoronata scales. C: Light micrograph of M. pseuodocoronata scales. D: Transmission electron micrograph of a M. hamata scale. E: Scanning electron micrograph of M. punctifera scale. F: Transmission electron micrograph of a Synura petersenii scale.


• Chrysophyte scales and cysts

Figure 5.5 Micrographs of fossil chrysophyte scales. A: Transmission electron micrograph of a Mallomonas hindonii scale. B: Scanning electron micrograph of M. pseuodocoronata scales. C: Light micrograph of M. pseuodocoronata scales. D: Transmission electron micrograph of a M. hamata scale. E: Scanning electron micrograph of M. punctifera scale. F: Transmission electron micrograph of a Synura petersenii scale.


• Organic geochemistry - C/N ratios– Complex mixture of lips, carbohydrates, proteins etc.– Most organic material is from vascular plants– C/N ratio used as a proxy for algal (low) vs. Higher plants (high)

Figure 5.7 The proportion of sedimentary organic matter that originated from non-vascular aquatic (algal) versus terrestrial (vascular land plant) sources can be estimated by the elemental ratio of carbon to nitrogen (C/N). By also using stable isotope methods (e.g. δ13C), material sourced to C3 (regular) land plants can be distinguished from C4 (arid) land plants.

From Meyers and Lallier-Vergès (1999)


• Invertebrates– Cladocera (water fleas)– Chironomidae/Diptera (flies)

Figure 5.8 A: Schematic drawing of an Alona cladoceran, showing the main chitinized body parts that are useful for taxonomic identifications in sediments. B: Detail of headshield. C: Detail of postabdominal claw. PP = proximal pecten, MP = medial pecten, DP = distal pecten.


Figure 5.10. Light micrographs of fossil chironomid head capsules. A: Chironomus. B: Protanypus. m = mentum. vm = ventromental plate.

Figure 5.9 Light micrographs of cladoceran body part. A: Chydorus piger headshield. B: Graptoleberis testudinaria carapace. C: Daphnia dentifera postabdominal claw. D: ephippium of a Daphnia.


• Ostracoda– Consist of 2 shells which form a calcerous carapace– Only preserved in neutral-alakline environments– Taxa have specific environmental optima and tolerances– Shells preserve trace element and isotope signatures

Figure 5.12 Scanning electron micrographs of ostracode valves. A) A male, left valve of a Candona species, believed to be endemic to Bear Lake, Utah. B) Left valve of Ilyocypris bradyi, a cosmopolitan taxon.


• Fish– Rarely leave an abundant or good fossil record– Scales, inner ear bones

Figure 5.13 The various calcified structures from fish that can be used in paleolimnological studies. From Pontual et al. (2002).

Reading the Records Stored in SedimentsThe Importance and Challenges of Multi-Proxy Inferences

• Importance– Provide holistic overviews of ecosystem development– More complete understanding of change– Strengthens interpretations– Avoids hiatuses

• Challenges– Time consuming– Resource intensive– Storage and handling

Reading the Records Stored in Sediments Summary

• Sediments archive biological, chemical and physical data• Physical and chemical properties are used in erosion studies and metal pollution

studies• Biological indicators can be used to track changes in terrestrial and aquatic

communities• Morphological remains (micro and macro fossils) are more commonly used• Biogeochemical techniques can be used to reconstruct populations that do not

leave remains• Interpretations are limited by breakdown of fossils under certain conditions• As the number of proxies has increased so has the number of multi-proxy studies of

environmental change

References

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References

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References

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pollution of lakes and rivers chapter 5: reading the records stored in sediments: the present is a...

Documents

organic matter slide

lake sediments

age organic matter

paleoenvironmental records

dbs slide

siliciclastic matter

data results

magnetic susceptibility