popular participation in governance
TRANSCRIPT
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POPULAR PARTICIPATION IN GOVERNANCE: BUILDING SYNERGY FOR
DEVELOPMENT1
By
Femi Aborisade
Labour Consultant and Attorney-At-Law
Outline
1. Conceptual Clarifications:
Popular Participation
Development
2. CONTENDING POLITICAL VALUES ON POPULAR PARTICIPATION
3. WHY PUBLIC PARTICIPATION IS DESIRABLE IN SPITE OF THESYSTEM OF REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY?
4. LEVELS/SPECTRUM/LADDER OF PARTICIPATION
5. DIMENSIONS OF PARTICIPATION
6. Barriers to Popular participation in Nigeria.
7. Conclusion.
1
Being paper delivered at the workshop organized byJama'at Ta'awunil Muslimeen incollaboration with Friedrich Ebert Stiftung at See-Bee Hotel and Events Centre, Iwo-Ibadan Expressway, Iwo, State Of Osun on Wednesday, 24 April 2013.
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1.0 Conceptual Clarifications
1.1. What is popular participation?
The term, participation means the involvement of persons in the process of
determining decisions on matters that affect them.
Popular participation thus suggests a process of involving wider
sections of people in decision making on issues that concern them.
Sherry Arnstein (1969) has defined political participation as the redistribution of
power that enables the have-not citizens to be deliberately included in
determining and shaping their future through involvement in decision making
processes.
1.2. What is Development?
Rodney2 opines that development is, more often than not, used in the economic
sense for the reason that the state of the economy is assumed to be an index of
other social realities. He posits that economic development refers to the
capacity of members of a society to jointly increase their control over
the environment. This capacity to deal with the environment is in turn
dependent on three elements, namely, the extent:
of the knowledge and understanding of the laws of nature (science),
to which the understanding is put into practice to develop technology
(devising tools) and,
of effecting improvement in the method of work organisation.
An example of the third element is the improvement, over the ages, in thecharacter of work, from being an individualistic activity towards an activitywhich assumes a social character through the participation of many3.
To Rodney, the whole essence of economic development is the capacity ofevery people to independently increase their ability to live a more
2 W. Rodney. (1973). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Dar-Es-Salaam: London
and Tanzanian Publishing House. Available online athttp://www.blackherbals.com/walter_rodney.pdf as at 10/05/12, p. 8.3 Id.
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satisfactory life through exploiting the resources of nature4 Rodneyrecognises that there could be ups and downs in the process of developingsocietal capacity for gaining control over the environment. As he puts it:
Of course, human history is not a record of advances and nothing else.There were periods in every part of the world when there were temporary
setbacks and actual reduction of the capacity to produce basic necessities
and other services for the population. But the overall tendency was
towards increased production, and at given points of time the increase in
the quantity of goods was associated with a change in the quality or
character of society5.
1.2.1 Economic Growth and Economic Development Distinguished
There is a need to distinguish what Rodney calls increased production or
increase in the quantity of goods, which may otherwise be called economic
growth from economic development.
The concept, economic growth refers to an increase or growth in the nationalincome or product, which is usually expressed in terms of per capita income.That is, the aggregate Gross Domestic Product (GDP) or the aggregate GrossNational Product (GNP, which includes net property income from abroad) dividedby the total national population. There is economic growth when there is a risein the GDP/GNP or the per capita income. However, economists6 point out thatthere is economic development where there are certain fundamental structural
changes to the national economy, including, but not limited to the followingcharacteristics:
existence of economic growth or increase in real per capita income.
the increase in economic growth is reflected in improved material
wellbeing of the majority.
an increase in the number of persons participating in the production
process (i.e. economically engaged).
a change in consumption patterns, from majority of the people spending alarge fraction of their income on food and other necessities of life to
spending a small fraction of their income on necessities and a large
fraction on consumer durables and leisure activity-related items.
a rising share of industry and a corresponding decrease in the share of the
agricultural sector in the GNP.
4 Id.5 Id.6
http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/encyclopedia/Eco-Ent/Economic-Development.htmlas at 11/5/2012.
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The foregoing characteristics of economic development mean that though therecan be no economic development without economic growth, economic growth ismerely a subset of economic development. While economic growth refers to arise in the GDP/GNP, measured as per capita income, economic developmentsuggests fundamental structural changes to the national economy, including a
rise in GDP/GNP. Thus, Rodneys7
definition of economic development as: increase in the quantity of goods (economic growth), and
a change in the qualityor character of society
aptly captures the economists conceptualisation of economic development.
Thus, where there is only economic growth without the presence of the other
characteristics enumerated above, it would be said that there is growth
without development. Such is the conclusion that arises where there is a rise
in the per capita income (due to windfalls from sale of crude oil or any other
natural resource) which is neither caused by the participation of the
economically active population in the economic process nor accompanied byimprovement in the material wellbeing of the majority.
1.3. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POPULAR PARTICIPATION,
DEVELOPMENT AND PROSPERITY
From the definition of development above, it has been established that an
increase in the number of persons participating in the production process is one
of the indices of development. As we shall see below, the process of
development should herald a prosperous society. One of the indices of a
prosperous society is collective participation in determining the conditions of
their existence.
Though the term prosperity partly includes having wealth, it is broader than
wealth. Rather than simply being a state ofhaving wealth, it actually means a
desirable state ofbeing, or desirable quality of existence.
A society is thus considered prosperous only if it is organised to ensure
that:
each of its members is able to achieve his or her aspirations, and
members can collectively and genuinely participate in
determining the conditions of their existence taking
fundamental economic and political decisions on matters that
affect them.
1.3.1. THREE INTRINSICALLY INTERCONNECTED DIMENSIONS OF
PROSPERITY
7 Rodney, Op.cit.
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Scholars8 have opined that three intrinsically interconnected dimensions
are necessary for an individually and collectively prosperous life, in the
sense of emancipation of being':
the biological, environmental, and material dimension (a healthy
physical life);
the cultural dimension (a good life, suggesting or inclusive of social
prosperity); and
the political dimension (a just life, inclusive ofcollective participation
in decision making).
A state of prosperity thus signifies the 'capacity to lead a fulfilling life on
each of the above levels, conceived as intrinsically complementary.
In the foregoing context, prosperity actually means having an all round
wellbeing.
2.0 CONTENDING POLITICAL VALUES ON POPULAR PARTICIPATION
Four main value systems contend on the desirability or otherwise of popular
participation. These are:
1. Citizens have rights to determine matters that affect them.
Government should not direct public affairs without the
involvement/cooperation/consent of the people. The have-
nots in the society should be encouraged to develop confidence in
themselves, their sense of self- worth, ability and power. Mass
involvement is the only basis for sustaining and defending change.
Ordinary people are subjects of development who are capable of
building their own future. (Humanistic view of public participation).
2. Top-down approach to development: The people do not
know what is good for them. Leaders must decide.
(Authoritarian view of leadership).
3. Bottom-up approach to development: The people as
beneficiaries of public policy may/can add value to the process of
8Source: http://www.wikiprogress.org/index.php/Redefining_Prosperityretrieved 11/10/12
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development, implementation, monitoring and review. Bringing
many people together allows new ideas to develop. The ideas of the
man on the street might not always be better but they are different
and provide different points of view (Mechanistic or pragmatic view
of participation).
4. The drive to make a difference: from pervasive exclusivity to
inclusivity. Use ADKAR9 to manage change:
A (Create) Awareness of the need for change: the current
losses and burdens.
D - (Build) the Desire to participate and support change:
Hope in the possibility for change, develop incentives or
compensation for change; what do they stand to benefit?
K - (Impart) Knowledge on how to bring about the change:
provide education and development, access to information.
A - (Make people) Acquire the ability to implement the
required skills and behaviour: This can be achieved through
training, mentoring, removal of barriers to change; etc.
R Reinforce the structure to sustain change: Give
incentives and rewards for change, personal recognition for
outstanding performance; celebrate achievers and role
models.
3.0 WHY PUBLIC PARTICIPATION IS DESIRABLE IN SPITE OF THE
SYSTEM OF REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY?
There tends to be tension between representative and participativedemocracy. However, mechanisms of popular participation are not strictalternatives to political representation. Rather, they complement politicalrepresentation so as to produce more desirable practices and outcomes ofcollective decision making and action.
The principal reason, which justifies popular participation in spite of theexistence of authorized decision making structure of representative democracy(Executive and Legislative organs in particular) is that the latter is or likely to bedeficient or become deficient.
For example, they may: be compromised or
become compromised, or
They may lack or later develop a lack of the requisite:
knowledge,9www.change-management.com/tutorial-ADKAR-series-1.htm (retrieved on 6/11/12).
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competence,
public interest,
credibility and integrity necessary to command compliance and
cooperation.
4.0 LEVELS/SPECTRUM/LADDER OF PARTICIPATION
Levels of participation can be equated to different levels of a ladder.
There are various conceptions of levels of participation. I have adopted
the category presented below, where the levels range from the lowest
level (of informing) to the highest level (of empowerment), in an
ascending order:
LEVELS/spectrum/Ladder OF PARTICIPATION
Levels of participation Goal of public participation
5. Empower Placing final decision-making inthe hands of the public.
4. Collaborate Working with the public to developalternatives and identify thepreferred solution.
3. Involve Working directly with the public toensure public concerns andaspirations are considered and
understood.
2.Consult Participants contribute views butcannot take decisions. The goal isto obtain public feedback onanalysis of problems, alternatives anddecisions taken.
1.Inform(ation) To gather information aboutpeoples interests and priorities orinform the public with a view toraising awareness of certain issues.Objective information is gathered orcommunicated so that the people
understand issues/problems,constraints, alternative solutionsand the preferred or adoptedsolution.
5. DIMENSIONS OF PARTICIPATION
Three main dimensions of participation have been identified. They are:
1. Scope of participation: who participates?
2. Mode of communication and decision-making: how do participants
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exchange information and do they take decisions?
3. Extent of authority: If the platform provided for participants
allows them to make decisions, what is the extent or the kind ofdecisions that can be made?
Scope of participation: who participates? Is participation open to
everyone who wants to participate or is access restricted based on
certain qualifications?
Mode of communication and decision-making: how do participants
exchange information and do they take decisions? For example, do
government officials merely announce and explain policies at public
meetings or press conferences? Or are participants limited to just asking
questions for clarification and making suggestions for consideration of the
authorities? Or are participants allowed to express their views, deliberateand take binding decisions? Or do participants only have the right to
express themselves while leaving final decisions to the authorities? For
example, do you have a National Conference or a SNC?
Extent of authority: If the platform provided for participants
allows them to make decisions, what is the extent or the kind of
decisions that can be made? In other words, what is the relationship
between participation in discussion and the emerging public policy? For
example, are there no go areas or issues that cannot be discussed as in a
National Conference?
6. BARRIERS TO POPULAR PARTICIPATION IN NIGERIA
Let us recall certain positions on which a consensus has been reached from the
treatment of this topic:
The aspiration of the poor segments of society is to attain development
and prosperity.
Experiences have shown that the formal structures of representative
democracy tend to be incapacitated to lead society to the identified goal.
Therefore, there is a need to deliberately create rooms for participation of
ordinary people in governance.
Since there are different levels of participation ranging from lower levels,
almost insignificant levels of participation, to higher levels where people
are empowered to make final decisions, it should now be possible to
identify barriers to genuine popular participation in Nigeria.
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The barriers to genuine popular participation discussed below include factors that
hinder broad based representative governance. They include:
The nature of the economic system being operated.
Economic Policies As Barriers To Popular Participation
Illegitimate Government Actions/Decisions As Barriers To
Popular Participation
Political Party Structure As Barrier To Popular Participation
In Governance
Constitutional Resistance To Referendum And Overreliance
On The Legislature As Barrier To Participatory Governance
Policy on sponsorship of candidates for election as barrier todirect citizens participation in governance
6.1. THE ECONOMIC SYSTEM AS A FUNDAMENTAL BARRIER TO
POPULAR PARTICIPATION
An economic system could either facilitate or hinder popular participation in a
fundamental sense.
If it is established that the economic system run by Nigeria fundamentally
undermines the prospects of popular participation, then we need to campaign for
a change of the economic system.
The economic system is the process of taking three critical economic decisions:
1. What goods and services should thesociety produce with its resources?
2. How should the goods and services be produced?
3. For whom should the society produce? (Distribution: who gets what?)
Examples of economic systems or processes of taking economic decisions
include:
The market system: the market determines what is produced and who
gets what. In other words, individual producers are allowed to produce
goods and services based on the maximum profit they think they will
earn. This is also otherwise called the capitalist system.
Mixed-economy: This is a variant of the market economy. The mixedeconomy is so-called because, in reality, there is no pure market
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economy, in which the market absolutely determines what is produced
and who gets what. Thus, the mixed economy refers to the system in
which a role is assigned for the government within the market-based
economic system. In other words, the state takes certain key economic
decisions while the individuals also do.
The planned system: the workers, collectively, or the state/government
predominantly takes the economic decisions. This is also otherwise called
the socialist system.
Key issues in the choice of economic system
Need v. Greed (Profit): While the goal of production and distribution in
the ideal socialist economy is satisfaction of the needs of ordinary people,
profit consideration dominates the market or capitalist system.
Inclusivity v. Exclusivity: While the socialist economic system is
programmed or designed to take care of the interests of all working
people, and to necessarily include them in the process of decision-making,
the market or capitalist system is programmed to exclude the poor.
Nigeria operates the capitalist or market system, which poses a fundamental
barrier to popular participation.
In the market, certain products and participants are highly valued while
others are valueless. In the market, it is not one person one vote, but one
Naira one vote. The person with a million Naira has a million votes.
That is why all the three economic decisions are resolved against the
developmental interests of the down-trodden.
6.2 ECONOMIC POLICIES AS BARRIERS TO POPULAR PARTICIPATION
The economic policies of SAP, privatisation, liberalisation, deregulation and so on
have direct implications on popular participation. When public enterprises are
privatised, it means responsibility for decisions affecting the enterprises istransferred from the public space to the private sphere.
Prior to 1986, there existed about 1,500 public enterprises in Nigeria.
Swanson and Worlde-Semait10 established that about 600 enterprises and 900
smaller ones were operating at the Federal and State/Local government levels,
in the 1980s, respectively11. All that has changed with SAP and privatisation.
10 Swanson, D. and Worlde-Semait T. (1989). Africas PEs Sector and Evidence ofReforms. World Bank Technical Paper No. 95.11Similar findings were made by (UNCTAD (2009). Investment Policy Review:
Nigeria. New York and Geneva: UN. Available online athttp://archive.unctad.org/en/docs/diaes/diaepcb2008_en.pdf (at p. 3) and accessedon 20 May 2012.
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6.3. ILLEGITIMATE GOVERNMENT ACTIONS/DECISIONS AS BARRIERS
TO POPULAR PARTICIPATION
Fung12maintains that a public policy or action is legitimate when citizens havegood reasons to support or obey it. The standard poll question is: Is
government run for the benefit of all or for a few big interests? Where the broadmajority of the people perceive that certain policies are for the benefit of a fewcorporations, such policies and the government become illegitimate and it will belegitimate for the citizens to oppose the government and its policies. For agovernment that seeks to enjoy legitimacy, a likely optional approach wherethere appears a conflict between its policies/policy proposals and the perceptionof the people it claims to represent is to adopt study circles and deliberativepolls.
A deliberative decision making procedure refers to one in which voting by alegislature is preceded by grassroots discussions and resolutions. The
discussions are facilitated by background educational materials, data, and so on,which are accessible to the public, and particularly Study groups composed ofindependent experts who enjoy credibility among the population.
Fung13 refers toa practical example of a small American town (Idaho) where theofficials adopt a two-track policy process in which they first seek wide publicadvice on controversial issues of fundamental importance before subjecting it toa vote among officials. This participatory decision-making process amounts to arejection of the ordinary Public Hearing format in favor of a model involvingStudy Circles composed of participants with diverse backgrounds.
6.4. POLITICAL PARTY STRUCTURE AS BARRIER TO POPULAR
PARTICIPATION IN GOVERNANCE
In certain contexts, the political party on whose platform a person gets elected
may pose challenges to implementing pro-poor policies. In situations where the
interests of the party come in conflict with the interests of the electorate,
mechanisms of direct citizen participation could be adopted to compel public
officials to act justly.
Fung14 again provides a celebrated example of the city of Prto Alegre in Brazil.
In 1989, the left-wing Partido dos Trabalhadores (Workers Party) was elected tothe city executive The party initiated a direct citizen participatory mechanism,called the Oramento Participativo (participatory budgeting). The participatorymechanism shifts decisions about the capital portion of the citys budget fromthe city council to a system of neighborhood and citywide popular assemblies.Through series of cycles of open meetings, citizens and civic associations in thecity meet to determine local investment priorities. These priorities are then
12Fung (2006). Varieties of popular participation. Public Administration Review. 66. Available online athttp://www.archonfung.net/papers/FungVarietiesPAR.pdf
Retrieved 6 November 2012.
13 Fung (2006), ibid.14 Fung (2006), ibid.
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aggregated into the overall city budget to be implemented by the Council. Inthat context, the various individuals and associations will take interest inmonitoring the execution of the budget, from the beginning to the end.
I strongly recommend that civil society organisations advocate participatory
budgeting in Nigeria.
6.5. CONSTITUTIONAL RESISTANCE TO REFERENDUM ANDOVERRELIANCE ON THE LEGISLATURE AS BARRIER TO PARTICIPATORYGOVERNANCE
The system of representative governance, which relies only on the legislature inthe enactment of laws, without significant input from the citizenry throughreferendum tends to undermine the quality of legislation emanating from thelegislature.
I support the proposal that the 1999 Constitution be amended such that on
fundamental issues which bring the government in major conflict with themajority of the poor, the legislature is constitutionally required to rely on theresult of referendum, which would determine the direction of legislation on suchcritical issues. I have in mind here, for example, the burning issue of perennialincreases in the prices of petroleum products, arising from the looting of the oilwealth.It is only15 in respect of the creation of new states that S.8(1)(b) CFRN, 1999states that an Act of the NASS for the purpose of creating a new State shall bepassed if a proposal for the creation is approved in a referendum by at leasttwo-thirds majority of the people of the area where the demand for creation ofthe State originated. Unfortunately, Section 8(1)(c) CFRN subjects the result of
the referendum to approval by NASS.It is pertinent for the Constitution to be amended, providing for referendum oncritical issues, including economic policies, and without subjecting the result ofreferendum to the whims and caprices of the legislature.
6.6. POLICY ON SPONSORSHIP OF CANDIDATES FOR ELECTION AS
BARRIER TO DIRECT CITIZENS PARTICIPATION IN GOVERNANCE
The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (CFRN)16 provides that only a
registered political party can sponsor candidates for election. I perceive this as
one of the reasons why many Nigerians tend not to be involved in partisanelectoral politics. The result is that only a tiny minority determines who rules. In
the recent Governorship election in Ondo State, for example, Governor Mimiko
won the election by having 260, 199 votes out of a population of about
3.4million. Total registered voters were about 1.6m; only about 646000 were
accredited to vote; only about 594000 were valid votes.
The import of the foregoing is that the civil society should strongly advocate the
right of independent candidature so that those who are disenchanted with the
major ruling political parties can be meaningfully involved.
15 C. N. Ajie (Email opinion on NBA v. NASS, 5 November 2011).16 S. 22, CFRN, 1999.
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6.7. THE CONSTITUTIONAL POLICY OF NATIONAL PARTIES AS
BARRIER TO POPULAR PARTICIPATION
The import of the constitutional requirements, which a party must fulfil to qualify
for registration as a political party is that it must be a national party. S. 222(e)
provides that a political party shall not be confined to only one geographical areaof Nigeria. S. 222(f) prescribes that the headquarters office of the party must be
in Abuja. S. 223(1)(b) stipulates that the national Executive Committee (NEC) of
the Party shall reflect Federal Character. The party structure is thus conceived in
the image of a Nigerian institution. What all the conditions imply is that it
requires a lot of money to organise parties. Parties are not perceived as
organisations of people who share similar ideas, programmes and perspectives
as to the kind of society they want to build if they win. In the interest of popular
participation in governance, the sections referred to above ought to be
amended.
6.8. REMUNERATION OF POLITICAL OFFICE HOLDERS AS
DISINCENTIVE TO POPULAR PARTICIPATION
The fifth Schedule to the Constitution contains the Code of Conduct for Public
Officers. It is recommended that the Code should stipulate that political officer
holders shall earn the average salary of career public officers and that they shall
not be entitled to take contracts or award contracts to members of their families,
relations and friends. When political public officers take remunerations that aredisproportionate to the income of the ordinary person, they tend not to feel what
the masses feel and tend not to understand the reasons why the masses oppose
certain economic policies. That is why many former social crusaders who get
elected or appointed into public office tend to be compromised after such
absorption or incorporation. The likelihood is that the commitment of some
people to public good could be sustained if the regulations prevent overnight
transformation of their economic status.
6.9. Appointment of Judges and Electoral Commissioners As Barrier To
Popular Participation
Some judges and electoral commissioners tend to be compromised by virtue of
the fact that they feel responsible only to the political forces that play some role
in their appointment. It is suggested that subjecting positions of judges and
electoral commissioners to election just as other political offices could generate
greater confidence in the system and motivate others who feel disinterested to
get involved. In the USA, in most of the 50 States and the District of Columbia,
voters elect judges for a stated term.
6.10. NON-JUSTICIABILITY OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC RIGHTS AS BARRIER
TO POPULAR PARTICIPATION
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I perceive that some categories of persons are disinterested in the governance
process in Nigeria because they can hardly find any major difference between the
programmes of the ruling parties and candidates. There is a tendency to see
involvement in politics as a mere means of enriching some individuals, without
any benefit to the ordinary people in terms of their welfare.
It is suggested that to make people more interested in political participation, the
CFRN, 1999 should be amended such that socio-economic rights are made
justiciable. Chapter II of the South African Constitution makes socio-economic
rights justiciable. It does not distinguish between fundamental rights and socio-
economic rights.
Conclusion
The mechanisms for popular participation, just as the barriers to popular
participation, are legion. I have only mentioned a few. It is my conviction thatdirect citizenship participation in the governance process will be enhanced if
advocacy is built around removing the identified barriers to popular participation.
I thank you for your attention.
Femi Aborisade
References
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http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTTIMORLESTE/Resources/Strengthening-Institutions-Introduction&Ex-Summary-1.pdf(Retrieved 6/11/12)
http://www.sp.gov.tr/documents/People-and-Participation.pdf (Retrieved6/11/12).http://www.academia.edu/296297/Deepening_Democracy_and_Increasing_Popular_Participation_In_Vietnam (Retrieved 6/11/12).
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