popular uprisings

7/27/2019 popular Uprisings

1/18

UNIT 7 POPULAR UPRISINGS :SECONDHALF OF THE 19TH CENTURYStructure

ObjectivesIntroductionColonial ImpactPeasants, Tribals and ArtisansPopular Movements upto 18577.4.1 Orissa7.4 .2 Santhal Rebellion7.4.3 1857Popular ~ o v e m e k s fter 18577.5.1 Indigo Riots7.5.2 Moplah Uprisings7.5.3 Pabna7.5.4 Deccan Riots7.5.5 Koya Rebellion7.5.6' Birsa Munda RevoltCharacteristics of MovementsWorking Class Movements7.7.1 Efforts of the Educated Gentry7.7.2 Strikes7.7.3 CharacteristicsLet Us Sum UpKey WordsAnswers to Check Your Progress Exercises

7.0 OBJECTIVESAfter going through this unit you will be able to:

know about the factors responsible for various peasant and tribal uprisings that took placein the second half of the 19th century,discover the nature and main characteristics of these uprisings,understand the attitude of the colonial regime towards these uprisings,know how the working class emerged in India,explain the problems faced by the working class,know about the initial struggles waged by the working class, andunderstand the importance of these struggles.

7.1 INTRODUCTIONThe English were able to suppress the uprising of 1857 but this could not end the feelings ofbitterness towards their rule-particularly amongst the peasants and tribals who had toreckon with the oppressive character of the regime in its severest form. They were exploitedby both the colonial Government and the landlords because the latter were now looked uponby the Government as "natural leaders" of the people.In many regions the peasants and tribals rose in revolt against the British. In this unit wehave attempted to farniliarise you with some of these uprisings of peasants and tribals.With India becoming a part of the British empire more and more British capitalists investedtheir capital in India to extort profits. A few modem industries, were established after theintroduction of railways. As a result of this limited industrialisation, plantations and railwaysthere emerged a new sdcial class-the working class. Initially this explo~ted lass had nomeans to organise itself or raise its voice in an effective manner. But soon the workersstaned resisting their exploitation by British capitalists and European planters. The unit alsodeals with some of these initial efforts made by the workers towards organisation,and


2/18

Modern India 1857 - 1964 Before beginning our d iscussion on the popular movem ents of peasants, tribals, artisans andworkers in the 1850-1900 period, a few things may be clearly stated. Any discussion of thetheme we have cho sen should take into account the colon ial contex t. This period roughlycoincid es with the'second phase of Britis h imperialism i.e. the in dustrial capital phase. Theearlier phase- ormally characterised as the com mercial,phase of ~r itis 'hmperialism wasbased on trade and comm erce. This phase saw the developm ent of industrial, capitalistexploitation of India.

COLONIAL IMPACTOne has to bear in mind the impact of British imperialism on Ind ian agriculture and thetraditional handicraft industry.i) As for agriculture, the land settlements (Permanent, Raiyatwari and M ahalwari)created certain new elements like a market economy and did away with som ecustomary rights like forest and pasturage rights. Theagrarian policies coupled withother developm ents encouraged moneylending particularly in the context of cashpaymenis of land revenue. In the context of sharpening social differentiation,moneylending got associated with a complete control of the rural economy and societyby a few m oneyl enders. And, if it was a tribal tract, this interacti on also implied theprocess of pea santisation i.e. con version of tribals into peasants.ii) Secondly, social differentiation was not a new feature but colonialism accentuated thedifferences and created a sharper polarisation between those who owned lands; hadacquired wealth, and through their new ownership rights, had access to the cou rts todefend themselves and their property, and those w hose customary rights gotundermined. This differentiation had certain implications. Besides strengthening andpolarising, these differences centred around class (rich-poor), differences around casteand religion also got strained for example if in a p articular area the landownerbelonged to a particular caste or religion and the peasants w ere of another caste orreligion then the caste/religious differences got strained on account of classdifferentiation we have noted above. Tribal areas saw the emergence of 'outsiders'who were money lenders and landlords, and who ruthlessly exploited the population.iii) Another major aspect of colonial policy was to forcibly commercialise agriculture,with the obvio us idea of providin g raw m aterial for British industries. This provedhazardous for the peasants who w ere forced to grow com mercial crops (like indigo andcotton ) instead of food grain s, even in years of scarcity .iv) As for the artisans, colonialism spelt doom for them. The colonisation of India impliedthat India was to be a h ark et for British goods. These were factory-made goods-cheaper and finer than theprod ucts of the India artisans. This led to the w iping out ofthe traditional Indian industries like cotton and salt. Besides throwing a large section ofthe artisans out of emp loyment, it increased the pressure on land as the artisans tried toturn to agriculture.

D

PEASANTS, TRIBALS AND ARTISANSBefore we proceed further it would be useful to m ention at this juncture a few things aboutthe peasants , tribals and the artisans:i) When on e talks of peasants one is refem ng to all those people who directly participatein agricultural production. So me of these w ere poor and some others werecomparatively more affluent. This differentiation increased in the colonial period.Besides, the peasant's po sition sank vis-a-vis the ow ners of lands since colonialismrecogn ised the property rights of only the landlord s, the peasant's having been reducedto mere tenants-at-will. T he new laws implied that the peasants could be evicted anytime by their landlords.ii) As for the tribals, there w ere different tribal groups like Khond s, Savaras, Santhals,Mundas, Koyas, Ko h, etc. When we speak of tribals we are not talking of the classicfood gatherers and hunters, but tribal peasants, who had settled down as agriculturists.

Of course, they combined agriculture with hunting and food gathering as well asmanufactures from forest-based products like canes etc. T heir relative isolationcoupled with closer ethnic bonds perhaps differentiated them from peasants.


3/18

iii) The artisans were those people who were engaged in the manufacture of traditionalhandicrafts like cotton produ cts, salt, iron goo ds etc. In most cases these were persuedas caste professions. As already discussed, the unequal com petition with the Britishindustrial products ruined the artisans. Historical evidence about them is extremely, limited. They were often clubb ed with the peasants and tribals.Check Your Progress 11 Which of the following statements are right or wrong? Mark ( I ( ) for correct, or (x) forincorrect as the case might be :

i) The agrarian policies of the B ritish encouraged moneylending.ii) The custom ary rights of the tribals were encroached upon as a result of Britishpolicies.iii) The induction of British goods in the Indian markets helped the Indian artisans.iv) By peasants we mean all those who directly participate in agricultural produ ction.

2 Write in abo ut five lines how colonialism accentuated social differentiation in Indiansociety.

7.4 POPULAR MOVEMENTS UP TO 1857We can now begin ou r discussion by taking up some of the major popular movemen tsamon g the peasants, tribals and artisans in the 1 850-19 00 phase- nown asfituris, melis,hools and ulgulan.7.4.1 OrissaIn the early 185 0's we come across some tribal movem ents in Orissa. There were popularmovements among the Khon ds of Ghumsar and Baud (1854 -56) and the Savaras ofParliakhemedi.These popular movements were attributed to Chakra Bisoi w ho, since 1837, had resisted allattempts to arrest him. The specific problem among the Khonds centred around thedeterminatio n of the colonial administration to stop the human sacrifices associated with the'meriah' sacrifice. Wha t is worth noting is that the new pressures and uncertainties forcedthe Khonds to appease their gods for good harvests of turmeric, but the colonialadministration tried to stop this practice. Some colonial officials hoped that the im provementof material conditions of the Khond s would serve to liquidate the 'm eriah' sacrifice.Very little is known about Chakra Bisoi and the early tribal movements. Bisoi took up thecause of a young boy whom the Khonds 'believed' was the Raja of Ghumsar.'We get references to Kho nds 'attacking ' some villages in Ghum sar (1854) and how theykefused to betray C hakra. In a desperate attemp t to crush the rebellio n the police arrested amend icant by mistak e, thinking that he was Ch akra Bisoi. It seems some landho lders andruling chiefs (i.e. of Patana and K alahandi) who felt threatened by colonial rule maintain edlinks with Chakra.

Popular UprisingsHalf of the 19th SecondZentury

In 1 856-57 there was the Savara rebellion in Parliakhemedi led by on e RadhakrishnaDandasena. The colonial administration saw links between this movement and Chakra Bisoi,who could never be arrested. Nothing was heard of him after October 1856. He seem s tohave faded into popular memory after the Savara rising was crushed with D andasena'shanging in 1857. How ever, there are doubts wh ether Chakra Bisoi was behind all thesepopular movements, or whether his name came to be associated as a symb ol of populartribal protest.


4/18

. .

Modern India 1857 - 1964 7.4.2 Santhal RebellionYet another major mbal rebellion was among the Santhals (1855-57) of Birbhum, Bankura,Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Bhagalpur and Monghyr. The colonial character of the regimecontributed to the precipitation of this conflict. We get references to some merchants andmoneylenders from Northern and Eastern India, completely controlling the existence ofSanthals through interests on loans, with rates ranging from 50% to 500%. Theseexploitative people used two types of measures, a big one (Bara Ban) to receive things and asmall measure (Chota Ban) to give things to the Santhals. They also grabbed lands of theSanthals.Some of the intermediaries of the Zamindars were also ruthlessly exploitative. We also getreferences to recruitments of forced labour and the sexual exploitation of tribal women atthe railway sites.When the movement started it was not ostensibly anti-British, but was directed chieflyagainst the mahajans and traders. The Santhals declared that their new God had directedthem to collect and pay their revenue to the state at the rate of two annas on every buffaloplough and half anna on each cow-plough. They also fixed interest rates on loans whichwere to be on the lower side. The Santhals were punished for night 'attacks' on mha j a n s ,whereas their oppressors were not even admonished. Rebellion burst forth in 1854, with anincrease in the number of 'dacoities', 'burglaries', 'thefts' of mha j a n s , whose wealth wasill-earned.It was in such a context that two Santhals--Sido and Kanhu offered the spark whichresulted in conflagration. They received the 'Command' of their God (Thakur) to stand upand defy their exploiters. On June 30, 1855 ten thousand Santhals assembled at Bhaghadihiwhere the 'divine order' that the Santhals should get out of the control of their oppressorswas announced by Sido and Kanhu. The idea that their God would himself fight along withthem gave the rebelliop a legitimacy, and in popular mbal perception labelled it as astruggle of 'good' against 'evil'.

I Sido, the Santhal leader


5/18

As the movement gathered momentum the way in which the context determined its fonn is 1'1)pular Uprisings: econdHalf or the 19thCenturyindeed interesting. From an essentially anti-mahajun and anti-trader movement i tincorporated a new element- he Santhals made no secret of their opposition to the police,white planters, railway engineers and the officials, thereby revealing their opposition to thecolonial order as well.The movement lasted for six months. Many villages were 'attacked' hy the Santhals afterbeing given prior notice. A lot of pressure was exerted on the zamindars and theGovernment by the rebels. In many areas the zamindars helped in the suppression of therebellion.

2 Fort of Pakur where British Soldiers took Refuge after defeat from Santhals.

After this we can say a few things about the 1857 Rebellion, without going into details ofthe Rebellion itself. There is a controversy among historians regarding the level of popularparticipation in the revolt. Some scholars like Eric Stokes (Peasant and the Raj, Cambridge,1978) point out how the rural elite whose interests had been threatened by colonialism led,the peasants and artisans who followed them 'tamely'. Others, like S.B. Chaudhuri(Theories of the Indian Mutiny 1857-59,Calcutta, 1965) and Rudranshu Mukherjee (Awadhin Revolt, Delhi 1984) feel that although landed elements provided the leadership there weresome exceptions, and, more importantly, the strength of the Rebellion was based on the


6/18

Modern India 1857 - 1964 The common resentment against the oppression of the moneylender united the peasants andthe artisans. British rule was identified as 'Bania Ka Raj ' and the Rebellion marked anopposition to the moneylenders as well as the British. Along with this was the erosion ofcudtomary rights and privileges of the peasants.The forms of popular protest reflect the combination of the twin currents of anti-imperialismand anti-feudalism which had emerged at that particular juncture. Symbols of foreign rulesuch as police stations, railway lines and telegraph wires were destroyed. As for the popul;.rmovements which converge with the 1857 Rebellion, we get evidence of the destruction ( ~ frecords. In fact, we are told of the 'debris' of accounts books, which reflect the obviousopposition to the new taxation system. Although the Europeans were the first'targets, theywere followed by attacks on their Indian supporters like moneylenders, auction purchasers,bankers and traders in some regions.In this phase we also get reference to the dismantling of factories in Shahjehanpur,Shahibabad, Gaya and Palamau. Although our evidence is severely limited this indicatestypical reactions of artisans in early industrial societies, who saw a threat posed by theanival of new machines. This trend can be seen in early industrial England (1830) as well.With the disappearance of British authority, the concept of freedom drove the peasants andartisans to seize the lands and 'plunder' the houses of the affluent landed sections. Theirproperty deeds and government records were also destroyed. This situation altered thenature of the Rebellion. Thus, people like Kunwar Singh, a big landlord who led theRebellion in Bihar, stopped-his followers from indulging in such acts, as, otherwise after theBritish withdraw there would be no proof of the rights of people and no evidence todetermine the amount due fronl one party to another.Check Your Progress 21 Match the leaders with the movements they were connected with.

i) Chakra Bisoi a) Savara Rebellionii) Sido and Kanhu- b) Khonds of Ghumsariii) Radhakrishna Dandasena c) Santhal Rebellion

2 Discuss in about five lines the problems faced by the Santhals.

3 Which of the following statements are right (4)r wrong (x)i) The Khonds appeased their gods for good harvests by offering sacrifices. ( )ii) Radhakrishnh Dandasena was rewarded by the British. ( )iii) Zamindars helped the British in suppressing the Santhal rebellion. ( )iv) The .:is no controversy among historians as to the level of popular participation in

the Revolt of 1857. ( )V) .Artisans welcomed the coming of machines. ( )

7.5 POPULAR MO VEM ENTS AFTER 1857Popular protest did not end with the suppression of the 1857 uprising. We find a number ofmovements taking place af t e e i s and shall discuss a few of them.7.5.1 IndigoRiatsThe indigo riots of 1859 in Bengal is the next popular movement we shall examine. Indigoplantations had been $et up as early as 1770 by the East India Company. ,The planters relied


7/18

This created a lot of discontent since the peasants could not grow foodgrains which theyneeded for survival. By 1859 thousands of peasants had withdrawn their labour, formedorganisations all over the indigo plantation districts and resisted the repression of theplanters and their armed retainers. The contemporary newspapers like THE BENGALEEgave due coverage to the movement and reported how it was marked with success.Dinabandhu Mitra wrote Nildarpan in Bengali which highlighted the plight of the peasants.

Popular Uprisings:SeconHalf of the 19th Century

3 Districts Effected by Indigo Revolt in Bengal

- - -.The indigo riots forced the Government to set up an official enquiry (1860). The movementalso knocked down the plantation system in lower Bengal, forcing the planters to shift to


8/18

Modern India 1857.

7.5.2 Moplah UprisingIn the 1850-1900 period we also wimess a series of Moplah Uprisings in Malabar. As theJenmi landlords backed by the police, law courts and revenue officials tightened their gripover the Moplah peasants the latter rebelled against the landlords and the British, it is notsurprising to see how, what was essentially a rich-poor conflict between the Jenmi landlordsand the Moplah peasants was given distinct communal colouring by the colonial state sincethe landlords were Hindus and the peasants were Muslims.The landlords resorted with repression, which continued unabated till 1880. In their attemptsto smother the peasant movement they also burnt the bodies of the rebels in order to producea demoralising effect. Scholars like D.N. Dhanagare (Peasant Movement in India 1920-50,Delhi 1983) have pointed out how these acts made the peasants retaliate.In 1875 an anonymous petition of the Moplah peasant was submitted to the MadrasGovernment, which led to an enquiry. However between 1882 and 1885 there was a renewalof hostilities with the peasants 'looting' the property and burning the houses of landlords, aswell as defiling Hindu temples. These acts gave an anti-Hindu turn to what was essentially aclass conflict between peasants and the landlords. By 1896 the Moplah peasants' struggleassumed an aggressively communal orientation.7.5.3 PabnaAnother important movement was the Pabna (in Bengal) peasants' movement.of 1873-1885.The peasants of Pabna did not object to rent hikes, and, in fact between 1858 and 1873 theymet the rent demands of their landlords without any resistance. At the mot of the movementwas the tendency of the zarnindars to annihilate the tenants' newly acquired occupancyright. Occupancy tenants were being converted into tenants-at-will through forcible writtenagreements.The peasants growing knowledge of the new laws made them aware of their plight. Thenthere was the problem of illegal dues in some places like Tripura. In 1873 the Pabnapeasants formed an agrarian league which spread out the entire district very soon. Most ofthe newspapers which were pre-landlord (like Amrita Bazar Patrika) opposed the league.What is worth noting is that the peasants did not defy the colonial authority and declaredthat their goal was to become the ryots of the 'Queen of England'. They were opposed to theharassment and not to the payment of dues. They wanted to be the 'Queen's Rvots' for


9/18

In fact, in the initial stages we get references to a sympathetic colonial administration Popular Uprisings: econdHalf of the 19th Centurysupporting the peasants in cases against their landlords. As the movement developed popularforms of mobilisation- .e. blasts from conch-shell, drumbeats, etc. brought peopletogether to resist the illegal demands of the landlords. By 'night shouts' all the people invillages expressed their solidarity with the movement. Kalyan Kumar Sengupta (PabnaDisturbances and the Politics ojeRent 1873-1885,New Delhi 1974) has stressed the'Legalistic Character' of the movement, with instances of violence being very rare as thepeasants were primarily interested in defending their property and holdings.r , .

PABNAAREAS OF PEASANT DISTURBANCES

5 Areas Effected by Pabna Uprising

As the movement gathered momentum the oppressors tried to hit back. Given the fact that a


10/18

70% of Pabna's population were Muslims) they painted it as a communal movement. Whatib w u r~ i~I U L ~ I I ~1e1e b LllaL iwo p ol l~ il le ll teaders of the Pabna peasants- esab ChandraRoy and Sam bhunath Pal were Hindus.For nearly a decade, from 1873 the Pabna peasants' movement undermined the landlord'sperception of their right to fleece the peasants. Besides, the movem ent also spread to otherareas like Dacca, Rajshahi, Bakergun je, Faridpur, Tripura and Bogra, etc.7.5.4 Deccan RiotsThe basis of the Deccan R iots, which erupted in 1875 , lay in the evolution of the ryotwarisystem itself. We com e across the emergence of a class of moneylenders who fleeced thepeasants through high interest on loans (25% to 5 0% ). The decline of the collective systemof tax collection implied that unlike in the earlier days the money lender was not sub ject tothe executive and judicial authority of the village. The courts and the new law s polarised thecaste differences between the Vanis (village moneylenders) and the Kunbis (cultivatorcaste) by favouring the former. This implied an increase in the transfer of holding frompeasants to moneylenders. The immovable property of the Kunbi could also be sold torecover loans. Along with these problems was an increase of the population, the dislocationof the economy and an ill-conceiv ed attempt to enhance rents by the colonial administration.It was in this situation that things took an explosive turn. The young B rahmin leaders of thePoona Sarvajanik Sabha and the dominant landed families which faced decline took up thecause of the peasants.The Kun bis rose against the Vanis in order to dispossess them of their title deeds andmortgage bonds which were looked upon as instruments of oppression.The D eccan Riots resulted in the breakdown of the link that held the Kunbis and Vanistogether. Like the pattern we h ave noticed earlier, class conflict was given the fo rm of acaste conflict.7.5.5 Koya RebellionIn 1879-1880 there occurred the Koya rebellion in the eastern Go davari tract of presenttdayAnd hra Pradesh which also affected some portions of the Malkan giri region of Korap utdism ct in Orissa. It was led by Tomm a Dora, the Koya leader. The m ovement reflected theproblem s faced by the tribals like the erosion of customary rights over forests, theexploitation by mon eylenders who began to control the life of the Koyas through loan s andland transfers.Tom ma Dora was hailed by the Koyas as the 'Kin g' of Malkang iri. We find references tothe taking over of a police station at Motu bjl the rebels. However, very soo n after this Dorawas shot dead by the police and the movement collapsed.7.5.6 Birsa Munda .RevoltThe last popular movement that we shall discuss developed between 1874 and 1901, andwas led by Birsa M unda &om about 1895. A tribal mov ement, it affected an area of about400 square miles in the C hotanagpur region of South Bihar. Born out of the basic problemsaffecting the mbals in the colonial period -erosion of customary rights forced labour,colonial laws etc. it had a distinct connection with Ch ristianity in the early phase. As K.S.Singh (Birsa Munda a nd his Movement 1874-1901,Delhi 1983) notes, the Mundas, in fact,accepted Christian ity with the belief that the Germ an missionaries would set things right bychecking the m alpractices of the zamindars. In fact, around 1857 some zarnindars attackedthe German mission at Ranchi, as it sym pathised with the Mundas. From around 1858 weget references to Christian tribals resisting oppressive zamind ars. This trend becam e quitepronounced between 1862 and 1888. In 1867 as many a s 14,000 'Christians' filed a petitionagainst the Raja of Chotan agpur and the local police, and sub mitted it to the colonialauthorities. Some steps were taken to restore lands of som e of the dispossessed Mun&s.In March 1879 the Mun&s claimed that Chotanagpur belonged to them. In 1881 somesardars led by o ne John the B aptist set up a kingdom at Doesa. After this the movementwent through so me major changes. Dissatisfaction with the German mission aries made theMundas severe their links with them. Instead, they turned to the Catholic mission. Thecolonial officials and the zarnind ars came closer to each other in order to smo othen themovement. What developed was a struggle which united the 'rebels' against all Europeans


11/18

PopularUprisings: econdHalf of the 19th Century

#6. Birsa MundaIt was in this context that the Mundas were led by Birsa Munda-whose initial popularitywas based on his medicinal and healing powers. The Mundas envisaged an ideal and justorder which would be free from the internal as well as European exploiters. Their search f6rinvincibility against their powerful oppressors made them look upon 'forest water' assomething which would make them invincible. There was active participation of women inthis movement. On some occasions there was violence also. However the movement lackedanimosity vis-a-vis the economically subordinate non-tribal people.The movement of Birsa Munda was ruthlessly suppressed. Birsa was handed and therepressive machinery directed against the rebels to break the rebellion.On the basis of the above discussion certain conclusions can be drawn. The popularmovements we have discussed were directed against colonialism as well as the Indian rich(i.e. moneylenders and the zamindars) often identified as dikus or outsiders. What needs tobe emphasised is that the opposition to these dikus was based on the exploitation perpetratedby them and not btcPusc they were non-tribals.

7.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF M OVEMENTSThe movements had certain characteristics:i) Inherent in most of them was the attempt to look back into the past W:~CZ 'life wasmuch better'. This included the fury directed against machines during the 1857

Rebellion. This was the reason for the struggle for a better present.A tendency existedin some of the movements to attack the established order of the sahukar, zamindar and


12/18

7 Arrest of Birsa's Followers

with an annu al tribute to them. An other feature, linked to the question of loo king backinto the past and attacking the established order, was the 'restorative' character ofsome of these popular mov ements. Thus, on occasions they were led by thetraditionally affluent sections whose privileges had been und ermined as a result of thecolonisation of Iridia.ii) Conversely, in sqme cases we observe an association with imperialism in a struggleagainst the landldrds and the sahukars. On occasions the people learnt through theirexperien ce to idebtify anti-imperialism as a necessary com pone nt of their strugg le, likethe Mund as. Howev er, on occas ions the illusions of British rule affected popularperceptions as in the case of the Pabna peasants who ww ted to be the 'Queen's ryo ts'.This obviously undermined the struggle against imperialism. What is, however,

striking is how som e of these popular struggles identified their friends and theirenemies. Beginning as an anti-imperialist movement the popular m ovement whichconv erged with the 1857Rebellion gravitated toward s anti-feudalism, posing problem sfor the feudal landed sections as we h ave seen. The anti-feudal and proChristianBirsaite Mundas also turned an ti-imperialists in course of time.iii) The popular movements we have discussed envisaged a fair and just order withoutexploitation where everybody would be equal and live happily. This reflected apop ular peasant utopia and in many cases was asso ciated with the hopes of theirdaw ning of 'new age' as well as the emergence of 'messiahs' (like Sido, Kanho andBirsa).iv) Another noticeable feature was the association of these popular movements withreligion and caste. Give n the conditions as well as the m ultiplicity of both religion and

caste in our country we have seen how on occasions some of these popularmovem ents, although they w ere centred around class conflict, got affected bycom mun al and caste politics. Our evidence also points to how, when their position wasthreatened, the landed feudal sections tried to d ivert the popu lar movements alongcomm unal lines. Here one can cite the cases of Malabar and Pabna peasants struggleswhich w ere projected as a comm unal movement by the landlords.While discussing the question of religion and popular mo vements we have seen how italso united the popular mass es in their strugg le with their oppresso rs, as in M alabar orin Chotanag pur region. The way in which Christianity, a product of British impe rialismitself, becam e an instrunlen t to fight the feud al as well as the imp erialist orderobvio usly indicates how its role changed in a colony like India. Thu s this dual natureof the role of religion should be grasped.

V ) Ano ther importilnt facet of these popular mov emen ts was their close association with'lootings' and 'crime ' directed against the affluent classes. Although reduced to simple


13/18

part of popular movements. The idea of hitting at their exploiters was conditioned bythe rationality of setting things right! Consequently these acts had a popular sanctionand on occasions were collective acts.vi) The sense of solidarity exhibited by peasants, tribals and artisans is anothercharacteristic feature. It is worth noting here how territorial boundaries and ethnicbonds transcended in some of the popular movements. For example, while the Pabnamovement percolated to other areas outside the district the Birsa Movement united theMundas and the Kols, along with the absence of any animosity vis-a-vis economicallysubordinate non-tribal groups.vii) And, finally, these popular movements served to considerably narrow the gap betweena section of the Indian Intelligentsia and the popular masses. We have seen thistendency especially in Bengal. The pro-peasant sympathies were expressed in somenewspapers and in contemporary literary works like NilDarpan (1860).Check Y w r Progress31 Which of the following statements are true ( 4 ) or false (x).

i) The planters coerced the peasants to grow indigo.ii) The indigo revolt did not get any coverage in the newspapers.iii) The Moplah uprising was given a communal colour by the colonial government.iv) The Kinbis had cordial relations with the Vains.v) Mundas attacked economically subordinate non-tribal groups.

2 Match the leaders with the movements. They lead.i) Tomma Dora Pabna uprisingii) Sambhunath Pal Munda revoltiii) Birsa Munda Koya rebellion

3 Discuss in about ten lines the basic characteristics of the popular movements during thisperiod.

7.7 WORKING CLASS MOVEMENTSAfter discussing the popular movements among peasants, tribals and artisans we now takeup the role of industrial workers between 1850 and 1900. Who were these industrialworkers? Given the overall conditions we have discussed in our general introduction, theywere composed primarily of the dispossessed peasants and artisans who had been thrown outof their occupations with the advent of colonialism. These workers became associated withthe 'modem' industrial sector which developed out of the interaction of British colonialismwith India. This sector was originally an exclusive preserve of British capitalists andevolved from about the 1840's. The abundance of raw material and cheap labour attractedBritish capitalists to invest in the tea plantations (from 1839), jute, coal, mining and railways:,(early 1850's) and by the turn of the century major recruitments also took place in the ports.The only industry with which the Indian business class was associated was the textile "industry, The Indian business class dominated it. Born around 1850's it was located chietly

Popular Up! isings : econdHa lf of Ll~c 9th Century


14/18

I

Modern India I857 What needs to be emphasised is that this 'm ode m' sector did not lead to full-fledgedcapitalist development ns it was based on the archaic foundations of a predominantly feudalecono my deliberately preserved by the colonial regime. Moreover, it was not meant tofoster the development of India. These features had certain implications. Thus, the workersin the 'm ode m' sector were left in semi-servile conditions. Besides having to work for longhours 15 to 16 hours a day, with low wages and m iserable working conditions, they(including women an d children) were even beaten an d tortured. Their diet was normallyworse than w hat wa s served to criminals in jails.Ther e is ample evidenc e in the M unicipal reports which points out deaths due to illnessamo ngst plantation workers. Give n these conditions the w orkers were in no position toorganise themselves, and what we c ome across are mostly spontaneous movements aimed atredressing their adverse conditions.7.7.1 Efforts of the Educated GentryThe 1850-1900 phase saw scattered and unorganised struggles among the workers. Therehave been characterised a s elementary struggles by S ukom al Sen (Working Cla ss of India:History of E me rge nre an d Movement, 1830-1970,Calcutta, 1979). In this phase we comeacross sections of the educated gentry coming forward t o focus on the problems of theworkers. In 1870 Sasipada Banerjee, a Brahmo Samajist, founded the 'Working Men'sClub' and published a journal from Baranag ar (near Calcutta) in 1874. The Calcutta-Brah mo Sam aj founded in 1878 the 'Working Men's Mission' to propagate religiousmorality, etc. amon g the workers.By 1878 we com e across Sorabjee Saprujee Bengalee and Narayan M eghajee Lokhundyworking am idst cotton mill labourers in Bom bay. Th ese attempts led to the drafting of amemorandum in 1884 which incorporated demands for a rest day o n ever; Sunday, a half-an-hour break at noon; a 6.30 a.m. to sunset working day; wages to the worker?k aid-bythe 15th of the month following the month they have worked an d that in case of injury theyshould receive full wages till they recovered and if they got maime d they should getpension. T his memorandum was signed by about 5,000 workers and wa s submitted to thecommission of 1884 appointed by the Govern men t of Bomba y. It left its imprint of the firstIndian Factories Act of 1891.In 1890 (April 24) Lakhund y convened an other meeting attended by about 10,000 workers.Tw o woman w orkers spoke at this meeting. A memorial asking for a weekly holiday wasdrawn up and sent to the Bombay Mill Owners' Association. This request was granted onJun e 10, 1890, and although perceived as a victory by the w orkers, it was without any legalsanction and he nce it could not be enforced. T he demand fo r a rest day in a week became apopular de man d in almost all the industrial centres.7.7.2 StrikesWhereas these efforts sought to organise the workers, this phase was marked byspontaneous worke rs movem ents. W e get references to a strike by the river transport portersof Bengal in 1853, a coachm en's strike in Calcutta in 1 862 etc. The first big strike occurredin 1862 when a bout 1,200 labourers of How rah railway station went on a strike demandingan 8 hours wo rking day. W hat is worth noting is that this action preceded the historic MayDay Movement of the Chicago workers by about 24 years, and the strike occurred in asector which had begun from 1853.Thi s was followe d by a num ber of strike actions. Thus, a big strike took place in the NagpurEmpress M ills in 1877 on the issue of wage rates.Between 1882- 1890 here w ere 25 strikes in the B ombay a nd Mad ras presidencies. What isstriking is that in Bom bay presidency a'large n umbe r of strikes occurred in factories ownedby Indians i.e. textile factories. Bengal also wimessed spontan eous strikes centred aroundhigher wage demands and the dismissal of workers.7.7.3 CharacteristicsWh ile surveying these popular struggles a few points should be mentioned.1 They served to narrow the gap between the wo rkers and the intelligentsia. Th e latter gotattracted to the workers due to hu ma ~it ar ian otions triggered off by the socio-reform


15/18

I'upular Uprisings:Secontla lf uf the 19th Centur

m

8 An article about Rail Workers Strike in Somprakash by Dwarka Nath Vidhyabhusan

the world which were taking place along similar lines (e.g. England). This trendcontinued in the early twentieth century-4andhi's attempts to reach the AhmedabadMill Workers and Anusaya Ben's efforts to open-up night schools to educate them in1918 were the manifestations of the same spirit.

2 In many cases the workers were led by 'jobbers' (Sirdars) who recruited them and whonormally belonged to the same region and caste of the workers. In such cases theworkers' demands were sidetracked as the central focus lay on the struggle between the'jobbers' and the employers. On other occasions the workers were led by theintelligentsia. Taken all in all it appears that the workers in this stage had to look up to'outsiders' for leadership.

Given the fact that the workers were composed of the disposed sections of the ruralpopulation, and that the colonisation of India prevented any attack on the old, feudal valuesdominated the minds of the workers. Here, even the leadership provided by the intelligentsia(which was influenced by the old feudal values) failed to produce any serious iinpact on theworkers' organisation or their consciousness. The degrading condition of women and childlabourers remained completely ignored due to the dominating feudal values. Consequently,most of these popular struggles concentrated on immediate problems faced by workers likewages, retrenchments and a rest day in a week.Nevertheless, despite their shortcomings we have to acknowledge the heroism of theworkers in a period when there were no organised trade unions to come to their rescue.Check Your Progress 41 Discuss in about ten lines the emergence of the working class in India.


16/18

Modern India 1857 - 1%4 2 Discuss in about five lines the problems of rhe working classes.

3 Match the year with the strikes in which they took place.i) 1853 Nagpur Empress Millsii) 1862 River Transportersiii) 1877 Railway.

4 Which of the following statements are right or wrong? Mark (4 ) or (x) for correct andincorrect statements respectively:i) Popular struggles narrowed the gap between the workers and intelligentsia. ( )ii) The 'jobbers' never sidetracked the workers' demands ( )iii) The degrading condition of women and child labourers remained ignored during

this period ( )iv) Coachmen's strikeitook place in Calcutta (1862) ( )

I

LET US SUM LIPThe colonial policies adversely affected the peasants, tribals and artisans. They were nowsubjected to dual oppression i.e. oppression by the colonial state and the internal exploitersof lndian society (like landlords and moneylenders). Very often opposition to thisoppression resulted in popular uprisings. However, in official language these uprisings weredescribed as dacoities, riots, rebellion and so on. But in reality these uprisings weremanifestations of protest by the exploited sections of lndian Society. These uprisings cameup at different intervals of time and in different regions. At times, due to'the complexcharacter of Indian society, the colonial state as well as the internal exploiters both labelledthose uprisings as manifestations of communalism or casteism. Basically, however, thesewere the struggles waged by the havenots against the haves. These uprisings failed, but theydid create an anti-British feeling and prepared the ground for the mass struggles at thenational level.Another impact of the British rule was the creation of a new class in Indian Society-theworking class. Although this class was not organised, we find a number of isolated strikerstdwards the end of the 19th century. These strikes attempted to gain better workingconditions and wages. Many of these strikes took place in factories owned by the Indians.This suggested that the workers were exploited by both the British and the Indian factoryowners. In fact the ground for work major working class movements was laid during thisphase. In due course these economic struggles by the working class gave added strength tothe political struggle during the national movement.

7.9 KEY WORDSClass differentiation: The process by which in objective terms one class economicallybegins to differ from another class and also begins to see itself as such.Customary rights: Rights which have come up4becauseof ceriain historical factors and soare accepted as a part of tradition like right to use pasture lands.Dual role of religion in popular movem ents: The process by which in a popular movementreligion enabled people to come together but also on the other hand because of its owniimited world view restricted the scope of thg movement.Forced labour: The use of force rather than legal or traditional right to extract labour.Jobbers (Sardars): Traditionally people who recruit workers in a mill.Occupancy right: Right to particular piece of land.


17/18

Peasant movement: A peasant is a cultivator or owner cultivator of land (the size of thisland can vary). Historically peasants have rebelled against established authority of landlordsand state. The basis of their coming together has been religion or religious symbols becauseof this their scope was limited.Polarisation: Clear difference.Popular movements: Movements in which people cutting cross tribal, peasant, workingclass or middle class barriers participated.Sexual exploitation of women: Discrimination and harassment of women on the basis ofsex.Social differentiation:Process by which the peasant society was differentiated alongeconomic and social line.Tenants-at-will: After the British gave right of property to landlords which they did nothave legally earlier the tenants were at the mercy of the landlords.Tribal m ovements: Tribe is a group of people tied together by blood relationship. Tribalmovements are collective protests of these units against established authority.Uprising :Upheaval.

7.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESSEXERCISES

Popular Uprisings :SecondHalf of the 19th Century

Check Your Progress 11 i) .\I

ii) .\Iiii) xiv) .\I

2 See section 7.2Check Your Progress 21 i) b

ii) ciii) a

2 See Sub-sec. 7.4.23 i) .\I

ii) xiii) .\Iiv) x

v) xCheck Your Progress 31 i) .\I

ii) xiii) .\Ii v ) xv ) x

2 i ) ci i ) aiii) b


18/18

Modern lndia 1857 - 1964 3 See Section 7.6Check Your Progress 41 See Sec tion 7.72 See Section 7.7 and Sub-section. 7.7.13 i) b

ii) ciii) a .

4 i) 4ii) xiii) 4iv) 4

popular uprisings

Documents