positive emotions, engagement, relationships,...

Positive emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment (PERMA):

Exploring the Dimensions of Well-Being in Regular Physical Activity

By: Fan Li

Bachelor of Psychological Science

Academic Supervisor: Dr. Kevin Filo

Department of Tourism, Sport and Hotel Management

Griffith University

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Griffith Business

School Undergraduate Honours majoring in Sport Management

May 2013

DIMENSIONS OF WELL-BEING IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY i

Abstract

Physical activity builds on physical health, just like positive psychology actively

builds on psychological well-being. This study aims to further define and understand the

dimensions of well-being in the context of physical activity and their contributions to life

satisfaction. The methodology employed to fulfil this aim involved the use of a

questionnaire—distributed both online and in-person—which measured five proposed

elements of subjective well-being: Positive emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning

and Accomplishment (PERMA) in the context of the participants‟ main physical activity:

sport or exercise. There were 132 males and 183 females aged between 18 and 81

participating in this study, recruited from various locations on the Gold Coast. Their main

physical activity was self-categorised into two groups, sport and exercise. Multiple

regression analysis was used to examine the contribution of PERMA to life satisfaction.

Relationships and Meaning as elements of well-being in both sport and exercise

significantly contributed to life satisfaction among participants of regular physical activity.

The dimensions of well-being in exercise participation contributed to 18% of the variance

in life satisfaction, and the dimensions of well-being in sport participants contributed to

28% of the variance in life satisfaction. The current research provides useful ways in which

sport and exercise practitioners can leverage relationships and meaning in physical activity

to contribute to life satisfaction, such as fostering camaraderie, designing partnered

exercises, and investigating and realising meaning in life among regular physical activity

participants.

DIMENSIONS OF WELL-BEING IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ii

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction 1

Purpose Statement 4

Research Questions 4

Research Method and Context 5

Outline of Document 5

Chapter 2: Literature Review 6

Positive Psychology and Well-Being 6

Well-Being Theory and the PERMA Elements 10

The Effects of Regular Physical Activity on Well-Being 17

Using PERMA Elements to Measure Well-Being in the Context of

Physical Activity 18

Distinguishing Between Sport and Exercise 21

Well-Being in Exercise 23

Well-Being in Sport 24

Satisfaction with Life 25

Chapter 3: Method 28

Ethical Clearance 28

Participants 29

Questionnaire Design 30

Pilot Questionnaire 32

Questionnaire Distribution 34

Data Analysis 37

DIMENSIONS OF WELL-BEING IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY iii

Chapter 4: Results 38

Data Clean-up and Group Characteristics 38

Descriptive Statistics and Reliability of Scales 39

Regression Analysis 40

Chapter 5: Discussion 44

Main Findings 44

Theoretical Implications 48

Practical Implications 49

Limitations 53

Future Directions 54

Conclusions

References

DIMENSIONS OF WELL-BEING IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY iv

List of Tables and Figure

Table 3.1 Correlations, Means, Standard Deviations and Reliability Measures for

Well-Being in Physical Activity and Life Satisfaction

Table 3.2 Exercise Participation: Summary of Multiple Regression Analysis for

Contextual Well-Being Predicting Life Satisfaction

Table 3.3 Sport Participation: Summary of Multiple Regression Analysis for

Contextual Well-Being Predicting Life Satisfaction

Table 3.4 Comparison of Multiple Linear Regression Results for Exercise and Sport

Participation

Table 5.1 Definitions of Five Dimensions of Well-Being in the Context of Physical

Activity

Figure 1.1 Origins of Well-Being Theory

DIMENSIONS OF WELL-BEING IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY v

List of Appendices

Appendix I. Data Collection Locations and Organisations

Appendix II. The PERMA-P Questionnaire: A Brief Measure of Flourishing

Appendix III. Well-Being in Physical Activity Questionnaire

Appendix IV. Test of Normality of Variables Before and After Data Transformation

DIMENSIONS OF WELL-BEING IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY vi

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Dr. Kevin Filo for his guidance, support, patience and

encouragements throughout the duration of this research. Thanks for believing in me when

all hell broke loose and I thought I was not going to make it; without you I would not have

come this far.

Thank you to Dr. Margaret Kern for sharing your knowledge and insight, and

providing the manuscript that formed the basis of the instrument used in this study.

Thank you to Katie Cheng from Griffith University Badminton club, Emma Bunn

from Griffith University Surfers Paradise Rowing club, Jane Schinkel from Greendoggs

Basketball club, Aaron Alsop from Gryphons Volleyball, Master Angus Uebergang from

Warrior Hapkido, Barbara Collins from Sports Super Centre and Kellie Morris from the

Active and Healthy Program for allowing me to distribute my questionnaire to their

members and attendants.

Special thanks to Aaron Alsop, Barbara Collins, Ava Carter and Colin Hart for their

selfless donation of time and effort in helping me collect questionnaires.

Thank you to Maria Sanchez for always welcoming me next door with a cup of tea,

warmth and home-made sweets in those ridiculous hours of the morning.

Thanks to Griffith University and Gold Coast Get Active and Healthy for their

support in this research.

Finally, thanks to my partner Billy Noonan, who is capable of turning any meal into

charcoal, and any desperation into hope.

DIMENSIONS OF WELL-BEING IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY vii

Statement of Originality

This work has not previously been submitted for a degree or diploma in any

university. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the dissertation contains no material

previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made in

the dissertation itself.

Fan Li

DIMENSIONS OF WELL-BEING IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 1

Chapter 1: Introduction

Well-being is the positive feeling, thinking and functioning of an individual,

organisation or society, beyond the absence of pain, illnesses, diseases or malfunctioning

(Diener, Sapyta, & Suh, 1998; Keyes, 2002; Ryff & Singer, 1998; Seligman &

Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Governments around the world are increasingly focussing on the

health and well-being of their citizens, realising that money alone does not make people

more happy nor healthy (Diener & Seligman, 2004; Forgeard, Jayawickreme, Kern, &

Seligman, 2011; Huppert & So, 2013). Since the year 2000, the Australian Government has

been spending more money each year treating health conditions such as cardiovascular

disease, musculoskeletal disorders and mental health problems. In 2010, the burden of

disease on the Australian Economy was 80 billion AUD (Australian Institute of Health and

Welfare, 2013). Rates of obesity have doubled from 1980 to 2008 worldwide, with over 1.4

billion people considered obese (World Health Organisation, 2013). Clearly, more needs be

done to reduce the burden of disease in Australia and around the world, which would be

beneficial for humanitarian and economic reasons.

To achieve better health and well-being among their citizens, governments need to

take a proactive, rather than reactive, approach in prevention and building on the positive

physical and psychological aspects of individuals. For the purpose of this study, „well-

being‟ refers to the psychological and intangible aspects of positive mental states; and

„health‟ refers to the physical aspects of positive functioning. The World Health

Organization recommends moderate to intensive physical activity at least three times per

week for optimal health and prevention of obesity (World Health Organisation, 2011).

Regular physical activity can also prevent chronic diseases like diabetes, cancer,


hypertension, depression and osteoporosis (Warburton, Nicol, & Bredin, 2006), thereby

contributing to greater health and well-being.

Similar to the objectives of regular physical activity, psychologists are now finding

ways to build on the positive aspects of everyday individuals, helping them increase well-

being and life satisfaction instead of waiting for the onset of mental illnesses. In 1998, the

president of the American Psychological Society (APA) introduced the term „positive

psychology‟, which lends itself to the study of happiness, well-being, high functioning and

human flourishing. Since then, there has been a large number of studies devoted to the

concept, including papers authored by Fredrickson (2001), Howell (2009) and Seligman,

Steen, Park, and Peterson (2005). Eight related journals have been established between the

years 2000 and 2011, including Journal of Positive Psychology, International Journal of

Wellbeing, Applied Research in Quality of Life etc. The vast amount of research has

covered many topics and ideas in which several general agreements have been reached.

First, well-being can be measured subjectively through personal feelings reported by an

individual as well as objectively through observations made by a third party. Second, well-

being is best captured as a multidimensional construct including both hedonic and

eudaimonic values. Third, well-being can be studied on many different levels, such as the

group level (civic virtues that move individuals toward better citizenship), the individual

level (positive individual traits like courage and perseverence), subjective level (subjective

experiences like contentment and satisfaction) and contextual (in the workplace or family

contexts).

Positive psychology has already been applied to the context of the workplace,

education, nursing, the army, as well as the promotion of public health to improve people‟s

lives (Aspinwall & Tedeschi, 2010; Cherubini, 2009; Cornum, Matthews, & Seligman,


2011; Froman, 2010; Kobau et al., 2011; Seligman, Ernst, Gillham, Reivich, & Linkins,

2009). These applications reflect the importance of proactive rather than reactive

approaches to increase well-being. In other words, the focus needs to be place on improving

well-being. Existing research suggest that physical activity produces positive moods,

reduces levels of anxiety, increases self-concept, improves perceived health and promotes

social integration (Biddle, Boutcher, & Fox, 2000). The importance of physical activity in

positive psychology is well documented, and a thorough understanding of this knowledge

allows practitioners and governments to design strategies to optimise health and well-being.

However, well-being in the context of physical activity has been sporadically

studied and loosely defined. Measurements of self-esteem, positive and negative emotions,

levels of stress, vitality, interest, depression, life satisfaction have all been used as

operational definitions of well-being (Biddle, 1996; Lundqvist, 2011). Furthermore,

researchers have not distinguished between sport and exercise as distinct physical activities.

This research extends positive psychology to the context of physical activity by

defining the various dimensions of well-being in physical activity and examining the

contribution of these dimensions to life satisfaction among regular sport and exercise

participants. Well-being is conceptualised using Seligman‟s (2011) well-being theory,

stating that increases in five dimensions of well-being—the frequency of positive emotions,

the intensity of engagement, the support of positive relationships, the sense of meaning, and

accomplishment—results in an increase in human flourishing. In addition, distinctions will

be made between sport participation and exercise participation, allowing practical advice to

be made for practitioners on which dimensions of well-being in their physical activity can

be leveraged. The results will also help governments design strategies to promote well-

being through physical activity.


Purpose Statement

The purpose of this study is to examine which of Seligman‟s (2011) five dimensions

of well-being—Positive emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning and

Accomplishment—in sport and exercise contribute to life satisfaction among regular

physical activity participants on the Gold Coast. Comparisons will be made between

participation in sport and participation in exercise. This study extends positive psychology

to the context of physical activity and provides definitions to various dimensions of well-

being in physical activity, and investigates the possible differences between sport and

exercise in their contribution to life satisfaction. The findings will help practitioners and

governments promote well-being through leveraging specific dimensions of well-being in

physical activity.

Research Questions

This research looks at the contributions of five dimensions of well-being in the

context of two types of physical activities to life satisfaction, which leads to the following

three main research questions that guide the course of this study:

Research question 1: Do Positive emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning

and Accomplishment in the context of sport contribute to life satisfaction?


and Accomplishment in the context of exercise contribute to life satisfaction?

Research question 3: Do the contributions of Positive emotions, Engagement,

Relationships, Meaning and Accomplishment to life satisfaction differ between sport and

exercise contexts?


Research Methos and Context

To answer the research questions presented above, this research used a quantitative,

non-experimental approach to gather data on participants in various physical activities on

the Gold Coast. A questionnaire was developed through modifying the items in a

measurement of Seligman‟s five dimensions of well-being (Butler & Kern, in preparation)

and adopting it to the physical activity context. A paper and an online version of the

questionnaire were distributed at 12 locations over a 3-week period. The data collection

process is detailed in the Methods section of this document.

Respondents to the paper questionnaire were recruited through Griffith University

sporting clubs, the Gold Coast City Council Active and Healthy program, Griffith

University on-campus gymnasium, Runaway Bay Sports Super Centre, and Griffith Dental

Clinic. The online version of the questionnaire was emailed to members of the Griffith

Rowing club. In addressing the research questions, participants were asked to self-identify

with either sport or exercise participation and respond to the items accordingly. Data was

processed using multiple regression analysis, and the results were compared between sport

and exercise participation.

Outline of Document

The next chapter reviews the relevant literature in positive psychology and physical

activity, which provides readers with necessary background information for this research.

Chapter 3 details the method used in this study, including research design, questionnaire

development, target participants, recruitment of participants and techniques used to analyse

data. Chapter 4 presents the results of the analysis, and Chapter 5 discusses the main

findings, theoretical and practical implications, limitations and future directions of this

study. Next, research in positive psychology, physical activity, and well-being are reviewed.


Chapter 2: Literature Review

Positive Psychology and Well-being

Positive psychology is the recent movement of Psychology oriented towards

optimising the human living experience beyond the elimination of mental illnesses. While

traditional psychology focuses on recognising and treating mental malfunctions such as

depression, anxiety, and personality disorders, positive psychologists aims to increase well-

being, achieve and maintain human flourishing, and help people to live a good life above

and beyond the absence of psychological disorders (Seligman, Linley, Joseph, & Boniwell,

2003). Positive psychology aims at being relevant and applicable to everyday individuals

rather than only to the diagnosed populations. Although only recently recognised officially

as a sub-discipline within the American Psychological Association (APA) (Seligman &

Csikszentmihalyi, 2000), Positive Psychology benefits from a rich history in the study of

well-being.

The first documented investigations of well-being were initiated by ancient Greek

philosophers in their search of what humans ultimately pursue in life. The view that all

humans pursue happiness—the desire to experience pleasure and avoid pain—was

attributed to Aristippus as the father of hedonism (Ryan & Deci, 2001; Waterman, 1993).

Aristotle, on the other hand, held the belief that doing what is worth doing and fulfilling the

proper human function is the goal in life and leads to well-being, which gave rise to

eudaimonism (Ryan & Deci, 2001; Waterman, 1993). The two traditions of well-being

evolved separately over time, with modifications and expansions of definitions (Huppert &

So, 2013). In general, studies in the hedonic tradition have used the terms happiness,

subjective well-being and life satisfaction; while those concerning the eudaimonic tradition

preferred to use the terms social well-being and human flourishing (Dodge, Daly, Huyton,


& Sanders, 2012; Keyes, 1998; McDowell, 2010; Seligman, 2011). Next, the developments

of both traditions are presented.

Hedonic well-being. Early scientific studies of happiness attempted to discover the

causes and correlates of happiness. It was found that income, social status and physical

health were insufficient to explain the variations in subjective experiences of happiness,

instead personality emerged as a strong predictor (Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999).

Extroverts tended to be happier than introverts and people high on neuroticism while

longitudinal studies found that even significant life events such as winning the lottery or

losing a limb only temporarily affect people‟s happiness (Brickman, Coates, & Janoff-

Bulman, 1978). This led scientists to believe in the hedonic treadmill theory, and any effort

made to increase happiness will always be overridden by the individual‟s inherit trait.

However, the hope to increase hedonic well-being was reignited when Diener, Lucas, and

Scollon (2006) shed light on a new perspective, collaborating evidence that happiness set

points are not neutral, only partially dependent on temperament, and can change under

certain circumstances.

The nature of happiness in the hedonic tradition also evolved from a focus on

affective states to the inclusion of a cognitive component. Bradburn (1969) proposed that

happiness has two dimensions—positive and negative affect—and that it is the balance of

these dimensions that constitutes happiness. Following this stream of thought, Diener (1984)

initiated the use of the term „subjective well-being‟, which included an emotional (or

affective) and a cognitive (or judgemental) component. The additional cognitive component

was termed life satisfaction, or the evaluation of one‟s life as a whole according to his/her

own criteria. Subjective well-being has since been extensively researched, including its

association with cultural factors, thought processes, adaptation to events, refinements of


measurements and definitions, as well as the causes and effects on a variety of variables

(Diener, 2000). Recent advances in the field have expanded subjective well-being to

include both hedonic and eudaimonic conceptions (Diener, Wirtz, Tov, Kim-prieto, Choi,

& Oishi, 2010), which led to the necessity of understanding eudaimonic well-being.

Eudaimonic well-being. The eudaimonic tradition of well-being was first made by

Jahoda (1958) by analysing and summarising clinical and sociological theories on what a

healthy person should be. Jahoda identified six key elements of positive functioning:

„attitude of an individual toward his own self‟, „autonomy‟, „environmental mastery‟,

„integration‟, „perception of reality‟ and „self actualisation‟. Around the same time, Rogers

(1963) arrived at similar conclusions through rethinking the end-product of client-centred

therapy. The result, which he called the „fully functioning person‟, is someone able to fulfil

his potential as a human organism, who is realistic, self-enhancing, able to socialise

adequately and creative. Perhaps influenced by both the aforementioned theorists, Ryff

(1989) proposed six dimensions of psychological well-being: autonomy, environmental

mastery, personal growth, positive relationships, purpose in life and self-acceptance. For

Csikszentmihalyi (1990), well-being is the outcome of an optimal experience called flow,

characterised by intense concentration on the present, merging of action and awareness,

loss of self-consciousness, sense of personal control, distortion of temporal perception, and

experience of the activity as intrinsically rewarding. Another point of view was derived

from needs theory, with Ryan and Deci (2001) specifying that well-being is achieved

through satisfying innate human needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Together,

these researchers in eudemonic well-being have provided a strong basis for the current

multidimensional view of well-being in Positive Psychology.


Well-being is multidimensional. Despite the independent developments of hedonic

and eudaimonic traditions of well-being, influential theories in the twenty-first century have

come to the conclusion that both perspectives need to be included to create a

multidimensional perspective. For example, Keyes‟ (2002) measure included six

dimensions of eudaimonic well-being, a hedonic well-being (life satisfaction), and another

five dimensions of social well-being. Another example is the Authentic Happiness theory,

stating that happiness can be achieved through obtaining aesthetic pleasure, being engaged

in activities, and meaning in life (Seligman, 2002). The theory was later revised because of

a need to include a broader concept of well-being, therefore the new Well-Being Theory

recognises the pursuit of positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning and

accomplishment as pathways to human flourishing (Seligman, 2011). Huppert and So

(2013) examined national data across 23 European countries and developed an operational

definition for flourishing, which encompasses many key features mentioned in previous

theories of well-being. They concluded that in order to be qualified as flourishing, a person

had to experience positive emotions together with four of the five positive characteristics

(emotional stability, vitality, optimism, resilience and self-esteem) and three of the four

aspects of positive functioning (engagement, competence, meaning, positive relationships).

These advances show the multidimensionality in developing practical and worldwide

measures of well-being.

The above literature highlights the development of key concepts in positive

psychology from which a few important conclusions can be drawn. Agreements are being

reached that well-being is multidimensional and a collection of measures using subjective

and objective methods are required to capture the construct (Forgeard et al., 2011; Huppert

& So, 2013). Subjective well-being is limited to the self-perceptions of well-being and


measured exclusively using self-rated measures. Apart from the multidimensionality, some

theorists also emphasise the importance of assessing well-being on a global and contextual

level, or specific domains of individuals‟ lives (Diener et al., 1999; Wilson, Longley, Muon,

Rodgers, & Murray, 2007). Global well-being is the overall summary from all aspects of

the individual‟s life, often termed life satisfaction. In comparison, contextual well-being

refers to well-being in certain, important contexts of the individual‟s life, such as the

workplace or family environment. Studying contextual well-being can provide the ways in

which global well-being can be optimised (Diener et al., 1999). The current research is

focussed on the dimensions of subjective well-being within the context of regular physical

activity and their contributions to life satisfaction utilising well-being theory.

Well-Being Theory and the PERMA Elements

Well-being theory is a multidimensional theory designed to provide detail into the

different aspects of flourishing. As supported by recent research, well-being or flourishing

involves both doing and feeling good, which invites a multidimensional approach

(Forgeard et al., 2011; Huppert & So, 2013). Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000)

proposed that well-being operates on subjective, individual and group levels. The

subjective level includes the experience of happiness, satisfaction and self-perceived well-

being; the individual level comprises the expression of positive traits such as love,

perseverance and forgiveness; the group level involves the execution of responsibility,

altruism and civility. Well-being theory is aimed at the individual level in that each of the

five elements directly contributes to well-being and was chosen by individuals for their

intrinsic values. For an illustration of how well-being theory is derived, see Figure 1.1. The

outlook for this theory is to provide a dashboard view of well-being and create profiles for

individuals to assist in their pursuit of flourishing (Seligman, 2011). Five dimensions, or


elements, make the basis of well-being theory: Positive emotions, Engagement,

Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment (PERMA). In order to apply well-being

theory in this study, it is essential to first understand what each element represents. Below

is a brief introduction to the five PERMA elements, beginning with the first element,

Positive emotions, which form the basis of happiness and gave rise to an important aspect

of subjective well-being.

Figure 1.1 The origins of well-being theory


Positive emotions. As an element with an extended history in philosophy,

experiencing positive emotions is seen as equivalent to happiness in the hedonic tradition of

well-being (Diener, Larsen, Levine, & Emmons, 1985). The hedonic tradition states that

happiness constitutes wholly of pleasure, or the feel-good factor, that can be either

momentary or longer-lasting, as opposed to the eudaimonic tradition which emphasised the

importance of striving for one‟s potential to achieve optimal well-being (Ryan & Deci,

2001). Emotions are different from mood and affect in their duration, origin and

classification (Alpert & Rosen, 1990; Diener, Smith, & Fujita, 1995). Moods tend to be

longer lasting and usually of unknown origin, whereas emotions and affect are shorter and

have a clear cause (Diener et al., 1995). Mood and affect can be classified along two

dimensions: valence (sometimes called hedonic tone or pleasantness) and intensity (or

arousal) (Diener, Larsen, et al., 1985). Emotions can also be classified into these

dimensions yet it is more common to refer to their type, such as joy, anger, sadness and

excitement (Alpert & Rosen, 1990). Research has found that positive and negative

emotions are not mere opposite ends of a spectrum; instead they are distinct dimensions

possibly using different physiological mechanisms (Fredrickson, 2001). The Positive and

Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) and the Scale of

Positive and Negative Experience (SPANE) (Diener, Wirtz, Tov, Kim-prieto, Choi, Oishi,

et al., 2010) have been developed and used as markers of subjective well-being across a

variety of contexts (Deniz & Işik, 2010; Herero & Extremera, 2010; Li, Bai, & Wang, 2013;

Parker, Strath, & Swartz, 2008; Silva & Caetano, 2013).

The experience of positive emotions has many benefits. People who are frequently

happy have been rated by others as more likeable, more sociable, more successful, and even

more likely to go to heaven (Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, 2005). In fact, the mechanisms


of why positive emotions are central to well-being were described in Frederickson‟s (2001)

broaden-and-build theory, explaining that positive emotions broaden the attention and

prompt individuals to build on physical, intellectual, social and psychological resources.

Although the experience of positive emotions is the hallmark of happiness and life

satisfaction, well-being is not composed of positive emotions alone. Indeed, evidence

suggests that positive emotions do not correlate well with eudaimonic measures of well-

being (Huppert & So, 2013). In fact, some experiences contribute to well-being without

individuals feeling any emotions at all. This concept is termed Engagement in well-being

theory and is detailed in the following sections.

Engagement. Engagement is the state of consciousness when being involved in an

activity of interest, ranging from the mere physical participation to full concentration where

the self and activity become one (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Engagement is studied widely in

research dealing with motivation, performance and well-being, with typical definitions

varying depending on the field of study. From an organisational perspective, practitioners

and researchers have largely agreed that employee engagement embodies „attachment‟,

„commitment‟ and „organisational citizenship‟ which are key concepts that produce

behaviour directly benefiting the organisation (Robertson & Cooper, 2010). In the

classroom, Fredricks, Blumenfeld, and Paris (2004) proposed three major sub-components

of school engagement, namely behavioural, emotional, and cognitive engagement. Another

form of engagement is mindfulness, which entails being aware of internal and external

processes in the present moment (Brown & Ryan, 2003).

In well-being theory and most positive psychology literature, engagement is

identified with the experience of flow proposed by Csikszentmihalyi (1990). Flow is

characterised by intrinsic interest in the activity, a clear goal and a sense of control over the


task at hand, merging of action and awareness, a loss of sense of time and complete

concentration and immersion in the experience (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). High levels of

engagement are closely related to high levels of subjective well-being (Kanste, 2011;

Robertson & Cooper, 2010), and low levels of engagement put individuals at risk of a

decrease in well-being (Frankl, 1966).

The elements introduced above (Positive emotions and Engagement) are solely

experienced by the individual and can only be measured subjectively. From here, the rest of

the elements in well-being theory (Relationships, Meaning and Accomplishment) can also

be gauged using objective or outside measures (Seligman, 2011). Engagement describes the

internal or personal experiences, whereas relationships with others focus on the external

and interpersonal activities in which the quality of interactions determines well-being.

Relationships. Having good relationships with significant others is essential to

well-being (Diener & Seligman, 2002). Quality relationships provide support and care

when one is in need, as well as a source of happiness in itself (Camfield, Choudhury, &

Devine, 2009). Even reliable and extensively tested measures of life satisfaction, married

couples were consistently found to be happier than being single or divorced (Hultell &

Gustavsson, 2007). Relationships can be viewed differently in different cultures. In Eastern

cultures, relationships are valued more than the individual, where the self is viewed as part

of the society. In the West, however, individual successes have greater value than societal

harmony (Diener & Oishi, 2005).

The crucial role of relationships in well-being cannot be overstated. Seligman (2011)

pointed out that nearly all positive experiences occur when there are others around. Some

argue that social relationships are the single most important factor in predicting well-being.

Keyes (1998) introduced social well-being as a specific form of well-being including social


integration, social contribution, social coherence, social actualisation and social acceptance.

Similarly, Ryan and Deci (2000) emphasised, in part of their self-determination theory, that

feelings of relatedness is an innate human need which promotes effective function of

individuals, groups, and society. Reis, Sheldon, Gable, Roscoe, and Ryan (2000) further

applied this theory and found that meaningful talk and feeling understood by people in the

interaction can best fulfil relatedness needs on a daily basis. Concepts similar to

relationships, social integration, psychosocial health and the like have been included in

major theories exploring happiness and well-being (Huppert & So, 2013). The World

Health Organisation included relationships as a component in assessing quality of life

(Bonomi, Patrick, Bushnell, & Martin, 2000).

Significant relationships, such as close family and friends, can give meaning to life,

and having meaning also leads to well-being (Demir, 2010). The next element in Well-

Being Theory entails the ways that meaning contribute to well-being, introduced in the

following section.

Meaning. Meaning is the sense of direction or purpose in life. Similar to the

concept of engagement, meaning also consists of affective, behavioural and cognitive

components. Scannell, Allen, and Burton (2002) found that the affective component was

most directly associated with self-esteem and other measures of well-being. In a study of

personality and meaning in life, Schnell and Becker (2006) found that Extroversion,

Openness, and even to some degree Neuroticism predict the level of meaning. They also

noted that some measurements of meaning overlap other constructs such as happiness and

satisfaction and should be used with caution.

Meaning plays an important role in well-being. Having meaning in life is associated

with fewer incidents of depression and higher well-being (Ho, Cheung, & Cheung, 2010;


Scannell et al., 2002), whereas lack of purpose in life in turn was found to be linked with

hopelessness and depression (Joaquín, José Francisco, & Esteban, 2009; Pearson &

Sheffield, 1989). Frankl (1966) recognised meaning as the single most important trait in

Nazi survivors and gave rise to the branch of existentialism. Since meaning is a distinct but

related construct to overall well-being (King, Hicks, Krull, & Del Gaiso, 2006), the

Meaning in Life Questionnaire has been developed to assess this aspect (Steger, Frazier,

Oishi, & Kaler, 2006). For these reasons meaning was in the original „Authentic Happiness‟

theory proposed by Seligman (2002). In well-being theory, meaning in life represents

believing and serving in something greater than the self, which has both a subjective and

objective standard (Seligman, 2011). When one can live a life congruent with their values

and serving others, a sense of accomplishment may also arise. Next, the element of

Accomplishment is introduced.

Accomplishment. Accomplishment is having achieved a goal through agreed upon

standards. Another closely related construct is competence, which refers to an organism‟s

ability to function effectively in the environment (White, 1959). Achievement goal theory

and self-determination theory are often utilised in relation to studies in the fields of sport,

organisations, and education to explain and predict the process of goal attainment,

performance, motivation and well-being (Elliot & Thrash, 2001; Frederick & Ryan, 1995;

Kaplan & Maehr, 1999). Achievement goals theory identifies two types of goals, Task and

Ego, and their relationships with psychological outcomes (Elliot & Thrash, 2001). Task

goals were also referred to as mastery or learning goals, where the aim is to improve the

self according to one‟s own standards, and are associated with better concentration, coping

strategies, creativity, positive emotions and greater well-being. On the contrary, Ego goals

were also called ability or performance goals, and are related to avoidance and maladaptive


coping strategies (Elliot & Thrash, 2001). Self-determination theory also prevails in the

motivation literature, stating that well-being is enhanced through satisfying innate human

needs to strive for feelings of competence, autonomy, and relatedness, and together these

form the basis for goal setting and sense of accomplishment (Deci & Ryan, 2000). The use

of these two theories makes up the link between achievement and well-being in many

different aspects or domains of life.

As the topic of well-being receives escalating interest in empirical research, studies

on regular physical activity also shifted focus from physical health to psychological well-

being. While neither age nor income correlated significantly with well-being or health in

developed countries (Borghesi & Vercelli, 2012), physical activity, instead, had a broad

positive effect on both (Rasciute & Downward, 2010). Indeed, apart from direct health

benefits, physical activity can also induce positive moods, increase self-esteem, fulfil innate

human needs, and generate a sense of achievement (e.g. Biddle, Boutcher, & Fox, 2000;

Mutrie & Faulkner, 2004). The next section provides an understanding of the ways in

which physical activity relates to well-being.

The Effects of Regular Physical Activity on Well-Being

Physical activity can reduce incidents of cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and

cancer (World Health Organisation, 2011), also helping alleviate mental illnesses such as

stress, anxiety, depression, and cognitive functioning (Biddle & Mutrie, 2008). Regular

physical activity has been shown to have a positive effect on well-being. Biddle et al. (2000)

stated that one of the functions of physical activity is to improve psychological well-being

of the general public in order to prevent the onset of mental illnesses. Indeed, people who

exercise frequently have been shown to have less psychological issues, are better integrated

in society, and have greater perceived health (Hassmén, Koivula, & Uutela, 2000).


Evidence in the literature suggest that being physically active is better for well-being than

being sedentary (Jürgens, 2006; Ku, Fox, Chen, & Chou, 2011), for this reason it is safe to

assume that regular physical activity is an important aspect of a physically and

psychologically healthy life, and that understanding well-being in the context of regular

physical activity can thus provide ways to understand human flourishing. Therefore, this

study will use well-being theory to explore the various dimensions of well-being in the

context of regular physical activity.

Using PERMA Elements to Measure Well-Being in the Context of Physical Activity

There are three reasons for using well-being theory in the present study. First, its

multidimensional structure better captures the construct of well-being than single-

dimension measures (Forgeard et al., 2011), and can hence offer insight into the different

aspects of physical activity. Following the first reason, well-being theory is adaptable to

measure well-being in specific contexts of an individual‟s life, therefore aligning with the

purpose of this research in examining well-being in physical activity. And finally,

measuring well-being along the five PERMA dimensions can provide a dashboard view on

well-being for individuals, hence making it useful for practitioners to increase well-being

through enhancing specific elements. Next, the adaptation of well-being theory to the

context of physical activity is discussed, beginning with the experience of positive

emotions.

Positive emotions. Exercise can induce feelings of positive emotions via the

physiological system (Acevedo & Ekkekakis, 2006). The close relationship between

exercise and following experience of positive emotions has been empirically validated and

earned the term „feel-good‟ factor of exercise (Hyde, Conroy, Pincus, & Ram, 2011). Such

an effect has helped alleviate symptoms of depression and increased exercise adherence. In


sport, the role of positive emotions and their contribution to well-being is less studied;

instead literature in the field focuses on the effects of sport participation on positive

feelings and social experiences (Coalter, 2005; Gould, 2002; Wankel, 2000). This project

will thus bring a different perspective to the field and contribute to the understanding of

well-being through exploring how positive emotions are experienced in the context of sport

and exercise. Herein, Positive emotion is conceptualised as the joy, content and positive

feelings experienced during participation in regular physical activity.

Engagement. Engagement had been shown to increase well-being in both exercise

and sport. Simple exercises like walking can increase well-being more when using

engagement strategies designed to focus attention on environmental stimuli (Duvall, 2011).

On the sports field, the idea of flow is described as the optimal experience representing

well-being (Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). The current project defines Engagement as

the amount of interest, level of absorption and the degree in which one loses track of time

during their regular physical activity.

Relationships. Perhaps the greatest contributor from sport to well-being would be

the camaraderie brought on through sharing an understanding and appreciation for the game.

It has been suggested that sport may help with social integration through forming

relationships with the community (Faulkner & Taylor, 2005).The United Nations Sport for

Development and Peace embraced sport‟s ability to connect people and communities, and

potential to empower, motivate and inspire and for these reasons the department has utilised

it to promote harmony, understanding and well-being among different cultures and nations

(United Nations Sport for Development and Peace, 2008).The relationships component in

the context of exercise is less researched, nevertheless some studies indicate that having an

exercise partner increases motivation and adherence (Diehl, 2001), congruent with previous


evidence that good relationships contribute to better well-being. In the present study,

Relationships are defined as the support, caring, feelings of love, and the quality of

personal relationships amongst people in the individual’s usual physical activity

environment.

Meaning. The meaning through sport participation can also enhance well-being.

Filo, Funk, and O'Brien (2009) explored the meaning of being involved in charity sport,

from which being part of something greater than the self, alignment with self-endorsed

values, and sense of achievement emerge as three key themes. Other studies on meaning of

sport participation, however, related meaning in sport similar to motivation or a „reason‟ to

participate (Battista, 1990; Seippel, 2006). In the exercise context, some associate health

and accomplishment with exercise, while others related it with guilt and anxiety (Bulley,

Donaghy, Payne, & Mutrie, 2009). Opportunities exist for studying meaning in regular

physical activity. This research explores the role of meaning in contribution to well-being

in the regular physical activity context, therefore extending the knowledge in the field to

help better understand well-being. Meaning is conceptualised as the sense of purpose and

direction in life derived through participation in the individual’s chosen regular physical

activity, and the extent of feeling that participation is valuable and worthwhile.

Accomplishment. Experiencing accomplishment in the context of sport and

exercise are arguably one of the most important aspects of contextual well-being (Mechanic

& Hansell, 1987). The Basic Needs Satisfaction in Sport Scale (Ng, Lonsdale, & Hodge,

2011) and the Psychological Need in Exercise Scale (Wilson, Rogers, Rodgers, & Wild,

2006) have been developed separately to assess the role of accomplishment in sport and in

exercise. This research can find potential differences between the two and gain greater

insight into SWB in the context of physical activity, where Accomplishment is


conceptualised as the feelings of progress and achievement of important goals in sport or

exercise, and the ability to handle personal responsibilities through regular participation

in physical activity.

The above outline has highlighted the essence of Positive emotions, Engagement,

Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment in the context of regular physical activity,

which is then applied to the contexts of sport and exercise in this project. Naturally, well-

being may be experienced differently depending on the type of physical activity performed.

A couple of studies distinguished between two major types of physical activities—sport

and exercise—and discovered that participation in sport was associated with intrinsic

motivation and improved well-being, while exercise was related to extrinsic motivation and

poorer well-being (Chatzisarantis & Hagger, 2006; Frederick & Ryan, 1993). To date,

investigations clearly delineating and including both „sport‟ and „exercise‟ as two distinct

concepts are scarce, yet Forsyth (2008) emphasised that they are different and should be

considered separately especially in studies related to well-being. This research investigates

possible differences between „sport‟ and „exercise‟ using the definition outlined by the

Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) (2008). The next section details this definition and

provides the boundaries in which these terms are used in the present study.

Distinguishing between Sport and Exercise

The ABS (2008) defines exercise as “Any structured and/or repetitive physical

activity performed or practised where the main intention is to achieve improved physical

fitness.” And sport as “An activity involving physical exertion, skill and/or hand-eye

coordination as the primary focus, with elements of competition where rules and patterns of

behaviour governing the activity exist formally through organisations.”


Although there are some degrees of overlap between the two concepts, sport and

exercise are clearly distinguishable. Shaw, Corban, and Gorely (2005) stated that the major

differences between sport and exercise are the element of competition and degree of

institutionalisation. Brukner, Khan, and Kron (2004) also pointed out that exercise does not

necessarily involve competition and does not have rules and regulations governing the

activity.

Apart from definitional differences, sport and exercise also diverge in the

disciplines of psychology and physiology. The American Psychological Association (APA)

(Portenga, Aoyagi, Balague, Cohen, & Harmison) clarified that, while sharing the kinetic

component, sport and exercise differ in their goals, purpose and context of movement.

Exercise psychology centres around positive health outcomes, thus is a subset of health

psychology; whereas sports psychology focuses on performance excellence, therefore is a

subset of performance psychology (Portenga et al.). In the physiology discipline,

differences appear to be more hierarchical. While exercise physiology studies the changes

in human body resulting from various exercises, sport physiology further applies these

concepts to enhance athletic performance (Wilmore & Costill, 1999). These outlines

suggest that sport and exercise are distinct concepts not only because of the definitions but

also because they are studied differently in different disciplines.

As shown above, it is evident that sports and exercise are separate—although

overlapping—concepts and delineating between them is likely to help investigators and

practitioners better understand the nature of well-being across the different contexts. Hence,

this study sets out to examine the various dimensions of SWB within these two different

activities.


Well-Being in Exercise

Exercising has been shown to increase psychological well-being. Biddle et al. (2000)

summarised four functions of exercise: to prevent the onset of mental illnesses, to serve as a

treatment for mental illnesses, to improve the quality of life for the mentally ill, and

improve psychological well-being in the general population; all of which relate to positive

psychology in that prevention rather than cure is the focus (Mutrie & Faulkner, 2004).

Indeed, the most prominent effect of exercise is the prevention of depression (Mutrie, 2002)

although this effect received less support in the sporting context (McTeer & Curtis, 1993;

Mutrie & Faulkner, 2004). Exercise can also increase self-esteem, improve perceived health

and generate positive mood states, which are all predictors of subjective well-being (Biddle,

1995b; Kanning & Schlicht, 2010; Thøgersen-Ntoumani, Fox, & Ntoumanis, 2005). Mutrie

and Faulkner (2004) concluded that exercise is beneficial to well-being through increasing

both physical and mental health.

Despite the wealth of evidence purporting the positive effects of exercise on

physical and mental health, the measures of well-being used have been poor, inappropriate

or inconsistent, which has hindered the progress of exercise promotion (Biddle, 1996).

Further research in the area pointed out that well-being should be considered and measured

beyond short-term changes in emotions and include broader concepts such as how values

may be expressed through exercise participation (Bloodworth & McNamee, 2007). The

current research attempts to address this issue by providing a multidimensional measure of

well-being in the context of exercise. Sport and well-being, on the other hand, has been

studied through a slightly different approach.


Well-Being in Sport

Sport has a profound impact on both individual and societal levels of well-being and

plays an important role in society. On the individual level, sport can enhance well-being

through improved self-concept, better self-reflection and increased perceived health

(Donaldson & Ronan, 2006; Hernández, 2011; Jonker, Elferink-Gemser, & Visscher, 2010).

Sport also contributes to personal and social development (Faulkner & Taylor, 2005;

Hernández, 2011; McKenna, 2010), which is considered a crucial part of well-being

(McMahan & Renken, 2011). On the societal level, sport facilitates interpersonal

interaction and may help communities reduce social exclusion and delinquency (Mutrie &

Faulkner, 2004). Csikszentmihalyi (1990) proposed the flow theory and applied it to sport

to describe the complete absorption and optimal experience obtained during participation,

which ultimately serve as a component of subjective experiences of well-being. In fact,

Bloodworth, McNamee, and Bailey (2012) emphasised that sport is so essential to well-

being that it can be considered a human right, and many believe that the mechanisms of

sport should expand beyond the sporting arena and into everyday lives to help non-elite

individuals live to their full potential (Gould, 2002; Gustavo & Carbadillo, 2011). However,

some evidence suggests that the effect of sport on happiness is only marginal (McTeer &

Curtis, 1993; Molina-García, Castillo, & Pablos, 2007), and a conclusion has not been

reached as to whether playing a sport is essential to well-being.

Nevertheless, opportunities exist for well-being to be conceptualised within the

context of sport. Lundqvist (2011) emphasised that sport psychology should define well-

being precisely for cross-study comparisons, and that well-being should be measured both

globally (i.e. overall evaluation of life as a whole) and contextually (specific aspects of life,

e.g. work, family). The current study will address these needs through capturing overall and


contextual well-being in physical activity using the different dimensions proposed by well-

being theory.

Because the combination of global and contextual well-being is most representative

of the construct of well-being (Diener et al., 1999; Wilson et al., 2007), a global or overall

measure is needed for this study. The most extensively used overall measure for subjective

well-being is the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin,

1985) which is introduced in the following section.

Satisfaction with Life

Satisfaction with life stands for the global assessment of a person‟s life according to

his chosen criteria, and is a measure for subjective well-being. Diener (1984) identified two

distinct yet related components of subjective well-being. The affective or emotional

component is often measured with positive and negative affects; and the cognitive or

judgemental component measured with life satisfaction (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, &

Griffin, 1985). In sum, subjective well-being can be covered by using an emotional

measure along with life satisfaction measures. The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) is a

five-item measure used widely to assess the cognitive or evaluative component; its

advantages include high validity, reliability and responsiveness, and a reasonably small

number of items (Schiaffino, 2003). It has shown convergent validity from peer-rated and

clinical data, making it suitable for a wide range of ages and special applications (Pavot,

Diener, Colvin, & Sandvik, 1991). SWLS has been tested on Australian (Vella-Brodrick,

Park, & Peterson, 2009), Taiwanese (Ku et al., 2011), Swedish (Hultell & Gustavsson,

2007), Spanish (Nunez, Martin-Albo, & Dominguez, 2010) and other samples worldwide,

and the measure has been shown to not vary across cultures (Slocum-Gori, Zumbo,

Michalos, & Diener, 2009). As suggested by Pavot and Diener (1993), because individuals


have unique sets of conscious and subconscious values and assign different weight to them,

allowing the individual to make his/her own judgment of well-being creates a standardised

score for subjective well-being and stand relatively similar across age, gender and culture

(Arrindell, Heesink, & Feij, 1999; Hultell & Gustavsson, 2007; Wu, Chen, & Tsai, 2009).

Although the outcome focus for well-being theory is not exclusively subjective, due

to the scope of the present study only subjective data can be gathered. Therefore, it is

justifiable to use SWLS—a measure for subjective well-being—as the outcome variable

and to gauge overall well-being. In addition, SWLS has already been tested in the context

of physical activity (Nunez et al., 2010) and in sport (Pauperio, Corte-Real, Dias, &

Fonseca, 2012) showing good psychometric properties. Additionally, data gathered in this

study may be useful as a reference for future studies examining objective measures of well-

being.

This study examines the contribution of well-being in physical activity to global

well-being, or life satisfaction. The review of literature in psychology and physical activity

presented above lead to the three Research Questions advanced in this study:


and Accomplishment in the context of sport contribute to life satisfaction?


and Accomplishment in the context of exercise contribute to life satisfaction?

Research question 3: Do the contributions of Positive emotions, Engagement,

Relationships, Meaning and Accomplishment to life satisfaction differ between sport and

exercise contexts?


Summary

The above literature review covered the key concepts of this research project. The

rise, development and current directions of Positive Psychology are outlined. Therein, the

multidimensional nature of well-being was presented, as were the global and contextual

measurements of subjective well-being. Well-being theory was then introduced, and the

elements of Positive emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning and Accomplishment

were defined. Following that, the application of well-being theory in the context of regular

physical activity was made, and the differences between sport and exercise were detailed.

Next, the Satisfaction with Life scale was established as the outcome variable measuring

global well-being. Finally, the three research questions were stated.


Chapter 3: Method

The present study took a quantitative approach, utilising a cross-sectional, non-

experimental design with a questionnaire distributed to participants on the Gold Coast. This

method was chosen for its ability to generate a greater sample size within the limited

timeframe of this study, thus allowing better generalisation to the target population—

physically active adults on the Gold Coast—as well as observing the covariance of multiple

variables in this study (Denzin, 1978). According to Creswell (2003), qualitative methods

such as in-depth interviews and case studies are used on an emerging concept for

exploration of possible variables and explanations; quantitative methods are used when at

least one theory is in place to confirm the relationships between certain pre-determined

variables. This research utilises well-being theory and aims at finding the contributions of

five variables (PERMA) to one outcome variable (life satisfaction), therefore making a

better fit for a quantitative approach. The study also employed both paper and online

versions of the same questionnaire to obtain more responses, and literature supports this

methodology, with a few recent papers asserting that results gained from online surveys do

not significantly differ from results gained on-paper (Jäckle, Roberts, & Lynn, 2010).

Ethical Clearance

Ethical clearance for this research was obtained through Griffith University‟s Office

for Research prior to data collection. The researcher provided a detailed outline of the

following topics for approval two weeks prior to commencement of data collection: project

description, including purpose of the study, variables of interest, practical significance of

the study and target participants; qualifications, specialisations and interests of the

academic supervisor and student researcher; characteristics of target population, access and

recruitment of participants, process and presentation of informed consent; duration and


format of data collection, procedure of obtaining permission from organisations to access

participants; data analysis, storage, and uses of results.

The Office for Research then responded with a request to modify the application to

which the researcher: provided reasoning and additional support for the exclusion of minors;

ensured the procedure allowed permission to be obtained from organisations prior to

accessing their members for data collection; attached email and telephone scripts used to

contact organisations to obtain permission, as well as the script for directly approaching

participants after permission was obtained from the organisation. The timeframe for data

storage and access was specified, and the informed consent material was amended to

include procedures involved in partaking in this study. Ethical clearance was then obtained

from the Office for Research, two days before commencement of data collection.

Participants

Adults on the Gold Coast who exercise or play sport on a regular basis were

targeted for this study. The Australian Government recommended 18 to 64 year olds to

perform moderate to vigorous physical activity at least three times per week (Australian

Government, 1999), therefore only people who meet these requirements were included in

the analysis. People under the age of 18 were excluded from this study because adolescent

do not have legal rights to take full responsibility on their behalf (Peter, 2012; Spear, 2000).

Participants were mainly recruited on a voluntary basis through face-to-face

interaction with the researcher at approximately 15 locations on the Gold Coast, including

Griffith University gymnasium, Griffith Dental clinic, various swimming pools,

gymnasiums, sporting venues and fitness classes. For details on each location and the

number of responses from each location, see Appendix I. Participants were approached

only after the researcher contacted university sporting clubs, Gold Coast City Council


Active and Healthy program activities, and private fitness institutions. Participants from

Griffith Rowing Club were directly contacted by their organisation via an email containing

a link to the online version of the questionnaire. The sample closely resembled the

population on the Gold Coast (Gold Coast City Council, 2012). There were 132 males and

183 females aged between 18 and 81 participating in this study. The mean age of the

sample was 33 years, with 55% under the age of 30. Thirty percent were married, 46%

were single, 8% were divorced and 16% indicated „others‟. Eighty-nine percent of the

sample holds at least a Bachelor degree or equivalent level of education; and 61% wrote

„Australian‟ as their nationality.

Questionnaire Design

The questionnaire was designed in three parts: (a) three items to screen frequency of

physical activity and whether the activity was perceived as exercise or sport; (b) 15 items to

gauge contextual well-being along the five dimensions (PERMA) and one item on general

satisfaction about physical activity participation; and (c) the five-item Satisfaction with Life

Scale. These parts are detailed below.

Frequency of physical activity and distinction between sport and exercise. The

first item on the questionnaire asks for frequency of physical activity and serves as a filter

to screen out sedentary respondents. To distinguish between exercise and sport, this study

utilised a self-identification approach. Definitions of „exercise‟ (i.e. Any structured and/or

repetitive physical activity performed or practiced where the main intention is to achieve

improved physical fitness) and „sport‟ (i.e. An activity involving physical exertion, skill

and/or hand/eye coordination as the primary focus, with elements of competition where

rules and patterns of behaviour governing the activity exist formally through organisations)

were given, and respondents were asked to select the one that best describes their main


physical activity. The self-identification approach was selected because, according to the

definitions of ABS (2008), some activity may be considered both an exercise and sport and

the difference is best judged by the individual themselves rather than by a third party. This

method has been used in previous studies for categorising groups with complex distinctions

(Warber & Emmers-Sommer, 2012; Young, 2006).

Well-being in physical activity scale. The 16 items measuring contextual well-

being were adapted from the PERMA-P Questionnaire by Butler and Kern (in preparation)

(See Appendix II). Butler and Kern used a large pilot sample gathered through the

Authentic Happiness website (http://www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu) and with

analysis, narrowed over 100 items down to 16 items measuring general well-being along

the five dimensions of interest (Positive emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning

and Accomplishment). The PERMA-P Questionnaire was obtained after visiting the

Authentic Happiness website—which only contained the pilot questionnaire—and finding

the contact details of Dr. Margaret Kern. The researcher emailed Dr. Kern to seek

permission to select some of their pilot questionnaire items for the current study. Dr. Kern

subsequently replied with the 16-item measure along with permission to modify and use it

in this study.

In adopting the PERMA-P Questionnaire for this study, the researcher brainstormed

ideas to modify each item with a researcher in sport management. It was noted that many

items contained a common stem (In general, …) which can be easily modified to specify

contextual well-being (When participating in regular physical activity, …). For example,

item P2 was changed from In general, how often do you feel joyful? to While participating

in your exercise/sport, how often do you feel joyful? The same stem was then used to apply

to items without the stem, such as item R1 To what extent do you receive help and support

http://www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu/


from others when you need it? which was amended to When participating in your

exercise/sport, to what extent do you receive help and support from others when you need it?

It was also observed that Butler and Kern used three types of anchors (never-always, not at

all-completely, and none of the time-all of the time) and responses were recorded on 10-

point Likert scales. The anchors and 10-point Likert scales were kept the same for each

item to form the initial questionnaire. Next, the initial questionnaire was piloted to check if

further modifications were needed.

Pilot Questionnaire

After initial design of the questionnaire, it was then piloted using the paper version

with 30 participants including university lecturers, students, and members of a martial arts

group. Verbal feedback was requested from 20 participants and taken into account to

construct the final questionnaire. An issue repeatedly raised by the participants was that it

was difficult to understand whether items measuring well-being were aimed at exercise or

sport because many people participated in both types of activities. Improvements made to

this issue were centred on emphasising the focus of items and avoided using ‘exercise’ and

‘sport’ in the same sentence, which resulted in:

1) Replacing ‘Please read the following questions and answer by marking a circle

on the scale below.’ with ‘Please answer the following questions in relation to

your main physical activity ONLY. Do not include other activities you may do.’

2) Changing the beginning of questions ‘While participating in your

exercise/sport, …’ to ‘While participating in your main physical activity, …’

Another suggestion was changing the first item on the questionnaire (frequency of

physical activity) such that it became a continuous scale rather than a dichotomy to increase

richness of the data and possible follow-up comparisons. Therefore, the item was changed


from ‘Do you regularly participate in physical activities, 3 or more times per week? Yes/No’

to ‘On average, how often do you exercise or play sport? _____ times per week.’

A similar concept was proposed with determining the main physical activity. Many

people perform more than one type of physical activity on a regular basis, therefore it was

suggested asking respondents to list out each physical activity and their frequency before

selecting one as their main physical activity. While this suggestion was plausible, changes

were not made to this item because it would have lengthened the time to complete the

questionnaire and therefore potentially compromising the sample size of this study. The

third feedback given on the pilot questionnaire, however, helped to correct the

typographical error made with the Life Satisfaction scales (both ends appeared to be

Strongly Disagree),

For the other 10 participants completing the pilot questionnaire, feedback was not

requested and the participants were simply observed for signs of pausing, changing answers,

and skipping items. Even without prompting, some participants requested the researcher to

clarify item A2 (While participating in your exercise/sport, how much of the time are you

able to handle your responsibilities?). Five participants looked particularly confused when

responding to item E1 (While participating in your exercise/sport, to what extent do you

feel particularly excited or interested in things?), and one skipped the item altogether. The

third issue was that participants took eight minutes on average to respond to the whole

questionnaire. Three changes were made in response to the above observations:

1) Since „handling responsibilities‟ usually requires the individual to perform a

task in completion of their role (e.g. in a job or as a mother), and often such a

task cannot be performed simultaneously with their regular physical activity,

item A2 was modified to reflect the frequency of exercise/sport participation


being helpful in handling responsibilities (How much of the time are you able to

handle your responsibilities through participating in your main physical

activity?).

2) It was unclear whether item E1 was referring to interest in things in general—

which has a very large scope—or interest in the physical activity. This item was

meant to measure degree of engagement, and since engagement requires the

focus of attention to the present task at hand (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990), item E1

was adjusted to specify the physical activity as the activity of interest (While

participating in your main physical activity, how much of the time do you

become excited or interested in the activity you are doing?).

3) Grouping those items which employed the same anchors (i.e. not at all-

completely) together to minimise confusion and reduce response time.

General well-being was gauged using Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) (Diener,

1984). Past studies have shown the instrument to be reliable and consistent across age and

gender. Because of this robust property, the SWLS was selected to measure the outcome

variable of this study to suit the diversity in age and gender. For the final version of the

questionnaire used in this study, see Appendix III.

Questionnaire Distribution

The questionnaire was distributed through making contact with sporting, exercise

and fitness organisations on the Gold Coast. These organisations included: Griffith

University‟s sporting clubs, university gym, and Griffith Dental Clinic; the Gold Coast City

Council‟s Active and Healthy program activities; and private sporting/fitness centres.

Permission was sought from each organisation before questionnaires were distributed. Two

versions of the questionnaire were created, one on paper and one online through the


Qualtrics platform. The majority of the questionnaire was distributed via the paper version

through speaking to members of the organisation or participants in the activity, directly

before or after the activity was performed. However, two organisations (Griffith Rowing

and the Brahma Kumaris Centre) preferred to email their members about the research rather

than having the researcher on site. In both cases the researcher sent an email that contained

a link to the online questionnaire to the organisation, and then the organisation forwarded

the email to their members. The online version was not offered when making contact with

organisations unless the activity was held at a time and place such that it was not possible

for the researcher to travel to, or was specifically requested by the organisation.

Contact details for Griffith University sporting clubs were found online, and the

researcher reached out to individual club presidents for permission to gather data on their

members. For the badminton club, the president encouraged data to be collected during

weekly training sessions; therefore the researcher visited the club at those times, twice in a

three-week period, and handed out the questionnaires to members who were interested in

participating. A similar situation occurred with the tennis club, except permission was

obtained on the day. The researcher was physically present at the tennis courts and

distributed questionnaires to members while they were waiting for their turn. Griffith

University‟s rugby union team president referred the researcher to their training facility on

specific training days. The researcher was present at the site twice in a fortnight and

distributed the questionnaire to players before training commenced. For the basketball team,

the researcher was present at the site twice within the same week, once for collection of the

men‟s team and another for the women‟s team. The questionnaire was distributed after

training for the men‟s team, and during first part of the training for the women‟s team. The

volleyball team coach was contacted and questionnaires were distributed by the researcher


before the training session. The president of the rowing club indicated that the online

version would be the preferred method of distributing the questionnaire, therefore the

researcher emailed the questionnaire link to administration and then that email was

forwarded to all rowing club members.

The Uni Gym was located on the Griffith University Gold Coast campus. The

researcher sought verbal permission from the manager before commencing data collection.

A table was set up near the entrance for one day, and the researcher approached members

as they were entering or exiting the gym soliciting their interest in participating. A table

was also set up at Griffith Dental Clinic, where patients freely participated in the study

whilst waiting for their appointments. The researcher did not make a physical appearance at

the Griffith Dental Clinic to monitor while the questionnaires were completed.

The Gold Coast City Council‟s Active and Healthy Officer also agreed to take part

in the study by notifying activity instructors about questionnaire distribution. The

researcher attended Aqua fit, Deep water running, Stoller group, Pilates and Zumba classes

over a two week period, and asked for participants of the classes to voluntarily fill out a

questionnaire either before or after the class. Responses were collected immediately at the

venue.

A general manager at The Sports Super Centre was contacted and agreed to help

distribute the questionnaire. The Sport Super Centre is a sporting and exercise facility

catering to elite athletes as well as to the general public for performance or active lifestyle

needs. The centre holds regular fitness activities such as spin, yoga, deep water running for

members and athletes. Questionnaires were distributed to participants in fitness classes, and

they were also available at the reception area for members to complete. Some members


completed the questionnaire on the spot, while others filled them out in their spare time and

returned them at their next visit.

Data Analysis

The data were handled in three stages. First, responses from the paper questionnaire

were carefully entered into Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS version 20)

while the online version was directly exported from the Qualtrics platform. All data were

collated into an SPSS file and then screened for incomplete data, outliers and entry errors.

Descriptive statistics including means and standard deviations were generated. Cronbach‟s

alpha was then computed for each PERMA element to check and adjust for scale reliability.

Second, the data were split into two groups (sport or exercise) and a multiple regression

analysis was performed for each group to address Research Questions 1 and 2. Regression

analysis calculates the amount of variability in the dependent variable (i.e. satisfaction with

life) that is linearly related to variability in the independent variables (i.e. the five PERMA

elements). Multiple regression analysis was used because there is more than one

independent variable in this study (Pedhazur & Kerlinger, 1982). Third, a comparison of

the beta coefficients in each regression model was made to address Research Question 3

regarding the differences between the contributions of the PERMA dimensions to life

satisfaction.


Chapter 4: Results

The results of data analysis are presented in the following order. First criteria to

which individual cases were excluded, descriptive statistics, and corrections for reliability

of scales are detailed. Second, the results of regression analysis for each group (sport and

exercise) are shown, as well as the actions taken in response to violation of regression

assumptions. Third, the comparison between the results of the regression analyses is made.

Data Clean-up and Group Characteristics

Approximately eight out of 10 people that the researcher approached completed the

questionnaire. However, the response rate was unknown for data gathered in the Sport

Super Centre and Griffith Dental Clinic because the researcher was not present at the venue.

In addition, an email containing the link to the questionnaire was sent to 61 potential

participants, out of which 45 responses were recorded. Combining the paper and online

questionnaires, 338 responses were entered or imported into SPSS. Twenty-two cases were

deleted from the dataset due to over half of the questionnaire being unanswered, or the

respondent did not make a selection between sport and exercise. An additional two cases

were removed because respondents were under the age of 18. In the remaining sample, 57

performed physical activity twice per week or less, and were therefore excluded from this

study, giving a total of 257 (76%) usable data.

Two groups were formed on the basis of the respondents‟ main physical activity.

The exercise group (N=174) contained 57 males and 114 females, with 40% of those under

30 years of age. Thirty-nine percent were married, 10% were divorced, and 33% were

single. For the sport group (N=83), the number of males and females were 58 and 25,

respectively, and 81% were under 30 years of age. The percentage of participants that were

married (15%) and divorced (5%) was less than that of the exercise group yet more


indicated they were single (68%). For both groups, similar proportion of participants

having completed a Bachelor‟s degree was evident (88% for exercise and 89% for sport).

Descriptives Statistics and Reliability of Scales

The means, standard deviations and Cronbach‟s alpha were calculated for PERMA

scales and SWLS. All but one scale presented sufficient reliability (α ranging from .730

to .811) (Bernardi, 1994). The Relationships scale, however, was not reliable (α = .452).

Further inspection of the data suggested that the removal of item R1 would result in an

increase in Cronbach‟s alpha (to .596), therefore this action was taken to correct for the

insufficient reliability in the Relationships scale. The means, standard deviations,

correlations and Cronbach‟s alpha of each variable are presented Table 3.1.

Table 3.1

Correlations, Means, Standard Deviations and Reliability Measures for Well-Being in

Physical Activity and Life Satisfaction

Constructb

1 2 3 4 5 6 M SD Cronbach’s

Alpha

1. POS 1 8.39 1.34 .825

2. ENG .516* 1 7.93 1.68 .807

3. RELa

.402* .608* 1 7.87 1.59 .596

4. MNG .452* .539* .620* 1 8.37 1.28 .730

5. ACC .490* .746* .504* .627* 1 7.84 1.50 .809

6. SWLS .231* .272* .402* .452* .319* 1 5.32 1.12 .881

* Correlation are significant at p < .05

a The Relationships Scale was corrected for a higher Cronbach‟s Alpha

bPOS, Positive emotions; ENG, Engagement; REL, Relationships; MNG, Meaning; ACC,

Accomplishment; SWLS, Satisfaction with Life Scale.


Regression Analysis

Distribution of variable and assumptions of the analysis. Inspections of

normality in the independent variables (PERMA) were first made with both visual

techniques and statistical tests. Histogram and normality probability plots showed severe

negative skews, and the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test indicated that the distribution of all

variables deviate significantly from the normal distribution. According to Conlon (2004),

non-normal variables need to be addressed in order for the results of the regression analysis

to be valid, and variables with severe negative skews are best transformed with a reflected

square root. Thus, data for contextual well-being (PERMA) were first reflected by

subtracting variable means from 11 to inverse the skew, and then each new value was

square rooted to correct for normality. In doing so, some of the variables became normal

according to the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, and the histogram and normal probability plots

showed a greater resemblance to the normal distribution. For the results of visual and

statistical tests of the normality of PERMA variables before and after the transformation,

see Appendix IV. Due to the type of transformation performed in the analysis, negative beta

coefficients represent a positive correlation with the dependent variable (SWLS).

Exercise participation. Results from the multiple regression analysis performed

with the transformed variables revealed that Relationships (β = .21) and Meaning (β = .28)

were the only significant contributors to Life Satisfaction. The model accounted for 18% of

the total variance in Life Satisfaction, F(5, 166) = 8.26, p < .05. The results of the

regression analysis for the exercise group are presented in Table 3.2.


Table 3.2

Exercise Participation: Summary of Multiple Regression Analysis for Contextual Well-

Being Predicting Life Satisfaction (N=174)

Constructa

B SE B β

Positive emotions .061 .294 .021

Engagement .351 .308 .129

Relationships -.537 .271 -.206*

Meaning -.911 .343 -.280*

Accomplishment -.399 .341 -.128

a Constructs used in the regression have been transformed to meet normality assumptions

* p < .05.

Notes: R2

= .18

Sport participation. A separate multiple regression analysis was run for the sport

group. Results indicated that both Meaning (β = -.37) and Relationships (β = -.27)

contributed significantly to Life Satisfaction. Together the linear model accounted for 28%

of total variance in Life Satisfaction, F(5, 77) = 7.28, p < .05. The results of the regression

analysis are presented in Table 3.3.

Comparisons of Regression Models

In addressing Research Question 3, a comparison of the model fit and beta

coefficients were made between exercise and sport participants. The comparison showed

that Relationships and Meaning contribute significantly to Life Satisfaction in both exercise

and sport. However, both beta coefficients were higher in sport. In addition, the regression

model was a better fit for sport participants, accounted for 10% more variance than it did in

the exercise group. The relative beta coefficients for both groups are presented in Table 3.4.


Table 3.3

Sport Participation: Summary of Multiple Regression Analysis for Contextual Well-Being

Predicting Life Satisfaction (N=83)

Constructa

B SE B β

Positive emotions -.127 .260 -.050

Engagement .193 .361 .099

Relationships -.603 .303 -.270*

Meaning -.886 .316 -.369*

Accomplishment -.132 .355 -.063


* p < .05

Notes: R2

= .28

Table 3.4

Comparison of Multiple Linear Regression Results for Exercise and Sport Participation

Constructa

Exercise participation Beta Sport Participation Beta

Positive emotions .021 -.050

Engagement .129 .099

Relationships -.206* -.270*

Meaning -.280* -.369*

Accomplishment -.128 -.063


* p < .05


The above chapter detailed the statistical techniques used to address the three

research questions in this study, and the results of the analyses were presented. In the next

chapter, the theoretical and practical implication of these results along with limitations and

future directions for the study are discussed.


Chapter 5: Discussion

The purpose of this study was to examine which dimensions of well-being—

positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning and accomplishment—in the

contexts of sport and exercise contribute to life satisfaction in participants of regular

physical activity. This led to three main research questions. This chapter discusses the main

findings, theoretical and practical implications, limitations of this study as well as

suggestions for future directions.

Main Findings

The main findings of this study are as follows. First, select dimensions of well-

being in physical activity contribute to life satisfaction across both sport and exercise

contexts. For regular sport participants, relationships and meaning contribute to life

satisfaction. For regular exercise participants, relationships and meaning also contribute to

life satisfaction. Second, differences in the magnitude of contribution exist between two

contexts. Specifically, well-being in sport has a greater contribution to life satisfaction than

well-being in exercise. Third, positive emotions, engagement and accomplishment in

physical activity did not contribute to life satisfaction. Finally, the dimensions of well-

being in physical activity that contribute to life satisfaction differ slightly across marital

status and age.

Dimensions of well-being in physical activity contributed to life satisfaction.

The first research question examined which dimensions of well-being contribute to life

satisfaction among regular participants of sport, and the results revealed that relationships

and meaning in sport both contribute to life satisfaction. This study showed that people

who play sport on a regular basis are more satisfied with their lives when they have good


personal relationships and feel loved in their sporting environment. Likewise, individuals

are also more likely to be satisfied with life if their regular participation in sport is

worthwhile and valuable, gives the individual a sense of direction and is part of leading a

purposeful and meaningful life. This finding is consistent with past literature suggesting

that social relationships play a crucial role in determining self-concepts and well-being

(Jowett & Wylleman, 2006). Indeed, to play a sport, one must have an understanding of the

opponents and/or team members to play a sport, which inevitably leads to verbal or

nonverbal interpersonal interaction. The acceptance of the rules in sport makes the link

among all players, followers and spectators regardless of their socioeconomic or cultural

background. Thus sport is a powerful tool for expressing human values such as respect

among others, teamwork and fairness (United Nations Sport for Development and Peace,

2013), all of which can lead to meaning and satisfaction with life.

Chatzisarantis and Hagger (2006) discussed that relationships and meaning

constitute intrinsic life aspirations, which in turn leads to both hedonic enjoyment and

eudaimonia. Interestingly, some research demonstrated that relationships and meaning in

sport participation are often intertwined with each other. For example, Filo et al. (2009)

summarised that the emotional meaning of attachment to charity sport events represents

camaraderie, which encompasses the feeling of connection through sport and a sense of

solidarity, friendship and belonging. In fact, relationships is the most common meaning in

life among adults (Devogler & Ebersole, 1981), and having meaning in life contributes to

life satisfaction (Ho et al., 2010; Scannell et al., 2002; Vella-Brodrick et al., 2009).

With regard to the second research question, this study showed that regular exercise

participants are more likely to have greater life satisfaction if they also rated high on


relationships and meaning in exercise. Individuals who are satisfied with their personal

relationships in the exercise environment, feel loved while exercising and have a sense of

direction through exercise participation are also more satisfied with their lives than those

who do not. This finding is consistent with previous research, which stated that having an

exercise partner can increase the palatability of the exercise setting (Diehl, 2001).

The third research question investigates how the contributions of the five

dimensions of well-being in physical activity to life satisfaction differ between sport and

exercise participation. This study revealed that meaning and relationships in both sport and

exercise contribute to life satisfaction, but the contributions are greater among sport

participants. This means that the relationships and meaning in the context of sport is

associated with a greater proportion of variance than the relationships and meaning in the

context of exercise. Evidence in the literature suggest the effect sport has on bringing

people together, through common interest, understanding of the game, respect of the rules

and players, and appreciation of hard work in achieving excellence beyond the benefit of

physical fitness (Filo et al., 2009; Mutrie & Faulkner, 2004; United Nations Sport for

Development and Peace, 2013). On the contrary, literature in exercise provided minimal

evidence on relationships and meaning beyond exercise adherence and achieving better

health (Biddle, 1995a; Kanning & Schlicht, 2010; Mutrie, 2002).

Dimensions of well-being that did not contribute to life satisfaction. This study

also found that positive emotions, engagement and accomplishment in regular physical

activity did not contribute to life satisfaction. Possible reasons include the subjective nature

of positive emotions, insufficient amount of time in engagement, and setting ego-oriented

goals. Positive emotions during participation in physical activity may be associated with a


variety of events and mechanisms (Gould, 2002; Hyde et al., 2011; Wankel, 2000).

However, if positive emotions are associated with short-term events such as the reduction

of stress and anxiety, relief from guilt and changes in the neurological system, it may also

become short-lived and therefore having minimal contribution to life satisfaction (Berczik

et al., 2012).

The engagement dimension of well-being—conceptualised as the amount of interest,

level of absorption and the degree to which one loses track of time during their regular

physical activity—also did not contribute to life satisfaction among participants in this

study. This is contradictory to Csikszentmihalyi‟s (1990) flow theory, which detailed that

intense engagement leads to high levels of well-being. The reasons for engagement not

contributing to life satisfaction could be that perhaps only engagement above a certain level,

intensity, amount, duration or proportion of time will contribute to life satisfaction. Another

speculation is that the type of engagement may also affect the contribution to life

satisfaction. Fredricks et al. (2004) detailed three types of engagement commonly used in

educational settings: behavioural, emotional and cognitive. Behavioural engagement draws

on the idea of participation and involvement in activities; emotional engagement refers to

the positive and negative affects toward the individuals and organisation; cognitive

engagement entails willingness to exert the effort to comprehend complex ideas and master

difficult tasks.

The last dimension of well-being in physical activity that did not contribute toward

life satisfaction was accomplishment. According to achievement goal theory and self-

determination theory, in order to increase well-being, individuals must set goals that satisfy

at least three innate human needs: the need for competence, autonomy and relatedness


(Elliot & Thrash, 2001; Frederick & Ryan, 1995; Kaplan & Maehr, 1999). The reason that

accomplishment, as a dimension of well-being, did not contribute significantly to life

satisfaction in this study may have been due to: participants not having set goals that satisfy

one or all of these needs; a lack of self-endorsed values in the goal; compared to others‟

standards instead of their own; or the goals achieved was not attributed to their effort.

Theoretical Implications

This study demonstrated that positive psychology is applicable to the context of

physical activity. Well-being in physical activity explained a proportion of variance in life

satisfaction, thus indicating that research in this context is crucial to understanding

differences in subjective well-being.

The second theoretical implication of this study was the provision of conceptual

definitions of the various dimensions of well-being in the context of physical activity.

Previous research has called for a unified direction in measuring well-being in the context

of physical activity, which would encompass both hedonic and eudaimonic concepts

(Bloodworth & McNamee, 2007; Lundqvist, 2011). This research has defined five

dimensions of well-being in the context of physical activity, which are presented in Table

5.1.

The third theoretical implication of this study centred on the differences associated

with the type of physical activity performed, namely sport and exercise. Sport and exercise

operate differently in contributing to life satisfaction, suggesting that studies of well-being

in the context of physical activity should take care to distinguish these activities.


Table 5.1

Definitions of Five Dimensions of Well-Being in the Context of Physical Activity

Dimension of

well-being

Definition

Positive emotions The joy, content and positive feelings experienced during

participation in regular physical activity.

Engagement The amount of interest, level of absorption and the degree in which

one loses track of time during their regular physical activity.

Relationships The support, caring, feelings of love, and the quality of personal

relationships amongst people in the individual’s usual physical

activity environment.

Meaning The sense of purpose and direction in life derived through

participation in the individual’s chosen regular physical activity, and

the extent of feeling that participation is valuable and worthwhile.

Accomplishment The feelings of progress and achievement of important goals in sport

or exercise, and the ability to handle personal responsibilities

through regular participation in physical activity.

Practical Implications

The practical implications of this study suggest that governments, practitioners and

decision-making bodies can highlight the relationships and meaning component of physical

activity to contribute to life satisfaction among people who regularly participate in exercise

or sport. Strategies for sport practitioners, exercise practitioners, and governments to

leverage relationships and meaning are presented separately in this section. Finally,

different ways to construct positive emotions, engagement and accomplishment through

physical activity are suggested.

Implications for sports practitioners. Relationships among sport participants can

be highlighted through having a half-day gathering every month for all players and families.

Faulkner and Taylor (2005) suggest that sport can facilitate social integration through


forming relationships in the community; therefore, the date of gathering is best selected on

a day when a match or tournament is played live on television, and food can be brought by

each family to share among others. During the gathering, some players can watch the game

while a variation of the sport is played to suit younger children and seniors. The sports

practitioners should encourage players and families to share their interest and use their

strengths to help each other. Another way relationships—specifically camaraderie—can be

enhanced in sport is to organise a friendship match involving players from another club or

division. Two new teams will be formed based on a random selection of players from both

clubs, and the match will be played between these new teams. The players are encouraged

to communicate among each other and come up with strategies for a better game utilising

each other‟s strengths.

Meaning in sport in this study is measured as the sense of purpose and direction in

life through sport participation. Previous research has focussed on the meaning of sport

(Battista, 1990; Bulley et al., 2009), however, this study showed that it is the meaning

through regular participation in physical activity that can contribute to life satisfaction. To

leverage meaning through sport, practitioners need to first understand what gives meaning

to life for each individual. This can be done by having a 15 to 20 minute one-on-one

appointment with each participant to discuss the answers of these questions: „What is your

purpose or meaning in life?‟ „What activities do you consider meaningful or valuable?‟

„How can participation in sport help you live by your values or achieve your purpose in

life?‟ Sport practitioners then utilise these answers to design programs that align with the

individual‟s objectives. For example, if a participant answered „Being there for my friends

and family in need‟ as their purpose in life, practitioners can make the program flexible so

that if occasion arises the individuals are able to spend time assisting their friends or


relatives. Similarly, if „Inspiring others through my personal achievements‟ is what the

individual lives by, then the program can be geared towards improvements against personal

records.

Implications for exercise practitioners. Relationships among exercise participants

can be leveraged by providing opportunities for interpersonal interactions. Diehl (2001)

concluded that having close relationships in the exercise setting can increase motivation

and adherence and decrease anxiety, therefore this study suggest that exercise facility

managers can arrange a discount from nearby cafés or food outlets if two or more members

of the facility make a purchase together. Gymnasiums can promote a „buddy workout‟

using points or prizes as incentives to encourage members to partner during their training.

Prizes can be awarded to the members who did the most workouts with the most number of

different members within a three-month period. Practitioners can also utilise exercises that

require the help, communication and understanding of each other to perform, such as

assisted stretches, synchronised movements and team games. Exercise class instructors can

welcome new participants by making an announcement to introduce them before the class

and encourage existing participants to help them.

To enhance meaning through exercise participation, suggestions are similar to that

made to sport instructors. A one-on-one session can be held for each participant to discuss

what their meaning in life is and how exercise participation can maximise that meaning.

Alternatively, exercise practitioners can host a group discussion where members take turns

telling each other what is valuable to them and how exercise facilitated or may facilitate

that value.


Implications for governments and decision-making bodies. The promotion of

regular physical activity can be done using advertising material to target the positive

relationships in physical activity as well as meaning through participation. Interviews can

be done with regular exercise and sport participants, and excerpts such as „The relationships

among my teammates really helped me through stressful times at work‟ or „Exercise was

the main reason I can play with my grandson at age 85 and experience the joy and meaning

of life‟ can be printed on pamphlets or announced on radio or television so the general

public can relate to those experiences.

Ways to construct positive emotions, engagement and accomplishment. Positive

emotions, engagement and accomplishment in physical activity did not contribute to life

satisfaction among participants in this study, suggesting that these dimensions of well-

being can be modified or enhanced in sport and exercise. Evidence in the literature, as well

as the high correlations found in this study indicated that positive emotions, engagement

and accomplishment are closely related, therefore a combined strategy—derived from

achievement goal theory and elements of flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990)—is proposed. In

the first step, practitioners can assist participants to set self-improvement goals that orient

towards gaining competence and growth (for example, „be fitter to improve my game‟ or

„lose weight prove to overcome my own challenges‟) by consulting individuals to

understand their motives, then collaborate to set specific and tangible goals in the plan (for

example, „having 80% accuracy on serves by the end of June‟ or „able to run for 25 minutes

non-stop in three weeks‟ time‟). The next step is to design programs that match the ability

of the participant by first testing to see where his or her ability is at. During training,

practitioners should provide immediate feedback on each performance, and help the

participant to learn to self-feedback (for example, watch a video of himself or herself


performing certain actions and associate that action with kinaesthetic feedback, or teach

them to use the heart rate monitor on the treadmill). According to Csikszentmihalyi (1997),

to enter the flow and enjoy the activity fully requires full immersion of attention and

gaining control of mind and body. Therefore, distractions should be discouraged (such as

watching a television or studying while on the bicycle) until one can fluently control his or

her body in each movement.

Limitations

The limitations of this study should be acknowledged. First, due to the restricted

timeframe of this study, the scales used to gauge well-being in physical activity were

modified from an unpublished source (Butler & Kern, in preparation) instead of deriving

through traditional scale development procedures. Second, there was almost double the

number of participants in exercise than participants in sport, making a large difference in

sample size between the two groups. Even though statistical corrections were made to

adjust for this difference, it would still be beneficial to have an equal number of participants

so that a fair comparison can be made. Third, the time which participants completed the

questionnaire was not controlled for. Some participants completed the questionnaire before

their physical activity session, some after, some during their break, and some completed in

their own time and returned it at the next session. The participant environment and short-

term effects of exercise on mood may have altered the results. Due to the requests by

physical activity coordinators and the amount of data needed for the timeframe of this study,

it was not possible to ask for a unified timing for data collection.


Future Directions

In response to the first limitation, better scales can be developed to specifically

measure well-being in the context of physical activity. Churchill (1979) detailed eight steps

for development of valid and reliable measures for behavioural data, starting from

specifying the domain of construct, generating sample of items, purifying the measures to

assessing scale reliability, validity and developing norms. Future scale development can

begin with conducting focus groups of regular physical activity participants and

practitioners to generate at least eight items per well-being dimension, and then use pilot

data to perform factor analysis and formula for the reliability of linear combinations

(Churchill, 1979). The measure can then be used to measure PERMA in physical activity,

corresponding to the „dashboard‟ approach proposed by Seligman (2011) and Forgeard et al.

(2011). A combination of subjective and objective measures, such as physical health and

scales rated by others, can also be made to provide additional evidence on well-being in

physical activity in order to better capture the construct (Forgeard et al., 2011).

The second recommendation for future direction is in regards to changes in well-being.

It is worth investigating whether the location and timing of questionnaire completion alter

the responses. Longitudinal studies can also be designed to see if there are changes in the

dimension of well-being in physical activity that contribute to life satisfaction, as well as

possibly causes and correlates for the change. Other factors that may determine the

dimension of well-being that contribute to life satisfaction include individual characteristics

(culture, personality, interests), the characteristics of physical activity (organised and

organised sport, group and individual exercises), the level of involvement in the activity


(recreational, competitive, years of involvement), and the interaction among these factors,

which are all potential directions for future research.

Conclusions

This study examined the contribution of various dimensions of well-being in the

context of sport and exercise participation to life satisfaction among regular physical

activity participants. Well-being theory was used to apply the five dimensions of well-being,

which are Positive emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning and Accomplishment

(PERMA). The three research questions that guided the study were

1) Do Positive emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning and Accomplishment

in the context of sport contribute to life satisfaction?

2) Do Positive emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning and Accomplishment

in the context of exercise contribute to life satisfaction?

3) Do the contributions of Positive emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning

and Accomplishment to life satisfaction differ between sport and exercise contexts?

A review of the literature formed the background for defining each PERMA

dimension, as well as the delineation of sport and exercise as two distinct activities. Data

were collected by modifying a questionnaire and distributing it to regular physical activity

participants at 13 locations on the Gold Coast, including various sporting clubs, exercise

groups and fitness facilities. Multiple regression analysis was used to interpret the data.

Results demonstrated that relationships and meaning in physical activity contribute

significantly to life satisfaction among regular sport and exercise participants. In particular,

the contributions of relationships and meaning were greater in the context of sport than in


the context of exercise. These results suggest that practitioners and governments can

design specific strategies such as family day, buddy programs, consultations and

testimonials to leverage the relationships and meaning in physical activity to promote well-

being, thus taking a proactive approach in reducing the burden of disease among

individuals and in society. This study also extends positive psychology to the context of

physical activity, suggesting that research in this context is crucial to understanding

differences in well-being, and providing a basis for measuring well-being in physical

activity. Future research can derive a reliable measure through vigorous scale development

procedures using PERMA as conceptualised in this study, and work towards providing a

dashboard approach to address the concept of well-being. It is also essential that individual

characteristics, longitudinal changes and other factors be investigated in order to validate

and further extend the results of this study.


References

Acevedo, E. O., & Ekkekakis, P. (2006). Psychobiology of physical activity. Champaign, IL:

Human Kinetics.

Alpert, M., & Rosen, A. (1990). A semantic analysis of the various ways that the terms

"affect," "emotion," and "mood" are used. Journal of Communication Disorders, 23,

237-246.

Arrindell, W. A., Heesink, J., & Feij, J. A. (1999). The Satisfaction With Life Scale

(SWLS): Appraisal with 1700 healthy young adults in The Netherlads. Personality

and Individual Differences, 26, 815-826.

Aspinwall, L. G., & Tedeschi, R. G. (2010). The value of positive psychology for health

psychology: progress and pitfalls in examining the relation of positive phenomena

to health. Annals of behavioral medicine : a publication of the Society of Behavioral

Medicine, 39(1), 4-15. doi: 10.1007/s12160-009-9153-0

Australian Government. (1999). National physical activity guidelines for adults.

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2013). How much do we spend on health?

Retrieved May 11, 2013

Battista, R. R. (1990). Personal meaning: Attraction to sports participation. Perceptual and

Motor Skills, 70(3), 1003-1009. doi: 10.2466/pms.1990.70.3.1003

Berczik, K., Szabó, A., Griffiths, M. D., Kurimay, T., Kun, B., Urbán, R., & Demetrovics,

Z. (2012). Exercise addiction: Symptoms, diagnosis, epidemiology, and etiology.

Substance use & misuse, 47(4), 403-417. doi: 10.3109/10826084.2011.639120

Bernardi, R. A. (1994). Validating research results when Cronbach's alpha is below .70: A

methodological procedure. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 54(3),

766-775. doi: 10.1177/0013164494054003023


Biddle, S. (1995a). European perspectives on exercise and sport psychology. Leeds,

England: Human Kinetics.

Biddle, S. (1995b). Exercise and psychosocial health. Research Quarterly for Exercise and

Sport, 66(4), 292-297.

Biddle, S. (1996). Embracing exercise in 'sport' psychology. Journal of Sports Sciences,

14(2), 109-110.

Biddle, S., Boutcher, S. H., & Fox, K. R. (2000). Physical activity and psychological well-

being. New York: Routledge.

Biddle, S., & Mutrie, N. (2008). Psychology of physical activity: Determinants, well-being,

and interventions. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.

Bloodworth, A., & McNamee, M. (2007). Conceptions of well-being in psychology and

exercise psychology research: A philosophical critique. Health Care Anal, 15, 107-

121. doi: 10.1007/s10728-007-0048-6

Bloodworth, A., McNamee, M., & Bailey, R. (2012). Sport, physical activity and well-

being: An objectivist account. Sport, Education and Society, 17(4), 497-514.

Bonomi, A. E., Patrick, D. L., Bushnell, D. M., & Martin, M. (2000). Validation of the

United States' version of the World Health Organization Quality of Life (WHOQOL)

instrument. Journal of clinical epidemiology, 53(1), 1-12. doi: 10.1016/s0895-

4356(99)00123-7

Borghesi, S., & Vercelli, A. (2012). Happiness and health: Two paradoxes. Journal of

Economic Surveys, 26(2), 203-233. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6419.2010.00635.x

Bradburn, N. (1969). The structure of psychological well-being. Chicago: Aldine.


Brickman, P., Coates, D., & Janoff-Bulman, R. (1978). Lottery winners and accident

victims: Is happiness relative? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36(8),

917-927.

Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its

role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,

84(4), 822-848. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.822

Brukner, P., Khan, K., & Kron, J. (2004). The encyclopedia of exercise, sport and health.

Crows Nest, N.S.W: Allen & Unwin.

Bulley, C., Donaghy, M., Payne, A., & Mutrie, N. (2009). Personal meanings, values and

feelings relating to physical activity and exercise participation in female

undergraduates: a qualitative exploration. Journal of health psychology, 14(6), 751-

760. doi: 10.1177/1359105309338896

Butler, J., & Kern, M. (in preparation). The Well-Being Theory Questionnaire.

Camfield, L., Choudhury, K., & Devine, J. (2009). Well-being, happiness and why

relationships matter: Evidence from Bangladesh. Journal of Happiness Studies, 10,

71-91. doi: 10.1007/s10902-007-9062-5

Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Hagger, M. S. (2006). The moral worth of sport reconsidered:

Contributions of recreational sport and competitive sport to life aspirations and

psychological well-being. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25(9), 1047-1056. doi:

10.1080/02640410600959954

Cherubini, J. (2009). Positive psychology and quality physical education. Journal of

Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 80(7), 1-1.

Churchill, G. A., Jr. (1979). A paradigm for developing better measures of marketing

constructs. Journal of Marketing Research, 16(1), 64.


Coalter, F. (2005). Sport, social inlcusion, and crime reduction. In G. E. J. Faulkner & A. H.

Taylor (Eds.), Exercise, health and mental health: Emerging relationships (pp. 190-

209). New York: Routledge.

Conlon, E. (2004). Issues in quantitative research workbook.

Cornum, R., Matthews, M. D., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Comprehensive soldier fitness:

Building resilience in a challenging institutional context. American Psychologist,

66(1), 4-9. doi: 10.1037/a0021420

Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method

approaches. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York:

HarperPerennial.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997). Finding flow: The psychology of engagement with everyday

life. New York: BasicBooks.

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The "what" and "why" of goal persuits: Human needs

and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227-268.

Demir, M. (2010). Close relationships and happiness among emerging adults. Journal of

Happiness Studies, 11, 293-313. doi: 10.1007/s10902-009-9141-x

Deniz, M. E., & Işik, E. (2010). Positive and negative affect, life satisfaction, and coping

with stress by attachment styles in Turkish students. Psychological Reports, 107(2),

480-490. doi: 10.2466/02.09.10.20.PR0.107.5.480-490

Denzin, N. K. (1978). The research act: A theoretical introduction to sociological methods.

New York: McGraw-Hill.

Devogler, K. L., & Ebersole, P. (1981). Adults' meaning in life. Psychological Reports,

49(1), 87-90. doi: 10.2466/pr0.1981.49.1.87


Diehl, N. S. (2001). Exercise partner preferences, social physique anxiety, and social

discomfort in exercise settings among women university wellness center patrons.

Women in Sport & Physical Activity Journal, 10(1), 89.

Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95(3), 542-575.

Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and a proposal for a

national index. American Psychologist, 55(1), 34-43. doi: 10.1037//0003-

066X.55.1.34

Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction with Life

Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71-75.

Diener, E., Larsen, R. J., Levine, S., & Emmons, R. A. (1985). Intensity and frequency:

Dimensions underlying positive and negative effect. Journal of Personality and

Social Psychology, 48(5), 1253-1265.

Diener, E., Lucas, R. E., & Scollon, C. N. (2006). Beyond the hedonic treadmill: Revisiting

the adaptation theory of well-being. American Psychologist, 61(4), 305-314. doi:

10.1037/0003-066X.61.4.305

Diener, E., & Oishi, S. (2005). The nonobvious social psychology of happiness.

Psychological Inquiry, 16(4), 162-167.

Diener, E., Sapyta, J. J., & Suh, E. (1998). Subjective well-being is essential to well-being.

Psychological Inquiry, 9(1), 33-37.

Diener, E., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Very happy people. Psychological Science, 13(1).

Diener, E., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Beyond money toward an economy of well-being.

Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 5(1-31).

Diener, E., Smith, H. L., & Fujita, F. (1995). The personality structure of affect. Journal of

Personality and Social Psychology, 69(1), 130-141.


Diener, E., Suh, E., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. L. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three

decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125(2), 276-302.

Diener, E., Wirtz, D., Tov, W., Kim-prieto, C., Choi, D.-w., & Oishi, S. (2010). New well-

being measures: Short scales to assess flourishing and positive and negative feelings.

Social Indicators Research, 97, 143-156.

Diener, E., Wirtz, D., Tov, W., Kim-prieto, C., Choi, D.-w., Oishi, S., & Biswas-Diener, R.

(2010). New well-being measures: Short scales to assess flourishing and positive

and negative feelings. Social Indicators Research, 97, 143-156. doi:

10.1007/s11205-009-9493-y

Dodge, R., Daly, A. P., Huyton, J., & Sanders, L. D. (2012). The challenge of defining

wellbeing. International Journal of Wellbeing, 2(3), 222-235. doi:

10.5502/ijw.v2i3.4

Donaldson, S. J., & Ronan, K. R. (2006). The effects of sports participation on young

adolescents' emotional well-being. Adolescence, 41, 369-389.

Duvall, J. (2011). Enhancing the benefits of outdoor walking with cognitive engagement

strategies. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 31, 27-35. doi:

10.1016/j.jenvp.2010.09.003

Elliot, A. J., & Thrash, T. M. (2001). Achievement goals and the hierarchical model of

achievement motivation. Educational Psychology Review, 13(2), 139-156.

Faulkner, G. E. J., & Taylor, A. H. (2005). Exercise, health and mental health: Emerging

relationships. New York: Routledge.

Filo, K., Funk, D. C., & O'Brien, D. (2009). The meaning behind bttachment: Exploring

camaraderie, cause, and competency at a charity sport event. Journal of Sport

Management, 23(3).


Forgeard, M. J. C., Jayawickreme, E., Kern, M., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Do the right

thing: Measuring wellbeing for public policy. International Journal of Wellbeing,

1(1), 70-106. doi: doi:10.5502/ijw.v1i1.15

Frankl, V. E. (1966). Self-transcendence as a human phenomenon. Journal of Humanistic

Psychology, 6, 97-106. doi: 10.1177/002216786600600201

Frederick, C. M., & Ryan, R. M. (1993). Differences in motivation for sport and exercise

and their relations with participation and mental health. Journal of Sport Behavior,

16(3).

Frederick, C. M., & Ryan, R. M. (1995). Self-determination in sport -- a review using

cognitive evaluation theory. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SPORT

PSYCHOLOGY, 26(1), 5-23.

Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of

the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74, 59-109. doi:

10.3102/00346543074001059

Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The

broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218-

226. doi: 10.1037//0003-066X.56.3.218

Froman, L. (2010). Positive psychology in the workplace. Journal of Adult Development,

17(2), 59-69. doi: 10.1007/s10804-009-9080-0

Gold Coast City Council. (2012). Gold Coast population statistics.

Gould, D. (2002). Sport psychology in the new millennium: The psychology of athletic

excellence and beyond. JOURNAL OF APPLIED SPORT PSYCHOLOGY, 14(3),

137-139. doi: 10.1080/10413200290103455


Gustavo, L., & Carbadillo, G. (2011). Campeones contemporáneos. ¿Modelos de salud?

Cuadernos de Psicología del Deporte, 11(2), 25-36.

Hassmén, P., Koivula, N., & Uutela, A. (2000). Physical activity and psychological well-

being: A population study in Finland. Preventative Medicine, 30, 17-25. doi:

10.1006/pmed.1999.0597

Herero, V. G., & Extremera, N. (2010). Daily life activities as mediators of the relationship

between personality variables and subjective well-being among older adults.

Personality and Individual Differences, 49(2), 124-129. doi:

10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.019

Hernández, J. G. (2011). Percepción de bienestar psicológico y competencia emocional en

niveles intermedios de la fromación deportiva en deported de combate. Revista de

Ciencias del Deporte, 7, 75-80.

Ho, M. Y., Cheung, F. M., & Cheung, S. F. (2010). The role of meaning in life and

optimism in promoting well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 48, 658-

663. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.008

Howell, A. J. (2009). Flourishing: Achievement-related correlates of students' well-being.

The Journal of Positive Psychology, 4(1), 1-13. doi: 10.1080/17439760802043459

Hultell, D., & Gustavsson, J. P. (2007). A psychmetric evaluation of the Satisfaction with

Life Scale in a Swedish nationwide sample of university students. Personality and

Individual Differences, 44, 1070-1079. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2007.10.030

Huppert, F. A., & So, T. T. C. (2013). Flourishing across Europe: Application of a new

conceptual framework for defining well-being. Social Indicators Research, 110(3),

837. doi: 10.1007/s11205-011-9966-7


Hyde, A. L., Conroy, D. E., Pincus, A. L., & Ram, N. (2011). Unpacking the feel-good

effect of free-time physical activity: between- and within-person associations with

pleasant-activated feeling states. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 33,

884-902.

Jäckle, A., Roberts, C., & Lynn, P. (2010). Assessing the effect of data collection mode on

measurement. International Statistical Review / Revue Internationale de Statistique,

78(1), 3-20.

Jackson, S. A., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1999). Flow in sports. Champaign, IL: Human

Kinetics.

Jahoda, M. (1958). Current conceptions of positive mental health. New York: Basic Booka.

Joaquín, G.-A., José Francisco, G.-P., & Esteban, P.-D. (2009). Purpose in life and

hopelessness: An empirical study. Universitas Psychologica, 8(2), 447-454.

Jonker, L., Elferink-Gemser, M. T., & Visscher, C. (2010). Differences in self-regulatory

skills among talented athletes: The significance of competitive level and type of

sport. Journal of Sport Sciences, 28(2), 901-908. doi: 10.1080/02640411003797157

Jowett, S., & Wylleman, P. (2006). Interpersonal relationships in sport and exercise settings:

Crossing the chasm. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 7(2), 119-123. doi:

10.1016/j.psychsport.2005.08.001

Jürgens, I. (2006). Práctica deportiva y percepción de calidad de vida. Revista Internacional

de Medicina y Ciencias de la Actividad Física, 6(22).

Kanning, M., & Schlicht, W. (2010). Be active and become happy: An ecological

momentary assessment of physical activity and mood. Journal of Sport and

Exercise Psychology, 32, 253-261.


Kanste, O. (2011). Work engagement, work commitment and their association with well-

being in health care. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 25, 754-761. doi:

10.1111/j.1471-6712.2011.00888.x

Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (1999). Achievement goals and student well-being.

Contemporary Educational Psychology, 24, 330-358.

Keyes, L. M. (1998). Social well-being. Social Psychology Quarterly, 61(2), 121-140.

Keyes, L. M. (2002). The mental health continuum: from languishing to flourishing in life.

Journal of health and Social Behavior, 43(2), 207-222.

King, L. A., Hicks, J. A., Krull, J. L., & Del Gaiso, A. K. (2006). Positive affect and the

experience of meaning in life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(1),

179-196. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.90.1.179

Kobau, R., Seligman, M. E. P., Peterson, C., Diener, E., Zack, M. M., Chapman, D., &

Thompson, W. (2011). Mental health promotion in public health: perspectives and

strategies from positive psychology. American journal of public health, 101(8), e1-

e9. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2010.300083

Ku, P. W., Fox, K. R., Chen, L. J., & Chou, P. (2011). Physical activity, sedentary time and

subjective well-being in Taiwanese older adults. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF

SPORT PSYCHOLOGY, 42(3), 245-262.

Li, F., Bai, X., & Wang, Y. (2013). The Scale of Positive and Negative Experience

(SPANE): Psychometric properties and normative data in a large Chinese sample.

PLOS ONE, 8(4), e61137. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0061137

Lundqvist, C. (2011). Well-being in competitive sports--the feel-good factor? A review of

conceptual considerations of well-being. International Review of Sport and Exercise

Psychology, 4(2), 109-127. doi: 10.1080/1750984X.2011.584067


Lyubomirsky, S., King, L. A., & Diener, E. (2005). The benefits of frequent positive affect:

Does happiness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131(5), 803-855. doi:

10.1037/0033-2909.131.6.803

McDowell, I. (2010). Measures of self-perceived well-being. Journal of Psychsomatic

Research, 69, 69-79. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2009.07.002

McKenna, J. (2010). Coaching sport to develop personal strengths in young people:

Perspectives from positive psychology. British Journals of Sports Medicine, 44(i53).

doi: 10.1136/bjsm.2010.078725.176

McMahan, E. A., & Renken, M. (2011). Eudaimonic conceptions of well-being, meaning in

life, and self-reported well-being: Initial test of a mediational model. Personality

and Individual Differences, 51, 589-594. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2011.05.020

McTeer, W., & Curtis, J. (1993). Sport and physical activity and subjective well being:

National panel data for the U.S. International Review for the Sociology of Sport,

28(4), 397-412. doi: 10.1177/101269029302800404

Mechanic, D., & Hansell, S. (1987). Adolescent competence, psychological well-being, and

self-assessed physical health. Journal of health and Social Behavior, 28(4), 364-374.

Molina-García, J., Castillo, I., & Pablos, C. (2007). Bienestar psicológico y práctica

deportica en universitarios. Motricidad. European Journal of Human Movement, 18,

79-91.

Morgan, B. (2010). Sport, wholehearted engagement and the good life. Sport, Ethics and

Philosophy, 4(3), 239-253.

Mutrie, N. (2002). Healthy body, healthy mind? Psychologist, 15(8), 412-413.


Mutrie, N., & Faulkner, G. E. J. (2004). Physical activity: positive psychology in motion. In

P. A. Linley & S. Joseph (Eds.), Positive Psychology in Practice (pp. 146-164).

Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Ng, J. Y. Y., Lonsdale, C., & Hodge, K. (2011). The basic needs satisfaction in sport scale

(BNSSS): Intrument development and initial validity evidence. Psychology of Sport

and Exercise, 12, 257-264. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.10.006

Nunez, J. L., Martin-Albo, J., & Dominguez, E. (2010). Propiedades psicométricas de la

escala de satisfacción con la vida en sujetos praticantes de actividad física. Revista

de Psicología del Deporte, 19(2), 291-304.

Parker, S. J., Strath, S. J., & Swartz, A. M. (2008). Physical activity measurement in older

adults: Relationships with mental health. JOURNAL OF AGING AND PHYSICAL

ACTIVITY, 16(4), 369-380.

Pauperio, T., Corte-Real, N., Dias, C., & Fonseca, A. (2012). Sport, substance use and

satisfaction with life: What relationship? European Journal of Sport Science, 12(1),

73-80. doi: 10.1080/17461391.2010.545836

Pavot, W., & Diener, E. (1993). Review of the satisfaction with life scale. Social Indicators

Research Series, 39, 101-117. doi: 10.1007/978-90-481-2354-4 5,

Pavot, W., Diener, E., Colvin, C. R., & Sandvik, E. (1991). Further validation of the

Satisfaction With Life Scale: Evidence for the cross-method convergence of well-

being measures. Journal of Personality Assessment, 57(1), 149-161.

Pearson, P. R., & Sheffield, B. F. (1989). Psychoticism and purpose in life. Personality and

Individual Differences, 10(12), 1321-1322. doi: 10.1016/0191-8869(89)90245-6

Pedhazur, E. J., & Kerlinger, F. N. (1982). Multiple regression in behavioral research:

Explanation and prediction. Fort Worth, Texas: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.


Peter, A. (2012). The adolescent brain Is different. Psychiatric Times, 29(11), 25.

Portenga, S. T., Aoyagi, M. W., Balague, G., Cohen, A., & Harmison, B. Defining the

practice of sport and performance psychology. Division 47 (Exercise and Sport

Psychology) of the American Psychological Association.

Rasciute, S., & Downward, P. (2010). Health or happiness? What is the impact of physical

activity on the individual? KYKLOS, 63(2), 256-270.

Reis, H. T., Sheldon, K. M., Gable, S. L., Roscoe, J., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). Daily well-

being: The role of autonomy, competence and relatedness. Personality and Social

Psychology Bulletin, 26(4), 419-435. doi: 10.1177/0146167200266002

Robertson, I. T., & Cooper, C. L. (2010). Full engagement: The integration of employee

engagement and psychological well-being. Leadership and Organization

Development Journal, 31(4), 324-336. doi: 10.1108/01437731011043348

Rogers, C. (1963). The concept of the fully-functioning person. Psychotherapy: Theory,

Research and Practice, 1(1), 21-33.

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classical definitions

and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 54-67. doi:

10.1006/ceps.1999.1020

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of

research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review Psychology, 52,

141-166.

Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of

psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6),

1069-1081.


Ryff, C. D., & Singer, B. (1998). The contours of positive human health. Psychological

Inquiry, 9(1), 1-28.

Scannell, E., D., Allen, F. C. L., & Burton, J. (2002). Meaning in life and positive and

negative well-being. North American Journal of Psychology, 4(1), 93-112.

Schiaffino, K. M. (2003). Other measures of psychological well-being. Arthritis and

Reurnatism, 49(5), 165-174. doi: 10.1002/art.11408

Schnell, T., & Becker, P. (2006). Personality and meaning in life. Personality and

Individual Differences, 41, 117-129. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2005.11.030

Seippel, Ø. (2006). The meanings of sport: Fun, health, beauty or community? Sport in

Society, 9(1), 51-70. doi: 10.1080/17430430500355790

Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to

realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. New York: Free Press.

Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish : A new understanding of happiness, well-being - and

how to achieve them. London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing.

Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction.

American Psychologist, 55(1), 5-14. doi: 10.1037//0003-066X.55.1.5

Seligman, M. E. P., Ernst, R. M., Gillham, J., Reivich, K., & Linkins, M. (2009). Positive

education: Positive psychology and classroom interventions. Oxford review of

education, 35(3), 293-311. doi: 10.1080/03054980902934563

Seligman, M. E. P., Linley, P. A., Joseph, S., & Boniwell, I. (2003). Positive psychology:

Fundamental assumptions. Psychologist, 16(3).

Seligman, M. E. P., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Positive psychology

progress: Emplirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60(5), 410-

421. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.60.5.410


Shaw, D., Corban, R., & Gorely, T. (2005). Sport and exercise psychology. Oxon, UK:

BIOS Scientific Publishers.

Silva, A. J., & Caetano, A. (2013). Validation of the Flourishing Scale and Scale of

Positive and Negative Experience in Portugal. Social Indicators Research, 110(2),

469-478. doi: 10.1007/s11205-011-9938-y

Slocum-Gori, S. L., Zumbo, B. D., Michalos, A. C., & Diener, E. (2009). A note on the

dimensionality of quality of life scale: An illustration with the Satisfaction with Life

Scale (SWLS). Social Indicators Research, 92, 489-496. doi: 10.1007/s11205-008-

9303-y

Spear, L. P. (2000). The adolescent brain and age-related behavioral manifestations.

Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews, 24(4), 417-463. doi: 10.1016/s0149-

7634(00)00014-2

Steger, M. F., Frazier, P., Oishi, S., & Kaler, M. (2006). The Meaning in Life

Questionnaire: Assessing the presence of and search for meaning in life. Journal of

Counseling Psychology, 53(1), 80-93. doi: 10.1037/0022-0167.53.1.80

Thøgersen-Ntoumani, C., Fox, K. R., & Ntoumanis, N. (2005). Relationships between

exercise and three components of mental well-being in corporate employees.

Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 6, 609-627. doi:

10.1016/j.psychsport.2004.12.004

United Nations Sport for Development and Peace. (2008). Sport and peace. Retrieved

May, 2013

United Nations Sport for Development and Peace. (2013). Why Sport? Retrieved

November, 2013


Vella-Brodrick, D. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2009). Three ways to be happy: Pleasure,

engagement, and meaning--findings from Australian and US samples. Social

Indicators Research, 90, 165-179. doi: 10.1007/s11205-008-9251-6

Wankel, L. M. (2000). Sport psychology: Social psychology perspectives (pp. 452-458).

US: American Psychological Association.

Warber, K. M., & Emmers-Sommer, T. M. (2012). The relationship among sex, gender and

attachement. Language and Communication Quarterly, 1, 60-81.

Warburton, D. E. R., Nicol, C. W., & Bredin, S. S. D. (2006). Health benefits of physical

activity: the evidence. CMAJ : Canadian Medical Association journal = journal de

l'Association medicale canadienne, 174(6), 801-809. doi: 10.1503/cmaj.051351

Waterman, A. S. (1993). Two conceptions of happiness: Contrasts of person expressiveness

(eudaimonia) and hedonic enjoyment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,

64(4), 678-691.

Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief

measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales. Journal of Personality

and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063-1070. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063

White, R. W. (1959). Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence. Psychological

Review, 66(5), 297-333. doi: 10.1037/h0040934

Wilmore, J. H., & Costill, D. L. (1999). Physiology of sport and exercise. Champaign, IL:

Human Kinetics.

Wilson, P. M., Longley, K., Muon, S., Rodgers, W. M., & Murray, T. C. (2007). Examing

the contributions of perceived psychological need satisfaction to well-being in

exercise. Journal of Applied Behavioral Research, 11(3-4), 243-264.


Wilson, P. M., Rogers, W. T., Rodgers, W. M., & Wild, T. C. (2006). The psychological

need satisfaction in exercise scale. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 28,

231-251.

World Health Organisation. (2011). Global recommendations on physical activity for health.

World Health Organisation. (2013). Obesity and overweight. Retrieved April 7, 2013

Wu, C.-h., Chen, L. H., & Tsai, Y.-M. (2009). Longitudinal invariance analysis of the

satisfaction with life scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 46, 396-401. doi:

10.1016/j.paid.2008.11.002

Young, M. R. (2006). Critical business knowledge and competencies: Diagnosing through

the business life-cycle. Academy of Entrepreneurship Journal, 1(2), 25-32.


Appendix I.

Data Collection Locations and Organisations

Location Group name Number of

responses

Queensland Academy for

Health Sciences Badminton club

12

Griffith University Tennis club 14

Griffith University Uni Gym 26

Benowa Rugby Fields Griffith Uni Rugby Union Club 30

The Southport School Greendoggs Basketball (men) 10

The Southport School Foxxes Basketball (women) 12

Southport Yatch pool Aqua fit (Active and Healthy GC) 53

Helensvale State School Zumba (Active and Healthy GC) 17

Parklands Indoor Sports Centre Beach volleyball 5

Helensvale Tai chi (Active and Healthy GC) 9

Southport Griffith Dental Clinic 33

Parklands Indoor Sports Centre Indoor volleyball 16

Burleigh Heads The Original Stroller Group

(Active and Healthy GC) 14

Runaway By Sports Super Centre 37

Online Griffith Rowing & Brahma Kumaris

Centre 46


Appendix II.

The PERMA-P Questionnaire: A Brief Measure of Flourishing

Julie Butler and Margaret L. Kern

University of Pennsylvania

Each question is on a 0 to 10 scale, with anchors noted in parentheses below. Items should

be randomly presented (or mix the order across the constructs). The measure consists of 15

items plus a general well-being. Three items assess each of the PERMA (positive emotion,

engagement, relationship, meaning, and accomplishment; Seligman, 2011) constructs.

Composite scores are averaged across the three items (range 0-10, higher scores = greater

well-being). The general well-being question is comparable with other large-scale surveys,

and is included as an overall evaluation of well-being.

1. In general, how often do you feel joyful? (never-always; P)

2. In general, to what extent do you feel positive? (never-always; P)

3. In general, to what extent do you feel contented? (never-always; P)

4. How much of the time do you become absorbed in what you are doing? (none of the

time-all of the time; E)

5. In general, to what extent do you feel particularly excited or interested in things?

(not at all-extremely; E)

6. How much of the time do you lose track of time while doing something you enjoy?

(none of the time-all of the time; E)

7. To what extent do you receive help and support from others when you need it?

(never-always; R)

8. To what extent have you been feeling loved? (not at all-completely; R)

9. How satisfied are you with your personal relationships? (not at all-completely; R)

10. In general, to what extent do you lead a purposeful and meaningful life? (not at all,

completely; M)

11. In general, to what extent do you feel what you do in your life is valuable and

worthwhile? (not at all-completely; M)

12. To what extent do you generally feel you have a sense of direction in your life? (not

at all-completely; M)

13. How much of the time do you feel you are making progress towards accomplishing

your goals? (none of the time-all of the time; A)

14. How much of the time do you achieve the important goals you have set for yourself?

(none of the time-all of the time; A)

15. How much of the time are you able to handle your responsibilities? (none of the

time-all of the time; A)

16. Taking all things together, how happy would you say you are? (Not at all-

completely; Overall well-being)


Appendix III

WELL-BEING IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY QUESTIONNAIRE

A) On average, how often do you exercise or play sport? ____________ times per

week.

B) What is your main physical activity (e.g. tennis, jogging, gym)?

________________

C) My main physical activity is exercise* / sport* (please circle)

*Answer the above question using the definition below

Exercise Sport

Any structured and/or repetitive

physical activity performed or

practiced where the main intention is

to achieve improved physical fitness.

An activity involving physical exertion, skill and/or

hand/eye coordination as the primary focus, with

elements of competition where rules and patterns of

behaviour governing the activity exist formally

through organisations.

Now, please answer the following questions in relation to your main physical activity

ONLY. Do not include other activities that you may do.

1. While participating in your main physical activity, to what extent do you feel

positive? (Item P1)

Never Always

O O O O O O O O O O

2. While participating in your main physical activity, how often do you feel joyful?

(Item P2)

Never Always

O O O O O O O O O O

3. To what extent do you receive help and support from others in your main

physical activity environment when you need it? (Item R1)

Never Always

O O O O O O O O O O

4. While participating in your main physical activity, to what extent do you feel

contented? (Item P3)

Never Always

O O O O O O O O O O


5. While participating in your main physical activity, how much of the time do

you become excited or interested in the activity you are doing? (Item E1)

None of the time All of the time

O O O O O O O O O O


you lose track of time because you enjoyed it? (Item E2)


O O O O O O O O O O


you feel you are making progress towards accomplishing your goals? (Item A1)


O O O O O O O O O O

8. How much of the time are you able to handle your responsibilities through

participating in your main physical activity? (Item A2)


O O O O O O O O O O


you become absorbed in what you are doing? (Item E3)


O O O O O O O O O O

10. How much of the time do you achieve the important goals you have set for

yourself in main physical activity? (Item A3)


O O O O O O O O O O

11. To what extent do you feel participating in your main physical activity is

valuable and worthwhile? (Item M1)

Not at all Completely

O O O O O O O O O O

12. How satisfied are you with your personal relationships in your main physical

activity environment? (Item R2)


O O O O O O O O O O

IT‟S ABOUT HALF DONE! TURN THE PAGE…


13. To what extent do you generally feel you have a sense of direction in your life

while participating in your main physical activity? (Item M2)


O O O O O O O O O O

14. To what extent have you been feeling loved while participating in your main

physical activity? (Item R3)


O O O O O O O O O O

15. While participating in main physical activity, to what extent do you lead a

purposeful and meaningful life? (Item M3)


O O O O O O O O O O

16. Taking all things together, how happy would you say you are in general, while

participating in your main physical activity? (Item O)


O O O O O O O O O O

Thank you for your patience. Just a few more to go!

Below are five statements in which you may agree or disagree. Using the 1-7 scale below,

indicate your agreement with each statement by marking the appropriate circle.

1. In most ways my life is close to my ideal.

Strongly

disagree

Disagree Slightly

disagree

Neither

agree or

disagree

Slightly

agree

Agree Strongly

Agree

O O O O O O O

2. The conditions of my life are excellent.

Strongly

disagree

Disagree Slightly

disagree

Neither

agree or

disagree

Slightly

agree

Agree Strongly

Agree

O O O O O O O

3. I am satisfied with my life.

Strongly

disagree

Disagree Slightly

disagree

Neither

agree or

disagree

Slightly

agree

Agree Strongly

Agree

O O O O O O O


4. So far I’ve gotten the important things I want in life.

Strongly

disagree

Disagree Slightly

disagree

Neither

agree or

disagree

Slightly

agree

Agree Strongly

Agree

O O O O O O O

5. If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing.

Strongly

disagree

Disagree Slightly

disagree

Neither

agree or

disagree

Slightly

agree

Agree Strongly

Agree

O O O O O O O

Just a little about you…

Gender: Male / Female

Age ______

Nationality ________________

Marital status: Married / Divorced / Single / Others (_______)

Education level: High school / TAFE / Bachelors degree / Masters degree / PhD

Thank-you very much for taking part in this project! If you would like to receive

information regarding group results, please leave your email address with the researcher.

Otherwise, just hand this straight back and knowing your responses are truly valuable!


Appendix IV.

Test of Normality of Variables Before and After Data Transformation

Before After P

osi

tive

emoti

ons

Engag

emen

t

Rel

atio

nsh

ips


Mea

nin

g

Acc

om

pli

shm

ent

Construct Before After

K-S statistica

S-W statisticb

K-S statistica

S-W statisticb

Positive emotions .113* .923* .140* .939*

Engagement .119* .902* .071* .963*

Relationships .113* .937* .082* .966*

Meaning .113* .920* .087* .961*

Accomplishment .097* .938* .054 .977* a Kolmogorov-Smirnoff‟s D statistic

b Shapiro-Wilk‟s W statistic

* Significant at the .01 level

positive emotions, engagement, relationships,...

Documents