Positivistic versus Naturalistic Inquiry

This is a 100 year old debate Is often correlated to research

methodology Is a philosophy on the way we think about

human phenomenon & research Can be integrated within methodology,

but philosophically they are very different Is the foundation for how we design

research

Positivistic Inquiry Naturalistic Inquiry (Constructivism) 

Quantitative Triangulated Qualitative  

Solomon Design Blended Designs Post-modern -four group design - use quantitative -pretest-treat-post test & qualitative -research self -pretest-no treat- post test methods -novel sounding -no pre- no treat- post test lacks theory -random group Quasi-Experimental Grounded Theory Phenomenology -validated tools -two of three -theory building - descriptive

Exp. controls -Basic Social Process - interpretive - hermeneutic Descriptive

Experimental Design - quantitative or Ethnography -random sample qualitative methods -living in the experience -control group -cultural immersion

-a treatment given Case Study

-single-double cases -In-depth analysis - comparative analysis

Action ResearchAdequate time commitmentCollaborative effortOpenness to changeQuality of data collection and analysis Impact on one’s practice

Positivistic Inquiry Naturalistic Inquiry (Constructivism) 

Quantitative Triangulated Qualitative  

Solomon Design Blended Designs Post-modern Quasi-Experimental Grounded Theory Phenomenology

Constant Comparative Analysis

Descriptive Experimental Design Ethnography

Case Study

Scientific Rigors by DesignValidity & Reliability (internal-external) Conceptual Framework Developed Descriptive Vividness Statistical Inference Methodological CongruenceGeneralizability Analytical PrecisenessTemporality Theoretical Connectedness Selection and Bias Heuristic RelevanceMeasurement validity / reliability Trustworthiness, Credibility, Controlling confounders and AuditabilityAppropriate study design for the questions Confirmability, transferabilityStylistic & Personal

Relevance, Heuristic

Sample Size by DesignPositivistic Inquiry Naturalistic Inquiry (Constructivism) 

Quantitative Triangulated Qualitative  

Solomon Design Blended Designs Post-modern Power Analysis 20-40 1 Quasi-Experimental Grounded Theory Phenomenology

>40 10-1000 10-saturation (10-30) Descriptive

Experimental Design 1-12 Ethnography

Power Analysis 1

Case Study 1-2

Action Research ?-100

Assumptions of Positivistic Thinking page 1

Reality is singular, tangible, & and can be dissected

The researcher and those being studied are independent

Time and context-free generalizations are possible

Inquiry is value-free

value free singular reality

Positivistic thinking

generalizableindependentvariables

Assumptions of Positivistic Thinking There are real

causes or at least high probability of a relationship.

We believe we can have independent and dependent variables as separate entities

Validity of a design is very critical to results

value free

singular reality

validity

Positivistic thinking

generalizable

cause &effectindependentvariables

Assumptions of Positivistic Thinking page 3

Reliability is based on how the design is reproducible

Generalizability is related to good internal validity and reliability with comparable samples

Hypothesis testing

generalizable

value-free

Positivistic thinking

validity

singularreality

hypothesistesting

reliability

cause & effectindependentvariable

Assumptions of Naturalistic Inquiry Realities are multiple,

pluralistic, and holistic The researcher cannot

really be separated from those being studied and relation-ships are explained

hypotheses are time and context bound - they are only working statements

researcher& subjectconnected

hypothesis is a focus area

multiple realities

naturalisticinquiry

Assumptions of Naturalistic Inquiry All entities are in a

state of mutual simultaneous shaping

Inquiry is value-bound

Validity is designed into the process

Reliability & general- izable are not concepts of value with this thinking

researcher& subject connected

hypothesisis a focusarea

Naturalistic inquiry

thick description

multiple realities inquiry is value bound

Differences in Scientific Rigorpositivistic naturalistic Validity Internal and external

reliability Hypothesis testing Statistical inferences Independent and

dependent variables Variable controls Generalizability

Descriptive vividness Methodological

congruence Analytical preciseness Theoretical

connectedness Heuristic

relevance Others

Data Collection Differencepositivistic naturalistic Tools

surveys, questionnaires objective assessment &

identification Measure the dependent

variable Convert to numeric

symbols Apply statistical

inferences to numbers Large sample sizes help

with confidence levels

Tool it is the investigator by

interview, focus groups, & observation

Data is subjective and objective. It is collected & not measured

Themes or clusters are identified and data is sorted in a theme analysis

The themes are supported by participants or experts

Differences in Results positivistic naturalistic Statistical

significance for pre-post treatment

Statistical correlations & relationships identified

Probability of errors & confidence identified

Causal relationships

The exploration & description of a phenomenon

Identification of linkages, relationships, or interpretations based on theory connections

Results are themes, clusters of ideas, or theory constructs

Positivistic Discussion of Results 250 nurses were surveyed with an 80%

response rate or N=200. Questions were rated using the Likert 5 scale. Question 1 had a mean of 4.2 with a S.D. of 0.5 suggesting the nurses had favorable opinions about continuing education. Compared to a 1994 survey asking the same question, there was a statistical difference that was less favorable (mean 3.1, S.D. 0.7, p<.05)

Naturalistic Description I sat in the classroom as a peripheral

member staying as unobtrusive as possible. The instructor came out from behind her desk, sitting on the edge as she opened with a question that brought all eyes in the room to meet her own eyes. She paused - looked at the eyes of the students.

The instructor displayed immediacy from the moment she started the class.

Ethics and Research Starts with the study purpose, design,

methods of measurement, and subjects Guidelines for all of these It is still a concern today More recent ethical issues are:

Fabrication of a study Falsification or forging of data Dishonest manipulation of the design or methods Plagiarism

50% of the top 50 research institutions in US have been investigated for research fraud

Ethical Problems in Historyhttp://helix.nih.gov:8001/ohsr/mpa/45cfr46.php3

Nazi medical experiments (1933-1945)

Tuskegee syphilis study by the USPHS (1932-1972)

Willowbrook study (1950-1970) Hepatitis study

Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital study with live CA cells in 1960s

Ethical Problems in History University –Atomic Energy Government Exp.

18 men and women injected with plutonium to determine body distribution (at the time said to be terminal) 1945-47

20 subjects ages 63-83 given doses of radioactive radium and thorium inj. or oral. 1961-65

64 male inmates at Washington St. Prison had testicular radiation to determine the smallest does to makes someone sterile. 1963-70

125 retarded residents were fed radioactive ir9n and calcium to see if a diet rich in cereal would block the digestion of those two minerals. 1946-56

Nuremberg Code-1949 Voluntary consent Must yield fruitful results for society Anticipated results justify the type of experiment Avoids all unnecessary physical-mental injury Cannot do studies that have a known injury or

death unless the exp. Physician is a subject Risk does not out weight humanitarian benefit Proper precautions to prevent injury, dis., death Conducted by qualified persons Subjects can always stop the study Researcher must always be ready to stop the

study (risk)

Declaration of Helsinki-1964-84

Differentiated therapeutic vs. nontherapeutic research

Clinical vs. Basic Greater care to protect subjects in

nontherapeutic research There must be a strong, independent

justification for exposing a healthy vol. to substantial risk

The investigator is to protect the health and life of research subjects

The Belmont ReportThree Ethical Principles

Principle of respect for persons Right to self determination and freedom to participate or

not Principle of Beneficence

Do no harm to others Principle of Justice

Treat everyone fairly without discrimination Led to USDHHS Code on Ethics

Title 45, Part 46 (45 CFR 46) Office of Human Subjects Research (OHSR) within NIH http://helix.nih.gov:8001/ohsr

Institutional Review Board IRB review process 4-6 weeks Consent forms (voluntary subjects) Disclosure forms Confidentiality Compensation disclosure Ethics documented in the research Accountability to rules, regulations, and

legal entities

The Literature Review Primary Sources Secondary Sources Theoretical literature Empirical literature Integrative reviews (Evidence

Based Research) www. clinicalevidence.com/ www.cochrane.org/ www.guideline.gov www.ahcpr.gov/clinic/

Definition of a Literature Review

A systematic and explicit approach to the identification, retrieval, and bibliographical management of independent studies … locating information … synthesizing … developing guidelines …

Purposes of the Lit. Review Facilitate development of the Conceptual

Framework by summarizing knowledge Clarify the research topic Clarify the research problem Verify the significance of the research

problem Specify the purpose of the study Describe relevant studies or theories Develop definitions of major variables Select a research design, data measurement,

data collection & analysis, & interpret findings