post-laramide and pre-basin and range deformation and

Tectonophysics 471 (2009) 136–152

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Tectonophysics

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Post-Laramide and pre-Basin and Range deformation and implications for Paleogene(55–25 Ma) volcanism in central Mexico: A geological basis for a volcano-tectonicstress model

Margarito Tristán-González a,b,1, Gerardo J. Aguirre-Díaz b,⁎, Guillermo Labarthe-Hernández a,José Ramón Torres-Hernández a, Hervé Bellon c

a Instituto de Geología/DES Ingeniería, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Av. Dr. Manuel Nava 5, Zona Universitaria, 78240, San Luis Potosí, Mexicob Centro de Geociencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Campus UNAM-Juriquilla, Querétaro, Querétaro, 76230, Mexicoc UMR 6538, Domaines Océaniques, IUEM, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, 6, Av. Le Gorgeu, C.S. 93837, F-29238 Brest Cedex 3, France

⁎ Corresponding author.E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. Tristán-Go

[email protected] (G.J. Aguirre-Díaz).1 Tel.: +52 444 8171039.

0040-1951/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier B.V. Adoi:10.1016/j.tecto.2008.12.021

a b s t r a c t
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
At central-eastern Mexico, i Received 3 May 2008Accepted 23 December 2008Available online 13 January 2009
Keywords:Volcano-tectonicsPaleocene–OligoceneBasin and Range extensionSierra Madre Occidental volcanismMexico

n the Mesa Central province, there are several ranges that were formed after theK/T Laramide compression but before the Basin and Range peak extensional episodes at middle–lateOligocene. Two important volcano-tectonic events happened during this time interval, 1) uplift of crustalblocks exhuming the Triassic–Jurassic metamorphic sequence and formation of basins that were filled withred beds and volcanic sequences, and 2) normal faulting and tilting to the NE of these blocks andfanglomerate filling of graben and half-graben structures. The first event, from late Paleocene to early Eocene,was related to NNE and NNW oriented dextral strike-slip faults. These faults were combined with NW–SE enechelon faulting in these blocks through which plutonism and volcanism occurred. The second event lastedfrom early Oligocene to early Miocene and coincided with Basin and Range extension. Intense volcanicactivity occurred synchronously with the newly-formed or reactivated old fault systems, producing thicksequences of silicic pyroclastic rocks and large domes. Volcano-tectonic peaks occurred in three mainepisodes during the middle–late Oligocene in this part of Mexico, at about 32–30 Ma, 30–28 Ma, and 26–25 Ma. The objectives of this work is to summarize the volcano-tectonic events that occurred after the end ofthe Laramide orogeny and before the peak episodes of Basin and Range faulting and Sierra Madre OccidentalOligocene volcanism, and to discuss the influence of these events on the following Oligocene–Miocenevolcano-tectonic peak episodes that formed the voluminous silicic volcanism in the Mesa Central, and hence,in the Sierra Madre Occidental. A model based upon geological observations summarizes the volcanic-tectonic evolution of this part of Mexico from the late Paleocene to the Early Miocene.

© 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

An elevated plateau in central Mexico, with an average elevation ofabout 2000 m above sea level (Fig. 1), includes some of the bestmapped Tertiary volcanic areas of Mexico. It is known asMesa Central,which is described as part of the southern Basin and Rangeextensional province (Henry and Aranda-Gómez, 1992; Stewart,1998; Nieto-Samaniego et al., 1999; Aranda-Gómez et al., 2000;Nieto-Samaniego et al., 2005) and the Sierra Madre Occidentalvolcanic province (McDowell and Clabaugh, 1979; Aguirre-Díaz and

nzález),

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McDowell, 1991; Ferarri et al., 2005). According to Aguirre-Díaz andLabarthe-Hernández (2003) these two geologic provinces overlap inspace and time throughout their extent across Mexico, includingMesaCentral. The eastern border of Mesa Central is marked by the SierraMadre Oriental folded belt (Fig. 2), which is composed of Mesozoicmarine sediments deformed during the Laramide orogeny at lateCretaceous–early Paleocene (De Cserna, 1956; Tardy et al., 1975;Padilla, 1985; Chávez-Cabello et al., 2004 –Fig. 2). Other ranges, fault-bounded and with Triassic metamorphosed basement cores, can beobserved near this eastern margin and towards the interior of theMesa Central (Fig. 2). These ranges have been interpreted also ascaused by the Laramide orogeny (Martínez-Pérez, 1972; Aguillón-Robles- Tristán-González, 1981; Labarthe-Hernández et al., 1982a,b;Gallo-Padilla et al., 1993; Gómez-Luna et al., 1998), but our datapresented here indicates that they were apparently formed afterLaramide orogeny.

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Fig. 1. Index map of the Sierra Madre Occidental and Mesa Central provinces indicating the location of the study area.

137M. Tristán-González et al. / Tectonophysics 471 (2009) 136–152

Most of the studies in this area have focused either on the Laramidecompression-related structures and Mesozoic stratigraphy or on theBasin and Range extension-related structures and Oligocene SierraMadre Occidental volcanism. In contrast, little is known on the fault-bounded structures with Triassic and Jurassic cores mentioned abovebecause the available works have been published in local internalgeological reports (e.g., Labarthe-Hernández et al., 1982a,b, 1995;Tristán-González and Torres-Hernández,1992; Tristán-González et al.,1995). From these reports, it can be inferred that important volcano-tectonic events occurred between the late Paleocene and the lateOligocene that developed these fault-bounded ranges and some fault-bounded basins as well, synchronously with plutonism and volcanism.

The main purpose of this study is to summarize the volcano-tectonic events that occurred between the end of the Laramideorogeny and the initiation of Basin and Range faulting and SierraMadre Occidental Oligocene volcanism. We discuss the influence ofthese events on the following Oligocene–Miocene volcano-tectonicpeak episodes that formed the voluminous silicic volcanism in theMesa Central, and hence, in the Sierra Madre Occidental. In order toachieve these goals, the stratigraphy, geochronology and structure ofthree representative areas of the Mesa Central are briefly described, 1)La Ballena-Peñón Blanco range, 2) Las Minas range and 3), Ahualulcobasin (Fig. 2). The first and second cases represent fault-boundedranges with Triassic and Lower Cretaceous basement cores, respec-tively, and the third one, a listric-fault basin that initiated as a pull-apart basin filled with a volcano-clastic sequence.

This work provides a volcano-tectonic evolution model of a largearea in central Mexico (Figs. 1, 2), based upon rigorous geological

observations, which can be used as a case study to test experimental ormathematical volcano-tectonic stress models of continental crust thatwas first submitted to an intense compressive stress regime (Laramideorogeny), then to a crustal relaxation and trans-tension stress period,and finally to an intense extensional regime (Basin and Range ex-tension); all of these occurring at the final stages of a long-lastingcontinental-margin subduction regime (Aguirre-Díaz and McDowell,1991). Similar situations have been reported in other places and dif-ferent geologic times with the result of an intense period of rhyolitic–andesitic volcanism in the form of domes and/or stratovolcanoes andignimbrites; for instance, at the Catalan Pyrenees, where Permian–Carboniferous ignimbrites are apparently related to calderas influ-enced by the strike-slip tectonics (Martí, 1991), or at the TaupoVolcanic Zone, where silicic caldera volcanism and andesitic strato-volcanoes can be associated with rift-extension and trans-tensionrespectively (Spinks et al., 2004). Using the particular case of the SierraMadre Occidental, Aguirre-Díaz et al. (2007, 2008) have coined theterm of graben calderas for these types of volcano-tectonic calderastructures.

2. Tectonic framework

The northern, northeastern and eastern limits of the Mesa Centralare formed by the ranges of the Sierra Madre Oriental folded belt(Fig. 3). Several studies have been undertaken in this belt tounderstand the tectonic shortening at this area during the UpperCretaceous–Early Tertiary, and in particular, on the portion where thebelt makes a turn to thewest at theMonterrey salient or “Curvatura de

Fig. 2. Digital elevation model showing the main tectonic structures in the eastern and southeastern part of Mesa Central. 1—Sierra de Catorce, 2—Sierra de Coronado, 3—Sierra deCharcas, 4—Sierra Santa Catarina, 5—Sierra de Guanamé, 6—Sierra Las Minas, 7—Sierra La Ballena-Peñón Blanco, 8—Sierra de Zacatecas; A—Ahualulco Basin, B—Coronado Basin; C—Matehuala-El Huizache Basin; D—Villa de Arista Basin; E—Peotillos Basin; F—Aguascalientes Graben; G—Villa de Reyes Graben; SLPVF—San Luis Potosí Volcanic Field; MC—MonterreyCurvature.

138 M. Tristán-González et al. / Tectonophysics 471 (2009) 136–152

Monterrey” (Fig. 3, De Cserna, 1956; Tardy et al., 1975; Padilla, 1985;Chávez-Cabello et al., 2004). This deformation is characterized byfolding and thrusting of the upper crust with an ENE transportdirection, as well as by transcurrent faulting associated to thesedisplacements. The Monterrey salient has been interpreted as theresult of an orthogonalflexural folding that occurred in the late stage ofthe Laramide orogeny, and this regional deformation has been relatedto a “décollement” that produced the detachment of the uppercarbonated and clastic sequence over the Minas Viejas evaporites(Padilla, 1985; Fischer and Jackson, 1999; Marrett and Aranda; 1999;Chávez-Cabello et al., 2004). The fold and thrust belt continues

southward from the Monterrey salient and forms the eastern limit ofthe Mesa Central. From this eastern boundary and towards the innerparts of the Mesa Central the folded belt changes to fault-boundedranges with NNE-trending and NW-trending patterns, some of which(mostly the NNE-trending) expose Triassic metamorphosed basementand that are separated by flat valleys (Fig. 4). The faults that bound theranges are either strike-slip or normal faults, and apparently bothlateral and lateral displacements occurred in the same faultsjuxtaposing different faulting episodes. In some cases, such as LaBallena-Peñón Blanco, Sierra Real de Catorce, Coronado, and Zacatecas,the ranges are bounded along one side by NNE normal faults causing

Fig. 3. Main regional tectonic structures for northeastern and central Mexico, based on satellite image interpretation and field geological studies (modified after Vélez-Scholvink,1990).


tilting to the east and exposing basement cores with Triassic rocks(Fig. 4). In other cases, such as Charcas, Santa Catarina, Las Minas andGuanamé ranges (Fig. 4), the ranges are outstanding blocks limited byNWand SE normal faults on both sides, which indicate relative verticaluplift with little or no tilting (Fig. 4). The ranges of Santa Catarina,Sierra LasMinas, La Parada aswell as the Ahualulco basin formpart of alarge crustal block named here as the Pinos-Moctezuma block, withdimensions of at least 100 by 40 km, and that is limited by two largeparallel NE trending lineaments that could be interpreted as faultsystems. Strike-slip dextral displacements are inferred along theselineaments from en-echelon patterns, lateral displacement of unitsand fromdirect observation of a fewcinematic indicators thatwere noterased by posterior vertical displacement on the same faults. Theselineaments are named by us as La Pendencia (the western lineament)which extends for at least 100 km, from Villa García to Charcas, andAhualulco (eastern lineament), extending ~85 km from Pino Suárez toVilla Arista (Fig. 4). Adjacent to this large block and to thewest there isanother NE-oriented series of aligned ranges that form another largecrustal block, named here the Salinas-Charcas block, which is parallelto the Pinos-Moctezuma block and separated by the La Pendencialineament (Fig. 4). The right-lateral movements along the La Pendencia

Fig. 4. Geologic map of the southeastern portion of the Mesa Central showing late PaleoceGuanamé, 4—Sierra La Ballena-Peñón Blanco, 5—Sierra Santa Catarina, 6—Sierra Las Minas, 7sections for three different types of uplifts in the region are shown at bottom of Fig. 1) A–A′ vCoronado). 3) c–c′ vertical without exhumed core (Sierra de Guanamé). 4) D–D′ listhric at eascale 1:250, 000.

and Ahualulco lineaments have been interpreted as caused by a dextralsimple shear under transpression as described by Wilcox et al. (1973),or an oblique simple shear following Jones and Holdsworth (1998).

In general, all the elevated ranges of the eastern Mesa Central arecut internally, i.e., within the range, by NW–SE normal faults that wereformed at late Paleocene–early Eocene, an age constrained fromplutonic and volcanic rocks that were emplaced through these faults(more details are described below). Parallel to these elongated rangesand at the eastern part of the area there are a series of basins that havebeen filled up with continental clastic sediments (red beds), such asthe basins of Matehuala-Huizache, Coronado, Villa Arista, Ahualulco,and Peotillos (Fig. 2). All these basins include early to middle Tertiaryvolcanic rocks, too. At some of them, intrusive and volcanic rocks wereemplaced through their fault-bounded margins, suggesting that theseigneous rocks were tectonically controlled.

Following is a brief geologic and structural description of the threerepresentative ranges of La Ballena-Peñón Blanco, Las Minas and theAhualulco basin, with their respective simplified geologic maps. Dueto the size reduction of these maps because of publication purposes,many details from the original maps (scales 1:25,000 and 1:50, 000)have been omitted, but we do show the most relevant information.

ne–early Eocene structures. 1—Sierra de Charcas, 2—Sierra de Coronado, 3—Sierra de—Sierra La Parada, 8—Sierra La Tapona, 9—Ahualulco Basin. Interpreted geologic cross-ertical with exhumed core (Sierra de Charcas). 2) listric B–B′ at eastern sector (Sierra destern sector. Base map based on LANDSAT Thematic mapper image bands 1, 4, 7. Original

Fig. 5. Geological map of the La Ballena-Peñón Blanco range (modified after Labarthe-Hernández et al., 1982a,b).


2.1. La Ballena-Peñón Blanco range

The Sierra La Ballena-Peñón Blanco forms the southeasternmostend of the Salinas-Charcas block (Fig. 4). This range includes theoldest rocks of the area (Late Triassic) and Eocene Peñón Blancogranite, with 2700 m above sea level, is one the highest peaks in theregion. The Ballena-Peñón Blanco range is 30 km long and 5 kmwide

bounded to the west by a listhric normal fault with a NNE strike(Fig. 5). The range is internally segmented in five parts separated byfour normal faults with an average strike of N60°–70°W. A series ofgranitic intrusions are exposed along the faults within the centralparts, the main of which is Peñón Blanco granite of middle Eocene age(45.5±1.1 Ma, Table 1). Several granitic dikes and small apophyseswere also emplaced along these faults. In some of the faults it was

Table 1New K–Ar ages from the Mesa Central.

Volcanic unit Sample Coordinates Age 40Arb 40ArRc K2O Fractiond

Latitud N Longitud W ±1σa (%) (wt.%)

Las Joyas basalt (Tbj) 01–25 2499 631 283 207 01.5±0.8 18.1 0.99 2.06 WRUpper Panalillo ignimbrite (Trp) 01–24 2487 607 287 070 25.4±0.6 81.7 49.26 6.04 WRRiolitic domes (Tdr) 01–32 2476 050 269 295 31.0±0.7 82.7 54.59 5.41 WRRiolitic domes (Tdr) 01–28 2480 728 270 404 31.6±0.8 49.1 49.30 4.78 mPortezuelo latite (Tlp) 01–22 2492 003 281 659 31.0±0.7 68.7 47.68 5.22 mPortezuelo latite (Tlp) 01–26 2504 063 280 774 31.0±0.7 91.6 47.60 4.71 WRPortezuelo latite (botton of ignimbrite) 01–30 2494 836 280 240 32.2±0.8 79.6 63.35 6.09 WRJacavaquero dacite (Tdj) 01–21 2490 725 276 673 31.6±0.8 75.4 47.50 4.70 WRZapatero riodacite (Trz) 01–29 2479 946 274 610 31.2±0.7 86.6 59.49 5.86 WRCasita Blanca andesite (Tcb) 01–33 2493 349 271 210 44.4±1.0 82.4 28.50 1.79 WRCasita Blanca andesite (Tcb) 01–31 2499 923 276 778 45.5±1.1 72.5 26.60 1.79 WRPeñon Blanco granite (Tgr) 01–14 2493 748 224 449 45.3±1.1 77.90 145.90 9.86 mu

Ages performed in the laboratory of geochronology at Université de Bretagne Occidentale at Brest France. Coordinates in UTM system, 14Q Zone, using NAD27 projection.a Error at one σ was calculated with the equation given by Cox and Dalrymple (1967).b 40Ar; radiogenic argon content of sample, in percent of total.c 40ArR; radiogenic argon in sample is expressed in 10−7 cm3/g.d Dated material; WR-whole rock, m-matrix, mu-muscovite.


possible to observe fault surfaces with striae indicating right-lateraldisplacement (Fig. 5). The Peñón Blanco granite did not form aprominent contact metamorphism aureole, but makes a sharp contactwith the country rock, Jurassic on one side, and Cretaceous on theother due to the fault displacement before the granite emplacement(Fig. 4). The La Ballena-Peñón Blanco range is bounded to the west bya listhric normal fault inferred from stratigraphic and geologicrelations and is named here as La Ballena fault (Figs. 4, 5). This faulthas an average N 05°E strike and tilted the Mesozoic sedimentarysequence 15° to 18° to the SE. The tilting caused further exposure ofLate Triassic basement (Zacatecas Formation). The Peñón Blancogranite as well as smaller contemporaneous granitic plutons (dikesand apophyses) were emplaced parallel to the trace of this fault.Plateaus formed by the Panalillo ignimbrite in the southern portion ofthis range are completely horizontal and thus they were not affectedby the La Ballena fault, indicating that principal fault movementpredated the 25.4±0.6 Ma Panalillo ignimbrite (Table 1). However, atother sites at the eastern part of the study area, Panalillo ignimbriteis affected by normal faulting of the late Basin and Range extension.

2.2. Las Minas range

The Las Minas range is located at the northernmost part of the SanLuis Potosí Volcanic Field (Figs. 2, 4). It is a small range with arhombohedral shape that covers an area of about 50 km2. It isconsidered as a plunging anticline developed during the Laramideorogeny at the end of Cretaceous (Aguillón-Robles and Tristán-González, 1981). This range outstands from an alluvial plain withstructural windows showing Maastrichtian marine sedimentary rocksand remnants of Oligocene volcanic rocks (Fig. 6). It shows the typicalfoldingof theLaramideorogeny,with folds axes trendingN–S (Fig. 5—1),fold vergence to the east and an average tectonic transport azimuth of95°, with slicken-sides on So fault planes (equal area net 2 of Fig. 6).This deformation style is similar to that observed in other ranges inthe region with Lower Cretaceous rocks (Fig. 4). However, fieldevidence indicates that Las Minas range is a horst and not ananticline. It was up-lifted in the early Tertiary (after the Laramideorogeny) and is limited by twomain faults striking N40°W, dipping tothe NE and SW. At its southern end the eastern fault changes striketo a more N–S direction (Fig. 6). Dextral strike-slip faults withinthe horst have a strike of N60°–80°W. Therefore, this range wasapparently formed after Laramide deformation by a trans-pressionaltectonics. This hypothesis is based upon the bounding and theinternal faults observed in the range; that is, the uplifting occurred

from a trans-pressional deformation that pushed-up the block along itsmarginal faults, following the oblique simple shear model of Jonesand Holdsworth (1998). Besides, a few kilometers to the south of LasMinas range there are faults with left-lateral displacement affectingUpper Cretaceous rocks (Fig. 4). These are small faults (not shown inFig. 6 because of the scale) within the Pinos-Moctezuma block thatare here interpreted as antithetic strike-slip faults, which resultedfrom a clockwise rotation of the Pinos-Moctezuma block (Fig. 4).Therefore, these observations favor the trans-pression interpretationfor Las Minas range. Andesitic dikes of late Eocene associated to thistrans-pressional episode are found in the NE part of the range; thus,suggesting that these conditions were also favorable for magma as-cension and/or near-surface emplacement as was in the case of LaBallena-Peñón Blanco range.

2.3. Ahualulco Basin

This basin is located at the northeastern part of the Pinos-Moctezuma block (Fig. 4). It also includes the northern part of theSan Luis Potosí Volcanic Field (Fig. 7). The Ahualulco basin has beendefined as a tectonic depression related to Oligocene Basin and Rangenormal faulting (Labarthe-Hernández and Tristán-González, 1981;Labarthe-Hernández et al., 1982b, 1995; Martínez-Ruíz, 1994). Thebasin has a rough rhombohedral shape with dimensions of 45 by15 km (Fig. 8). The floor of the basin consists of Upper Cretaceoussedimentary rocks. The basin fill includes Eocene andesitic lavas,Oligocene red beds, volcano-clastic sediments, Oligocene rhyodaciticdomes and Oligocene rhyolitic ignimbrites, for a total thickness ofabout 800 m (Fig. 9). Capping the basin fill as well as the rocks outsidethe basin, is a younger sequence made by the late Oligocene Panalilloignimbrite, Miocene–Pliocene? continental conglomerates and Qua-ternary basalts. Small graben-forming faults that affect the intra-basinrocks can be constrained at 31–28 Ma from cross-cutting relation-ships. Thus, this second faulting event is interpreted here as anepisode different from the original one that formed the Ahualulcobasin, which occurred at the early Eocene, based upon the first lavasthat filled the basin (50–42 Ma). However, conglomerate depositscovering the Panalillo ignimbrite over the Ahualulco basin are tiltedbut the Quaternary basalt is not, indicating that faulting continuedafter Panalillo ignimbrite for an unknown time but ended before theeruption of the Quaternary basalt, possibly during late Miocene.

We interpret the Ahualulco basin as a pull-apart graben instead ofa simple Basin and Range graben as previously believed. Thisinterpretation is based upon several observations, 1) the intra-basin

Fig. 6. Geological map of the Sierra Las Minas range. This range is 300 m higher with respect the adjacent plain (mostly of Upper Cretaceous rocks). Note that the core is formed byLower Cretaceous rocks. Lower hemisphere equal area projections are shown in the bottom of Fig. 1) Laramide fold axis poles and slicken-sides lineation on So beds. 2) Laramidetectonic transport direction (modified after Aguillón-Robles and Tristán-González., 1981).


faults have a braided arrangement with a general strike of NW–SE andan average dip of 82° SW, (equal area net 1, 2 of Fig. 10), 2) the slicken-sides on the intra-basin fault planes are oblique and horizontalindicating lateral displacements, 3) the rhombohedral shape of thebasin and 4), the dextral strike-slip inferred movement along the LaPendencia and Ahualulco regional faults (Fig. 4). Some of these earlyEocene strike-slip faults were overprinted with vertical-slip displace-ments that occurred at the late Oligocene during the Basin and Rangetectonics, causing the misinterpretation of Ahualulco basin as justanother typical graben of the Basin and Range that does not takes intoaccount its initial strike-slip stage. This early stagewas coeval with theregional strike-slip displacements that occurred in all the area duringthe late Paleocene–early Eocene. All the sequence that filled theAhualulco basin is tilted to the NE due to a large listric fault (SectionD–D′ of Fig. 4) that reactivated the fault that originally bounded thebasin at the west (Fig. 8). Tilting increases from the youngest to theoldest rocks of the sequence, from 26° in 31.5 Ma volcanic rocks

(Portezuelo dacite) to 40° in middle Eocene andesites (CeniceraFormation). This gradual tilting change with time indicates that tiltingaccumulated during episodic faulting events from the late Eocene tothe Miocene (Fig. 10).

The volcanic rocks that filled the basin were apparently synchro-nous with basin development, as they accumulated within the basinas subsidence was occurring. These rocks aremore voluminous withinthe basin, and are rather sparse outside the basin. Emplacement ofsome andesitic dikes contemporaneous with the volcanic rocks of thefilling sequence confirms this hypothesis.

3. Summary of volcano-tectonic-sedimentary events fromLaramide orogeny to Basin and Range extension in the easternMesa Central

The final stage of the Laramide orogeny in central-eastern Mexicooccurred by the end of the late Paleocene–early Eocene. The latter

Fig. 7. Geologic map of the northern sector of the San Luis Potosi Volcanic Field, included Ahualulco Basin and the Sierra Las Minas sectors (modified after Labarthe-Hernández et al.,1982a,b).


according to the ages of several intrusive bodies that do not showcompressive deformation, the latest ofwhich is dated at 55Ma (Table 2).Following Aguirre-Díaz and McDowell (1991), it is summarizedgraphically the different volcanic, tectonic and sedimentary eventsthat occurred in theMesa Central after the end of the Laramide orogeny(Fig. 11). These events are correlated with the main tectonic andmagmatic regimes affecting Mexico between 60 and 20 Ma, fromsubduction-related (subduction of the Farallon plate beneath NorthAmerica) to extensional-related (Basin and Range extension).

After the Laramide orogeny, and along the limit between the crustalblocks of the Valles-San Luis Potosí Platform and the Mesozoic Basin ofCentral Mexico, a shear zone oriented NNE was developed. Dextralstrike-slip movement between these crustal blocks produced a series ofen echelon folds and uplift of smaller blockswith basement nuclei as oldas Triassic that formed high ranges within the shear zone. These rangeswere then displaced by high-angle NW–SE normal faults at aboutmiddle Eocene,which servedas conduits for intrusive andvolcanic rocksof this age. At the same time, subsidence occurred in the correspondingNW–SE grabens in which continental clastic deposits (red beds) and

volcanic rocks were accumulated (Fig. 11). Several andesitic NNW dikesand small cones aligned NNWwere emplaced within these basins. Thisfissural volcanism still show a subalkaline composition that can beassociated to the subduction regime of the Farallon–North Americanplates, which should have continued active by this time along westernMexico (Fig. 11; Atwater, 1989; Aguirre-Díaz and McDowell, 1991;Ferrari et al., 1999). The fact that themiddle Eocene andesitic volcanismwas fed from dikes, suggests that an incipient extensional regime wasstarting (transitional volcanism, Fig. 11). Extensional activity increasedwith time, and by 32Ma itwas already relatively intense (Fig.11). At 32–30 Ma there was a peak in the extension in northern Mexico includingthe study area, which can be related with the regional tectonics changecaused by the collision of the East Pacific Rise with North America(Fig. 11; Atwater, 1989, Aguirre-Díaz and McDowell, 1991). This peakextensional episode was accompanied by a syn-extensional volcanicepisode that produced voluminous felsic ignimbrites and lava domesdated at 32–29 Ma (Fig. 11). After this peak event, the magmaticconditions changed from predominantly felsic and subalkaline to abimodal style of high-silica rhyolites and alkalic basalts. These bi-modal

Fig. 8. Structural map of Ahualulco Basin at the northern portion of the San Luis Potosi Volcanic Field showing the curvilinear pattern of faults. 1—Equal-area net showing attitude ofnormal, high-angle NW–SE faults in the western sector of the basin. 2—Equal-area net sowing attitude of normal faults in the northeastern sector of the basin. B, C, D and E representthe equal area net from tilting of the Tertiary sequence shown in Fig. 10.


Fig. 9. Composite stratigraphic column for the northern sector of the San Luis Potosi Volcanic Field and the Ahualulco Basin (K–Ar ages data are shown in Table 1).


volcanic events occurred mainly at 28–26 Ma (Fig. 11), and were fedfrom fissures related to the high-angle faults that formed the NNE andNNW grabens and half-grabens of the study area (Torres-Aguilera yRodríguez-Ríos, 2005; Aguirre-Díaz et al., 2008). The same faults werereactivated later as several discrete episodes until Quaternary (1 Ma).Some times these reactivations were accompanied with basalticvolcanism with alkaline composition that shows a clear intra-platesignature (basanites, alkalic basalts, hawaiites; Luhr et al., 1995).

The shear zone that was formed along the limits of the crustalblocks of the Valles-San Luis Potosí Platform and theMesozoic Basin ofCentral Mexico, represent a crustal weakness zone (Fig. 12). This zonewas developed following theMatehuala-San Luis lineament (Fig. 4). At32–31 Ma, dacitic and trachytic lava domes were emplaced followingthe high-angle normal faults formed during the Eocene and Oligocene(Fig. 12A). At 31–28 Ma, high-angle extension and Oligocene syn-extensional volcanism episodes of rhyolitic lava emissions andpyroclastic rocks occurred along the SW margin of the Matehuala-San Luis lineament (Fig. 12B). At 28–26 Ma, there was another intenseextensional episode that affected only the narrow zone along theMatehuala-San Luis lineament, producing low angle listric faultingthat tilted the affected blocks up to 50° to the NE. The zone thatconcentrates themaximumextension follows aNNE trend and is about

30–50 kmwide (Fig.12C). Due to these characteristics, it is namedhereas the Matehuala-San Luis Maximum Extension Zone. At 28–25 Ma,syn-extensional pyroclastic volcanism occurred along some of thefaults of the Matehuala-San Luis Maximum Extension Zone.

4. Tectono-magmatic evolution model for the eastern MesaCentral for the 55–25 Ma period

It is presented here a geologic model that summarizes thetectono-volcanic evolution of the central-eastern Mesa Centralfrom late Paleocene to late Oligocene (Fig. 13). The timing for thefinal events related to the Laramide compression in the area can bededuced from the ages of the non-compressionally-deformedplutons, which indicates that this compressive regime finished atthe early Paleocene (Fig. 13A). This compression shortened theMesozoic sedimentary sequence eastward, and formed numerousrecumbent folds, thrusts and inverse faults (napes and decollements)that culminated with the Monterrey salient to the northeast andoutside the Mesa Central. After the compressive phase of theLaramide orogeny, a major tectonic change took place during thePaleocene at the central-eastern Mesa Central that could bevisualized as a crustal relaxation period that followed after a long-

Fig.10. Lower hemisphere equal-area projection showing attitude of tilt direction of the Tertiary sequence in Ahualulco Basin. A) Attitude of tilt direction of Cenicera Formation in thenorthwestern part of the basin. B) Data from the ignimbrite underlying Portezuelo latite in the northwestern portion of the basin. C) Attitude of tilt direction in the San Nicolásepiclastics. D) Attitude of tilt direction of Upper Panalillo ignimbrite at the western part of the basin. E) Tilt direction of upper conglomerate at the eastern part of the basin.


lasting intense compression, similarly as has been proposed farthernorth in the central-eastern Sierra Madre Occidental (Aguirre-Díazand McDowell, 1991). During this period large listric faults weredeveloped together with several basins and strike-slip accommoda-tion faults at the eastern Mesa Central (Fig. 13B), whereas at thecentral portion of the Mesa Central large blocks were verticallyuplifted as crustal wedges due to space accommodation (Fig. 13B). Atthe beginning of the Eocene (58–45 Ma), several plutons and

andesitic lavas were emplaced in or next to the uplifted blocks,using themarginal and internal faults of the blocks as conduits duringascension (Fig. 13C). In this time, basins developed next to theuplifted blocks were filled by continental clastic sediments (Fig.13C).At Oligocene (32–30 Ma) took place the most voluminous volcanicevent in the area, consisting of both explosive and effusive eruptionsthat formed sequences of silicic pyroclastic rocks and lava domes.This volcanism occurred simultaneously with reactivation of old

Table 2Structural data of the faults of the central and the north portion of Ahualulco Basin.

No Dipdirection

Pitch Coordinates

North East

1 055°/88° 40° SE 2494669 2769642 055°/88° 40° SE 2494669 2769643 195°/75° 00° 2494581 2770594 210°/85° 90° 2494581 2770595 240°/45° 90° 2494552 2772166 205°/60° 60° SE 2494552 2772257 090°/75° 80° N 2494441 2773038 270°/50° 90° 2494406 2773539 065°/60° 10° SE 2494406 27735310 220°/85° 90° 2494542 27740811 220°/80° 90° 2495442 27776512 060°/55° 65° SE 2495815 27694913 060°/55° 80° SE 2495815 27694914 200°/75° 60° NW 2491928 27557915 155°/85° 45° SW 2491804 27639516 250°/70° 90° 2491328 27639517 220°/88° 90° 2490596 27638118 220°/60° 90° 2490596 27638119 250°/70° 70° NW 2490488 27621720 250°/65° 90° 2490517 27607521 245°/75° 90° 2490730 27592722 250°/85° 20° NW 2491540 27421323 295°/50° 90° 2491661 27415924 090°/65° 90° 2492211 27665225 245°/55° 70° SE 2491819 27701426 200°/75° 25° NW 2491516 27734527 200°/75° 80° NW 2491516 27734528 200°/70° 90° 2491535 27748029 220°/65° 35° NW 2491278 27849330 205°/70° 80° SE 2491306 27805331 220°/80° 10° NW 2491458 27780432 050°/80° 90° 2495186 28099733 220°/80° 00° R 2495151 28091434 250°/65° 00° R 2495203 28085035 305°/80° 90° 2494938 28090836 270°/80° 90° 2495654 28167937 090°/75a 90° 249598 28176338 190°70° 90° 2495213 28226539 040°/88° 60° SE 2495440 28188140 210°/50° 90° 2495323 28128541 202°/70° 60° SE 2494887 28070242 280°/60° 90° 2494617 27968243 075°/60° 70° SE 2494427 27993744 270°/53° 0° 2494825 28069645 170°/85° 0° 2494825 28069646 075°/42° 90° 2496668 27829847 200°/63° 73° NW 2496704 27850148 225°/53° 90° 2496704 27850149 085°/68° 90° 2496534 27861150 240°/65° 90° 2496534 27864151 245°/60° 90° 2496411 27872152 240°/50° 53° NW 2496496 27903853 220°/55° 90° 2496131 27913454 252°765° 90° 2495750 27923355 080°/50° 90° 2496637 27812256 065°/35° 90° 2496468 27815357 250°/75° 90° 2496023 27833858 106°/65° 66° NE 2495823 27819659 270°/60° 90° 2495459 27840260 280°/46° 90° 2495737 27840261 090°/56° 0° 2493283 27560262 205°/55° 90° 2494023 27793363 300°/75° 0° 2494006 27797064 O95°/80° 90° 2494082 27813765 273°/70° 90° 2493955 27823366 250°/65° 90° 2493374 28006267 270°/50° 90° 2494087 27800968 240°/63° 90° 2492044 28169869 240°/70° 90° 2492020 28160970 210°/70° 90° 2492124 28148471 195°/74° 90° 2492315 28106572 245°/76° 38° NW 2491993 28041673 340°/88° 0° 2491164 28161474 335°/87° 0° 2491071 281527

Table 2 (continued)

No Dipdirection

Pitch Coordinates

North East

75 220°/65° 0° 2490839 28128076 255°/55° 90° 2491460 28041777 260°/68° 0° 2489081 28015878 040°/70° 0° 2489599 28183279 050°65° 90° 2489545 28165780 215°/65° 90° 2489770 28167881 220°/65° 90° 2489897 28138082 215°/65° 90° 2489964 28138783 225°/60° 90° 2490023 28126384 240°/65° 90° 2489739 28093185 270°/57° 90° 2489799 28034086 280°/60° 90° 2493010 27156587 263°/74° 90° 2492469 27135688 110°/35° 90° 2496551 28048189 170°/70° 90° 2495213 28226590 050°/80 90° 2494911 28196491 297°/53° 90° 2494941 28171692 075°/87° 90° 2491583 28230893 040°/89° 0° 2491675 28230894 310°/50° 90° 2492699 28309795 070°/70° 90° 2494573 28588996 216°/80° 90° 2494163 28442197 215°/78° 90° 2495352 28254198 195°/43° 44° NW 2495 352 28254199 090°/75° 90° 2492705 286434100 090°/70° 0° 2492456 286170101 360°/70° 90° 2496144 283747102 245°/87° 90° 2496016 283924103 190°/75° 50° SE 2496016 283924104 245°/62° 90° 2496307 283125105 270°/755° 90° 2496922 283007106 210°/70° 90° 2496765 283088107 060°/65° 90° 2492135 282547108 114°/47° 90° 2492724 286422109 160°/88° 45° SW 2492818 283533110 230°/43° 90° 2492785 283475111 240°/65° 90° 2489601 287268112 270°/55° 90° 2490133 287174113 210°/60° 90° 2487362 287780114 055°/81° 90° 2487680 286984115 250°/60° 90° 2486797 286566

Notes: Coordinates in UTM system, 14Q Zone, using NAD27 projection.


faults related to the first-developed basins. Both the pyroclasticdeposits and the lava domes were emplaced within these basins(Fig. 13D). Volcanism of this period was rhyodacitic and the ventsrelated to the effusive products (domes) formed NNWchains parallel tothe basins' main orientations. At 30–28 Ma, syn-extensional volcanismdeveloped chains of elongated lava domes with a high-silica rhyoliticcomposition. Extension at this time marks the beginning of the Basinand Range event in this area. These domes were controlled by NW-oriented normal faults, which were used as conduits of these magmas(Fig. 13E). Then, between 28 and 26 Ma Basin and Range extensionreaches its peak in intensity in this area, and formed NW-oriented faultsystems and grabens, reactivating older faults and creating new faultsystems. At 26–25Ma,widespread ignimbrite-forming pyroclastic flowswere erupted through these faults thatfilled the graben and half-grabenstructures produced in this extensional event (Fig. 13F). Finally, thesedepressions were further filled with conglomerates and epiclastic rocksthat were tilted during Basin and Range faulting activity that continuedat least until Miocene.

5. Conclusions

Uplifting of blocks associated with basin development related toright-lateral strike-slip tectonics characterized the late Paleocene–earlyEocene interval of central-eastern Mexico. Early Eocene large plutonsand volcanic rocks were emplaced within these blocks by means of anen-echelon fault system affecting these blocks. The uplifted blocks and

Fig. 11. Summary of tectonic, volcanic, and sedimentary events in the Mesa Central for the time range between 60 and 20 Ma (after Aguirre-Díaz and McDowell, 1991). See text forexplanation.


associated plutons formed some of the highest ranges observed in theeastern Mesa Central province, such as Peñón Blanco and Sierra delCatorce. At the same time, thick sequences of continental clastic depositsas well as silicic-andesitic lavas accumulated in pull-apart basins, asoccurred in Ahualulco.

During the early to middle Oligocene, intense volcanic activityoccurred synchronously with the activity of newly-formed faults,reactivated old fault systems and produced thick sequences of siliciclava domes and pyroclastic rocks. Lava domes composition changedwith time, from rhyodacitic to rhyolitic, and were formed contempor-aneously with faulting episodes. The pyroclastic rocks are directlyrelated with the faulting events, using these faults as their principalvents. NE oriented Basin and Range extension initiated at about thesame time of rhyodacitic dome emplacement (32–30 Ma), andcontinued during emplacement of rhyolitic lava domes and pyroclasticrocks (30–28Ma). Rhyolitic explosive volcanism continued in the areaabout ~26–25Ma,whichfilled the contemporaneously formed graben.

This study provides a volcano-tectonic evolutionmodel based upongeological observations, which can be used as a case study to testexperimental or mathematical volcano-tectonic stress models on

continental crust affected by intense compression, then by a relaxationand trans-tension stage, and finally by an intense extensional regime,combined with a long-term subduction.

Acknowledgements

We thank to Adelina Geyer and Hiroaki Komuro for reviewing thiswork and for their comments, which substantially improved themanuscript. The authors also thank the comments of Elena Centenoand Scott Bryan on an earlier version. We also thank to Alfredo AguillónRobles and Rodolfo Rodríguez for their suggestions and support duringthe development of this work. We appreciate the Principal Office of theInstituto de Geología of the Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí,through Director Dr. Rafael Barboza, for financial and logistic support tothis study. We recognize the help of Gildardo González and Ana LizbethQuevedo in the digitization of maps and figures. We are grateful to“Programa de Formación de Profesores” (PROMEP) for a 3-yearscholarship to the first author. This study was financially supported inpart by grants to GJAD from CONACYT No. 46005-P and from UNAM-PAPIIT No. IN-115302.

Fig. 12. Schematic diagram showing the different stages (A to D, see text for explanation) for the formation and development of the shear zone (SZ) between the crustal blocks ofValles-San Luis Potosí Platform and the Mesozoic Basin of Central Mexico at the end of the Laramide orogeny, which was later affected by high-normal faulting and syn-extensionalvolcanism during the Oligocene, and then affected by listric extension and syn-extensional volcanism after 28 Ma to develop the Matehuala-San Luis Maximum Extension Zone.Explanation of symbols, 1—pre-Tertiary crust, 2—magma of intermediate composition, 3—magma of rhyolitic composition, 4: Valles-San Luis Potosí Platform, 5—Mesozoic Basin ofCentral Mexico, 6—dacitic–trachytic lava domes, 7—silicic lava domes, 8—silicic pyroclastic rocks, 9—granitic batholiths.


Fig. 13. Tectono-volcanic schematic model of the southern and southeastern Mesa Central for the period between the end of the Laramide orogeny (late-Cretaceous–late Paleocene)and the onset of Basin and Range faulting (late Oligocene). See text for explanation of phases A to F.



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post-laramide and pre-basin and range deformation and

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