POST-OIL ENERGY TECHNOLOGY

The Warld's First Solar-Hydrogen Demanstratian Pawer Plant

BELA LIPTAK

0) CRC Press Taylor &. Francis Group

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Contents

The Author xv Introduction xvii

1 The Case for Renewable Energy Processes 1 1.1 Global Trends 1

1.1.1 Global Energy Reserves and Trends 2 1.1.2 Traditional Energy Sources and Costs 3

1.1.2.1 Oil and Natural Gas 7 1.1.2.2 Coal 13 1.1.2.3 Nuclear 15

1.2 Global Warming 19 1.2.1 Greenhouse Gases 20 1.2.2 The Carbon Dioxide Cycle 21 1.2.3 Consequences of Carbon Emissions 23 1.2.4 Ice Caps and Glaciers 25 1.2.5 Ocean Currents and Hurricanes 27 1.2.6 Advanced Strategies to Reduce Carbon Emissions 29

1.2.6.1 Taxation or Cap-and-Trade 30 1.2.6.2 Sequestering, Carbon Capture and

Conversion into Methanol 32 1.2.7 Energy Politics, Economics, and the Lobbies 33

1.2.7.1 The United Nations 35 1.2.7.2 United States 37 1.2.73 Europe 42 1.2.74 Asia 43 1.2.7.5 OPEC Countries 44

1.2.8 Transportation Trends 45 1.2.8.1 Biofuels and Multifuel Vehicles 46 1.2.8.2 Hybrid Cars 47 1.2.8.3 Electric Cars 48 1.2.8.4 Fuel Cells vs. Batteries 49 1.2.8.5 Hydrogen Fuel Cell Cars 49 1.2.8.6 Hydrogen 1С Engine 52 1.2.8.7 Hydrogen Filling Stations 53

1.3 Non-Solar Renewable Technologies 54 1.3.1 Ethanol, Biofuels, Biodiesel, and Bioplastics 54

1.3.1.1 Ethanol 56 1.3.1.2 Biodiesel 57

1.3.2 Wind Turbines 58 1.3.2.1 Wind Turbine Installations 60

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viii Contents

1.3.3 Ocean Energy 61 1.3.4 Geothermal Energy .64 1.3.5 Fuel Cells 66

1.3.5.1 Fuel Cell Designs 67 1.3.5.2 Alkaline and Phosphoric Designs 73 1.3.5.3 Proton Electrolyte Membrane 73 1.3.5.4 Reversible Fuel Cells (RFCs) 74

1.3.6 Energy Conservation 75 1.4 Solar Energy 77

1.4.1 Insolation: Global and the United States 78 1.4.2 Area Required to Meet Global Needs 79 1.4.3 Solar Energy Storage 81

1.4.3.1 Storage by "Net Metering" 82 1.4.3.2 Storing as Chemical Energy 82

1.4.4 Solar Collector Designs 83 1.4.4.1 Thermal Solar Collector Designs (SEGS and

DSG) 83 1.4.4.2 The Combined-Cycle Plant (ISCCS) 87 1.4.4.3 Photovoltaic (PV) Collectors 87 1.4.4.4 Flat Collectors and Roof Shingles 89 1.4.4.5 Ultrathin-Film Nanowire Designs 90 1.4.4.6 Large-Scale PV Installations 91 1.4.4.7 Solar Updraft Towers 93 1.4.4.8 Stirling Solar Power Generators 94 1.4.4.9 Solar Satellites 96 1.4.4.10 Floating Solar Islands 96

1.4.5 Operating and New Solar Power Plants 97 1.4.6 Solar Collector Costs, Efficiencies, and Suppliers 99 1.4.7 Estimated Solar System Costs 102

1.5 Hydrogen Technology 104 1.5.1 Properties of Hydrogen 105 1.5.2 Hydrogen Generation 106 1.5.3 Solar-Hydrogen Production Efficiency 107 1.5.4 Electrolysis of Water to Produce Hydrogen 109 1.5.5 Oxyhydrogen (HHO) Process 112 1.5.6 Hydrogen Compression 113 1.5.7 Liquefaction of Hydrogen 115 1.5.8 Liquefaction Plants 116 1.5.9 Transportation and Storage 119 1.5.10 Hydrogen-Assisted Fossil Power Plants 121 1.5.11 Efficiencies of Fossil and Hydrogen Fuels 122 1.5.12 Hydrogen Generation and Handling Costs 123

1.6 Renewable Energy Economy 124 1.6.1 "Zero-Energy" Homes 125 1.6.2 Zero-Energy Home Costs 127 1.6.3 The Solar-Hydrogen Demonstration Plant 130

Contents ix

1.7 Costs and Efficiencies 133 1.7.1 Overall Costs of Energy 136

1.8 Conclusion 138

2 Control and Optimization of Energy Conservation and Renewable Energy Processes 141 2.1 Introduction 141 2.2 Boiler Control and Optimization 142

2.2.1 Excess Air Optimization 144 2.2.2 Multivariable Envelope Control 147

2.3 Building Conditioning Optimization 149 2.3.1 Self-Heating Buildings 152 2.3.2 Elimination of Chimney Effects 153

2.4 Chiller and Heat Pump Optimization 155 2.4.1 Minimum Cost of Operation 157 2.4.2 Reconfiguration and Storage 159 2.4.3 Cooling Towers 161

2.5 Compressor Optimization 162 2.5.1 Centrifugal Compressor Control 164 2.5.2 Surge Control 166 2.5.3 Optimized Load Following 167 2.5.4 Multiple Compressor Optimization 168

2.6 Control and Optimization Theory 171 2.6.1 Basics 171 2.6.2 Degrees of Freedom and Loop Gain 173 2.6.3 Feedforward Control 175 2.6.4 Process Reaction Curves 177 2.6.5 Proportional Control 179 2.6.6 Integral Control Mode 181 2.6.7 Derivative Control Mode 182 2.6.8 PID Control 184 2.6.9 Digital and Sample-and-Hold Algorithms 185 2.6.10 Open-Loop PID Tuning 187 2.6.11 Closed-Loop PID Tuning 191 2.6.12 Tuning by Computer 194 2.6.13 Cascade Control 194 2.6.14 Digital Configuration of Cascade Control 197 2.6.15 Ratio Control 198 2.6.16 Model-Based Controls 200 2.6.17 Model-Free Adaptive and Artificial Neural Network

Control 204 2.6.18 Adaptive and Optimizing Controls 207

2.7 Control Valves 211 2.7.1 Selection and Characteristics 211 2.7.2 Distortion and Rangeability 215 2.7.3 Valve Gain and Stability 217

Contents

2.7.4 Positioners 219 2.7.5 Self-Diagnosing and Flow-Sensing Smart Valves 220 2.7.6 Sizing of Control Valves 221 2.7.7 Applications—High Pressure 221 2.7.8 Applications—Noise 225 2.7.9 Applications—High Temperature 227 2.7.10 Applications—Cryogenic 229 2.7.11 Applications—Cavitation 232

2.8 Cooling Tower Optimization 236 2.9 Distillation Optimization 238

2.9.1 The Process 239 2.9.2 Column Variables and Their Pairing 241 2.9.3 Composition Control 242 2.9.4 Pressure Control 244 2.9.5 Minimizing Pressure and Vapor Recompression 244 2.9.6 Maximizing Feed Flow and Preheat 246 2.9.7 Reflux Controls 247 2.9.8 Maximized Recovery or Constant Separation 248 2.9.9 Controlling Two Products 251 2.9.10 Multiple Product and Multivariable Controls 252 2.9.11 Model-Based and ANN Control 253 2.9.12 Profitability-Based Optimization 255

2.10 Distribution of Liquids or Gases 257 2.11 Fan and Blower Optimization 259 2.12 Fuel Cell Controls 262

2.12.1 Fuel Cell Characteristics 263 2.12.2 Oxidant and Fuel Flow Metering 264 2.12.3 Temperature and Auxiliary Controls 267 2.12.4 Safety and Shutdown Controls 269 2.12.5 Reversible Fuel Cell (RFC) Controls 270

2.13 Geothermal Controls 272 2.13.1 Direct and Indirect Geothermal Pumping 272 2.13.2 "Binary Cycle" Geothermal Heat Pumps (GHPs) 273 2.13.3 "Flash Steam" Systems 275

2.14 Heat Exchanger Optimization 276 2.14.1 Degrees of Freedom, Gain, Time Constants 276 2.14.2 Tuning the Control Loop 277 2.14.3 Liquid-Liquid Heat Exchangers 278 2.14.4 Heating with Steam 280 2.14.5 Condenser and Vaporizer Controls 281 2.14.6 Advanced and Optimizing Controls 282

2.15 Hydrogen Process Optimization 285 2.15.1 Electrolyzer Controls 285 2.15.2 Hydrogen Compression 287 2.15.3 Hydrogen Liquefaction Optimization 289

Contents XI

2.16 Power Plant Optimization 292 2.16.1 Cogeneration and Combined Cycle 292 2.16.2 Level and Steam Temperature Controls 294 2.16.3 Gas Turbine and Electric Generator Controls 296

2.17 Pumping Station Optimization 299 2.17.1 Pump Curves, NPSH, and Cavitation 299 2.17.2 Pumping Station Optimization 302 2.17.3 Calculating the Savings 306

2.18 Solar Collector Farm Controls 307 2.18.1 Solar Hot Water System Controls 307 2.18.2 Combination Hot Water and Electricity Controls 308 2.18.3 Photovoltaic Collector Controls 310 2.18.4 Solar Plant Optimization Algorithms 311 2.18.5 Thermal Plant Optimization 312 2.18.6 Monitoring and Reconfiguration 313

2.19 Steam Turbine Optimization 314 2.19.1 Designs, Applications, and Governors 315 2.19.2 Steam Turbine Optimization 317 2.19.3 Extraction (Two-Stage) Turbine Optimization 318 2.19.4 Interaction, Decoupling and Safety 321

3 Sensors and Analyzers for Renewable Energy Processes 325 3.1 Introduction 325 3.2 Analyzers 326

3.2.1 Analyzer Selection 326 3.2.2 Analyzer Sampling 329

3.2.2.1 Filtering and Separation 331 3.2.2.2 Probe Cleaners and Homogenizers 332 3.2.2.3 Stack Gas Sampling 333

3.2.3 Air-Quality Monitoring 334 3.2.3.1 Single-Source Sensors 335 3.2.3.2 Static and Automatic Air Monitoring 337

3.2.4 Calorimeters 338 3.2.5 Carbon Dioxide 339 3.2.6 Coal Analyzers 341 3.2.7 Colorimeters and Shade Detectors 343 3.2.8 Combustibles 344 3.2.9 Fiber-Optic Probes 347 3.2.10 Hydrocarbon Analyzers 347 3.2.11 Infrared and Near-Infrared Analyzers 349 3.2.12 Mass Spectrometers 352 3.2.13 Moisture, Humidity, Dew Point 354 3.2.14 Moisture in Industrial Materials 357 3.2.15 Odor Detection 361 3.2.16 Open Path Spectrophotometry 362

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3.2.17 Oxygen in Gases 365 3.2.18 Raman Analyzers 369 3.2.19 Sulfur Oxide Analyzers 372 3.2.20 Ultraviolet Analyzers 374 3.2.21 Water Quality Monitoring 377

3.3 Anemometers 380 3.4 Btuand Heat Rate Measurement 382 3.5 Electric Meters and Peak Shedding 385 3.6 Energy Management Systems 389 3.7 Explosion Suppression 392 3.8 Fire, Flame, and Smoke Detectors 395 3.9 Flowmeters 396

3.9.1 Application and Selection 399 3.9.1.1 Accuracy and Rangeability 399 3.9.1.2 Safety and Cost 401 3.9.1.3 Low-Flow Applications 402

3.9.2 Cross-Correlation Flow Metering (CCFM) 402 3.9.3 Elbow Flowmeters 403 3.9.4 Jet Deflection Flowmeters 404 3.9.5 Laminar Flowmeters 405 3.9.6 Magnetic Flowmeters 405 3.9.7 Mass Flowmeters 408

3.9.7.1 Coriolis Mass Flowmeters 408 3.9.7.2 Thermal Mass Flowmeters 411 3.9.7.3 Indirect Mass Flowmeters 412 3.9.7.4 Angular Momentum Mass Flowmeters 413

3.9.8 Metering Pumps 414 3.9.9 Orifice Plates 416 3.9.10 Pitot Tubes 420 3.9.11 Polyphase Flowmeters 421 3.9.12 Positive-Displacement Flowmeters 423

3.9.12.1 PD Gas Meters 423 3.9.12.2 Liquid PD Meters 424

3.9.13 Purge Flowmeters 426 3.9.14 Solids Mass Flowmeters 427 3.9.15 Target Flowmeters 429 3.9.16 Turbine Flowmeters 430 3.9.17 Ultrasonic Flowmeters 432 3.9.18 Variable-Area Flowmeters (Rotameters) 435 3.9.19 V-Cone Flowmeter 436 3.9.20 Venturi Tubes and Nozzles 438 3.9.21 Vortex Flowmeters 441

3.10 Leak Detectors 444 3.11 Level Detectors 445

3.11.1 Capacitance Probes 449 3.11.2 Differential Pressure Sensors 450

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3.11.3 Displacement-Type Level Detectors 454 3.11.4 Laser and Optical Detectors 455 3.11.5 Microwave and Radar Gauges 458 3.11.6 Radiation Gauges 460 3.11.7 Tank Farm Level Monitoring 461 3.11.8 Ultrasonic Level Detectors 463

3.12 Machine Vision 465 3.13 Position Detection 468 3.14 Pressure Detection 470

3.14.1 Application and Selection 470 3.14.2 High-Pressure Sensors 473 3.14.3 Pressure Safety Devices 478

3.14.3.1 Alarm and Interlock Switches 478 3.14.3.2 Pressure Regulators 479 3.14.3.3 Relief Valves 482 3.14.3.4 Rupture Disks 483

3.15 Positioning and Proximity 488 3.16 Temperature 492

3.16.1 Application and Selection 496 3.16.2 Cryogenic Temperature Sensors 498 3.16.3 High-Temperature Sensors 500 3.16.4 Infrared and Fiber-Optic Thermometers 501 3.16.5 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) 505 3.16.6 Thermistors 508 3.16.7 Thermocouples 510

3.17 Weather Stations and Solar Detectors 516

4 The Design of the World's First Full-Size Solar-Hydrogen Demonstration Power Plant 521 4.1 Introduction 521 4.2 Solar-Hydrogen Demonstration Power Plant 521

4.2.1 The Process 522 4.2.2 Unique Design Features and Inventions 523 4.2.3 Profitability Optimization 526 4.2.4 Optimizing Control Systems 527

4.2.4.1 Solar Farm Optimization 527 4.2.4.2 Boiler and Heat Storage Optimization 529 4.2.4.3 Boiler Feedwater Optimization 530 4.2.4.4 Geothermal Heat Pump Optimization 530 4.2.4.5 Electrolyzer Optimization 531 4.2.4.6 H2 Liquefier Optimization 533 4.2.4.7 Methanol Converter System 535 4.2.4.8 Optimized H2 Compression 535

5 Conclusions 537 5.1 Comparing Energy Options 537

xiv Contents

5.2 Nuclear Option 538 5.3 Breeder Reactors 539 5.4 Costs of Converting to Renewable Energy 542 5.4 Costs of Inaction 543 5.5 The Road to a Sustainable Future 544 5.6 Dealing with Facts 546

Abbreviations 547

Index 553