potassium alum effect on performance and emissions … · potassium alum effect on performance and...

International Journal of Advancements in Research & Technology, Volume 2, Issue5, May-2013 126 ISSN 2278-7763

Copyright © 2013 SciResPub. IJOART

POTASSIUM ALUM EFFECT ON PERFORMANCE AND EMISSIONS OF DIESEL IN AN I.C ENGINE

BY AMMINENI SHYAM SUNDAR, B.B.M, P.G.D.B.A,

JUNIOR ASSISTANT (OUTSOURCING),

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY,

ANANTAPUR – 515002, A.P, INDIA.

E-MAIL: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

TO CONTROL DIESEL POLLUTION, POTASSIUM ALUM USAGE IN DIESEL (GREEN DIESEL) FOUND TO BE GOOD. IN THIS DIRECTION AN ATTEMPT HAS BEEN MADE BY THE PRESENT PROJECT TO EXPERIMENTALLY FIND THE EFFECT OF POTASSIUM ALUM ON THE PERFORMANCE AND EMISSIONS OF DIESEL IN AN I.C ENGINE. IN THE PRESENT WORK, DIESEL IS MIXED WITH DIFFERENT PROPORTIONS OF PURIFIED POTASSIUM; (PURIFIED IN THE SENCE, WHAT EVER THE TYPE POTASSIUM ALUM AVAILABLE, HEAT THE ALUM IN A WAY THAT THE ALUM SHOULD COME TO SOLID FORM TO LIQUID FORM AND LATER ON COOL IT TO GET SOLID FORM. LIKE THIS, DO TRICE. IT IS A PROCESS IN AYURVEDAM, BY THAT THE ALUM CAN BE USED AS A MEDICINE) AND ITS EFFECTS ON DIESEL ARE STUDIED BY CONDUCTING VARIOUS EXPERIMENTS. POTASSIUM ALUM IS KEPT IN DIESEL AND AFTER A PREDETERMINED TIME (7 DAYS) REMOVED THE ALUM. THE SAMPLE IS TAKEN FOR PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS LIKE FLASH POINT, FIRE POINT, BRAKE POWER, SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION, AND THERMAL EFFICIENCY ETC., ARE CALCULATED BASED ON EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS ON A 4-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE. EMISSIONS SUCH AS CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE AND UNBURNT HYDROCARBONS ARE MEASURED AND COMPARED.BY ALL RESULTS IT IS SAID THAT THE POTASSIUM ALUM USAGE IN DIESEL GIVES GOOD MILAGE AND ENGINE EFFICIENCY WITH NO POLLUTION. IN ORDER TO GET EASY ACCESS ABOUT POTASSIUM ALUM EFFECT ON DIESEL, THERE IS A NEED TO ANALYZE POTASSIUM ALUM, DIESEL.

INTRODUCTION

DIESEL FUEL, IN GENERAL, IS ANY LIQUID FUEL USED IN DIESEL ENGINES. THE NORMAL DIESEL IS POLLUTANT. TO REDUCE THE POLLUTION, THE CHEAP AND BEST PROCESESS IS USAGE OF POTASSIUM ALUM. THE DIESEL WITH POTASSIUM ALUM IS CALLED GREEN DIESEL. BY KEEPING SEVEN DAYS PURIFIED POTASSIUM ALUM IN ONE LITER DIESEL, THE PROPERTIES OF DIESEL LIKE FLASH POINT, FIRE POINT, CALOROFIC VALUE ETC., ARE CHANGING. THIS DIESEL IS USED ON A FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE. COMPARISION TO THE NORMAL DIESEL ON AN IC ENGINE AND POTASSIUM ALUMISED DIESEL ON IC ENGINE IS TAKEN. THE CONCEPT IS, WHATEVER THE DIESEL AVAILABLE IN THE MARKET (LOW SULFUR, ULTRA LOW SULFURE ETC.) TAKE IT. PUT IN THAT POTASSIUM ALUM AND USE THE DIESEL. BY

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THAT WE GET MORE MIELAGE AND MORE ENGINE EFFICIENCY AND NO POLLUTION.

MATERIALS

1. POTASSIUM ALUM

2. DIESEL

1. POTASSIUM ALUM, potash alum or Tawas is the potassium double sulfate of aluminium. Its chemical formula is KAl (SO4)2 and it is commonly found in its dodecahydrate form as KAl (SO4)2·12(H2O). Alum is the common name for this chemical compound, given the nomenclature of potassium aluminum sulfate dodecahydrate. It is commonly used in water purification, leather tanning, dyeing, fireproof textiles, and baking powder. It also has cosmetic uses as a deodorant, as an aftershave treatment and as a styptic for minor bleeding from shaving.

Characteristics

Potassium alum crystallizes in regular octahedra with flattened corners, and is very soluble in water. The solution reddens litmus and is an astringent. When heated to nearly a red heat it gives a porous, friable mass which is known as "burnt alum." It fuses at 92 °C in its own water of crystallization. "Neutral alum" is obtained by the addition of as much sodium carbonate to a solution of alum as will begin to cause the separation of alumina. Alum finds application as a mordant, in the preparation of lakes for sizing handmade paper and in the clarifying of turbid liquids. It can also be used as fire proof material and in preparation of many fire proof clothing. Molar Mass is 258.21 g/mol. Boiling Point is 200 °C. Melting Point is 92-93 °C. Density is 1.76 g/cm³. Odorless. Solubility in Water is 14.00 g/100 mL (20 °C), 36.80 g/100 mL (50 °C). Refractive Index (nD): 1.4564.

Mineral form and occurrence

Potassium alum or alum-(K) is a naturally occurring sulfate mineral which typically occurs as encrustations on rocks in areas of weathering and oxidation of sulfide minerals and potassium-bearing minerals. In the past, alum was obtained from alunite, a mineral mined from sulfur-containing volcanic sediments source. Alunite is an associate and likely potassium and aluminium

IJOART

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfate

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrate

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alum

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_compound

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomenclature

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_purification

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leather

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baking_powder

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baking_powder

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octahedra

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litmus

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astringent

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_of_crystallization

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_carbonate

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mordant

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alum-(K)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfate_mineral

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weathering

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfide_mineral

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alunite



source. It has been reported at Vesuvius, Italy, east of Springsure, Queensland, Alum Cave, Tennessee, Alum Gulch, Santa Cruz County, Arizona and the Philippine island of Cebu. A related mineral is kalinite, a fibrous mineral with formula KAl(SO4)2·11(H2O).

Uses Potassium alum is an astringent/styptic and antiseptic. For this reason, it can be used as a natural deodorant by inhibiting the growth of the bacteria responsible for body odor. Use of mineral salts in such a fashion does not prevent perspiration. Its astringent/styptic properties are often employed after shaving and to reduce bleeding in minor cuts and abrasions, nosebleeds, and hemorrhoids. It is frequently used topically and internally in traditional systems of medicine including Ayurveda, where it is called phitkari or saurashtri, patika in Telugu language and Traditional Chinese Medicine, where it is called Ming fan. It is also used as a hardener for photographic emulsions (films and papers), usually as part of the fixer, although modern materials are adequately hardened and this practice has fallen out of favour. It is also used in tanning of leather. Aftershave: In rock form, alum is used as an aftershave, due to its astringent property. It can be rubbed on freshly shaved face, and its astringent property helps in preventing and reducing bleeding caused due to minor cuts. Alum is a coagulant, which means it neutralizes the electrostatic charges on small suspended particles in water being treated. Once this happens, the particles are drawn together and form large clumps known as flocks, which then settle out of the water. In this way, alum is used to remove suspended solids from water.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesuvius

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennessee

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Cruz_County,_Arizona

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cebu

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalinite


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Styptic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiseptic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deodorant

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_odor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perspiration


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Styptic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistaxis

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemorrhoids

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayurveda

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_Medicine

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_fixer



2. DIESEL FUEL in general is any liquid fuel used in diesel engines. The most common is a specific fractional distillate of petroleum fuel oil. Petroleum-derived diesel is also called petro diesel. Ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) is a standard for defining diesel fuel with substantially lowered sulfur contents. The word "diesel" is derived from the family name of German inventor Rudolf Diesel who in 1892 invented the diesel engine. Diesel engines are a type of internal combustion engine. Petroleum diesel, also called petro diesel, or fossil diesel is produced from the fractional distillation of crude oil between 200 °C (392 °F) and 350 °C (662 °F) at atmospheric pressure, resulting in a mixture of carbon chains that typically contain between 8 and 21 carbon atoms per molecule. Petroleum-derived diesel is composed of about 75% saturated hydrocarbons (primarily paraffins including n, iso, and cycloparaffins), and 25% aromatic hydrocarbons (including naphthalenes and alkylbenzenes). The average chemical formula for common diesel fuel is C12H23, ranging approximately from C10H20 to C15H28.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF DIESEL: THE AVERAGE CHEMICAL FORMULA FOR COMMON DIESEL FUEL IS C12H23, RANGING APPROXIMATELY FROM C10H20 TO C15H28.

TABLE

HYDRO CARBON % OF VOLUME IN DIESEL

PARAFFINS 52.4

MONOCYCLOPARAFFINS 21.3

BICYCLOPARAFFINS 5.1

TRICYCLOPARAFFINS 0.8

TOTAL SATURATED HYDRO CARBONS

79.7

ALKYL BENZENES

13.5

INDANS/TETRALINS

3.3

DINAPTHENO BENZENES

0.9

NAPHTALENES 2.8

IJOART

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_engine

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_distillation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_oil

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra-low_sulfur_diesel

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra-low_sulfur_diesel

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Diesel




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_distillation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crude_oil

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecule

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturated_hydrocarbon

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturated_hydrocarbon

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkane

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoparaffin#Linear_alkanes

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoalkane#Isomerism

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycloalkane

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aromatic_hydrocarbon

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naphthalene

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkylbenzene



PROPERTIES OF DIESEL:

1) CETANE NUMBER:

CETANE NUMBER IS A MEASURE OF THE IGNITION DELAY OF A DIESEL FUEL. THE SHORTER THE INTERVAL BETWEEN THE TIME THE FUEL IS INJECTED AND THE TIME IT BEGINS TO BURN, THE HIGHER IS ITS CETANE NUMBER. IT IS A MEASURE OF THE EASE WITH WHICH THE FUEL CAN BE IGNITED AND IS MOST SIGNIFICANT IN LOW TEMPERATURE STARTING, WARM UP, IDLING AND SMOOTH, EVEN COMBUSTION. CETANE NUMBER REQUIREMENTS DEPEND ON ENGINE DESIGN AND SIZE, NATURE OF SPEED AND LOAD VARIATIONS, AND STARTING AND ATMOSPHERE CONDITIONS.

CETANE NUMBER IS MEASURED IN A SINGLE CYLINDER TEST ENGINE WITH A VARIABLE COMPRESSION RATIO. THE REFERENCE FUELS USED ARE MIXTURES OF CETANE, WHICH HAS A VERY SHORT IGNITION DELAY, AND ALPHAMETHYL NAPHTHALENE WHICH HAS A LONG IGNITION DELAY. THE PERCENTAGE OF CETANE IN THE REFERENCE FUEL IS DEFINED AS THE CETANE NUMBER OF THE TEST FUEL. A LOW CETANE NUMBER FUEL CAN ALSO CAUSE WHITE SMOKE AND ODOR AT START-UP ON COLDER DAYS. WHITE EXHAUST SMOKE IS MADE UP OF FUEL VAPORS AND ALDEHYDES CREATED BY INCOMPLETE ENGINE COMBUSTION.

BIPHENYLS/ACENAPTHENES

0.4

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IGNITION DELAY DURING COLD WEATHER IS OFTEN THE CAUSE. THERE IS NOT ENOUGH HEAT IN THE COMBUSTION CHAMBER TO IGNITE THE FUEL; THEREFORE, THE FUEL DOES NOT BURN COMPLETELY.

2) VOLATILITY :

THE DISTILLATION CHARACTERISTIC OF THE FUEL DESCRIBES ITS VOLATILITY. EITHER TOO HIGH OR TOO LOW VOLATILITY MAY PROMOTE SMOKING, CARBON DEPOSITS AND OIL DILUTION DUE TO THE EFFECT ON FUEL INJECTION AND VAPORIZATION IN THE COMBUSTION CHAMBER. FOR ENGINE IN SERVICES INVOLVING RAPIDLY FLUCTUATING LOADS AND SPEEDS, AS IN BUS AND TRUCK OPERATIONS, THE MORE VOLATILE FUELS MAY PROVIDE BETTER PERFORMANCE, PARTICULARLY WITH RESPECT TO SMOKE AND ODOUR. HOWEVER, BETTER FUEL ECONOMY IS GENERALLY OBTAINED FROM THE HEAVIER TYPES OF FUEL BECAUSE OF THEIR HIGHER ENERGY CONTENT

3) VISCOSITY:

VISCOSITY IS A MEASURE OF A LIQUID'S RESISTANCE TO FLOW. HIGH VISCOSITY FUEL WILL INCREASE GEAR TRAIN, CAM AND FOLLOWER WEAR ON THE FUEL PUMP ASSEMBLY BECAUSE OF THE HIGHER INJECTION PRESSURE. FUEL ATOMIZES LESS EFFICIENTLY AND THE ENGINE WILL BE MORE DIFFICULT TO START. LOW VISCOSITY FUEL MAY NOT PROVIDE ADEQUATE LUBRICATION TO PLUNGERS, BARRELS AND INJECTORS, AND ITS USE SHOULD BE EVALUATED CAREFULLY. THE VISCOSITY OF DIESEL FUEL IS NORMALLY SPECIFIED AT 40C. FUELS WITH VISCOSITIES OVER 5.5 CENTISTOKES AT 40C ARE LIMITED TO USE IN SLOW SPEED ENGINES, AND MAY REQUIRE PRE-HEATING FOR INJECTION. THE CGSB HAS A VISCOSITY RANGE OF 1.30-3.60 FOR TYPE A FUEL WHILE THE RANGE IS 1.70-4.10 FOR TYPE B FUEL.

4) FUEL LUBRICITY:

SOME PROCESSES USED TO DESULPHURIZE DIESEL FUEL, IF SEVERE ENOUGH, CAN ALSO REDUCE THE NATURAL LUBRICATING QUALITIES OF THE DIESEL FUEL. SINCE ENGINES REQUIRE THE DIESEL FUEL TO ACT AS A LUBRICANT FOR THEIR INJECTION SYSTEMS, DIESEL FUEL MUST HAVE SUFFICIENT LUBRICITY TO GIVE ADEQUATE PROTECTION AGAINST EXCESSIVE INJECTION SYSTEM WEAR.THE CANADIAN GENERAL STANDARDS BOARD RECOGNIZES THE VERY HIGH LUBRICITY STANDARD OUTLINED BY THE HIGH FREQUENCY RECIPROCATING RIG TEST (ASTM D6079) AND ALL CANADIAN AUTOMOTIVE DIESEL FUEL MUST PASS THIS STANDARD WITH A WEAR SCAR DIAMETER OF LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO 460 µM (MICRON) AT 60◦C. THIS ASSURES THAT CONSUMERS WILL HAVE ADEQUATE LUBRICITY UNDER ALMOST ALL NORMAL OPERATING CONDITIONS.

5) FLASH POINT:

FLASH POINT IS DETERMINED BY HEATING THE FUEL IN A SMALL ENCLOSED CHAMBER UNTIL THE VAPOURS IGNITE WHEN A SMALL FLAME IS PASSED OVER

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THE SURFACE OF THE LIQUID. THE TEMPERATURE OF THE FUEL AT THIS POINT IS THE FLASH POINT. THE FLASH POINT OF A DIESEL FUEL HAS NO RELATION TO ITS PERFORMANCE IN AN ENGINE OR TO ITS AUTO IGNITION QUALITIES. IT DOES PROVIDE A USEFUL CHECK ON SUSPECTED CONTAMINANTS SUCH AS GASOLINE, SINCE AS LITTLE AS 0.5% OF GASOLINE PRESENT CAN LOWER THE FLASH POINT OF THE FUEL VERY MARKEDLY. SHIPPING, STORAGE AND HANDLING REGULATIONS ARE PREDICATED ON MINIMUM FLASH POINT OF 40◦C. IT IS A VERY IMPORTANT ASPECT CONNECTED TO LEGAL REQUIREMENTS (SUCH AS THE TRANSPORTATION OF DANGEROUS GOODS (TDG)) REGULATIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS INVOLVED IN FUEL HANDLING AND STORAGE AND IS REQUIRED TO MEET INSURANCE AND FIRE REGULATIONS.

6) FIRE POINT: The fire point of a fuel is the temperature at which it will continue to burn for at least 5 seconds after ignition by an open flame. Diesel fire point is >720c.

7) ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY:

THE ABILITY OF A FUEL TO DISSIPATE ELECTRIC CHARGE THAT HAS BEEN GENERATED DURING PUMPING AND FILTERING OPERATIONS IS CONTROLLER BY ITS CONDUCTIVITY. IF A FUEL’S CONDUCTIVITY IS SUFFICIENTLY HIGH, THE STATIC ELECTRIC CHARGE DISSIPATES FAST ENOUGH TO PREVENT ITS ACCUMULATION AND DANGEROUSLY HIGH ELECTRICAL POTENTIALS ARE AVOIDED.

8) CARBON RESIDE:

CARBON RESIDUE GIVES A MEASURE OF THE CARBON DEPOSITING TENDENCIES OF A DIESEL FUEL AFTER EVAPORATION AND PYROLYSIS UNDER PRESCRIBED CONDITIONS. WHILE NOT DIRECTLY CORRELATING WITH ENGINES DEPOSITS, THIS PROPERTY IS CONSIDERED A GUIDE.

9) ASH

ASH FORMING MATERIAL MAYBE PRESENT IN DIESEL FUEL IN TWO FORMS: (1) ABRASIVE SOLIDS AND (2) SOLUABLE METALLIC SOAPS. ABRASIVE SOLIDS CONTRIBUTE TO INJECTOR, FUEL PUMP, PISTON AND RING WEAR, AND ALSO ENGINE DEPOSITS. SOLUABLE METALLIC SOAPS HAVE LITTLE EFFECT ON WEAR BUT MAY CONTRIBUTE TO ENGINE DEPOSITS.

10) SULPHUR CONTENT:

SULPHUR IN DIESEL FUEL CAN CAUSE COMBUSTION CHAMBER DEPOSITS, EXHAUST SYSTEM CORROSION, AND WEAR ON PISTONS, RINGS AND CYLINDERS, PARTICULARLY AT LOW WATER-JACKET TEMPERATURES.

ULTRA LOW SULPHUR DIESEL (ULSD) IS AN INITIATIVE OF THE CANADIAN GOVERNMENT TO SIGNIFICANTLY REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF SULPHUR IN ON-ROAD CLEAR AND OFF-ROAD DYED DIESEL. IT WAS AN AGGRESSIVE INIATIVE TO REDUCE FUEL SULPHUR TO 15 PARTS PER MILLION (PPM) BY MASS.

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YOUR PRESENT DIESEL ENGINES WILL PERFORM AS WELL WITH ULTRA LOW SULPHUR DIESEL AS THEY DID WITH LOW SULPHUR DIESEL AND WILL BENEFIT BY BURNING CLEANER, PRODUCING CLEANER EXHAUST AND, IN TURN, HELPING THE ENVIRONMENT. ULSD IS ALSO GUARANTEED TO MEET THE VERY HIGH LUBRICITY STANDARD.

11) CALORIFIC VALUE:

THE HEATING VALUE (CALORIFIC VALUE) OF A SUBSTANCE, USUALLY A FUEL, IS THE AMOUNT OF HEAT RELEASED DURING THE COMBUSTION OF A SPECIFIED AMOUNT OF IT. THE ENERGY VALUE IS A CHARACTERISTIC FOR EACH SUBSTANCE. IT IS MEASURED IN UNITS OF ENERGY PER UNIT OF THE SUBSTANCE, USUALLY MASS, SUCH AS: KJ/KG, KJ/MOL, KCAL/KG, BTU/LB. HEATING VALUE IS COMMONLY DETERMINED BY USE OF A BOMB CALORIMETER. HEATING VALUE UNIT CONVERSIONS:

• KCAL/KG = MJ/KG * 238.846 • BTU/LB = MJ/KG * 429.923 • BTU/LB = KCALS * 1.8 THE HEAT OF COMBUSTION FOR FUELS IS EXPRESSED AS THE HHV, LHV, OR GHV. HIGHER HEATING VALUE THE QUANTITY KNOWN AS HIGHER HEATING VALUE (HHV) (OR GROSS ENERGY OR UPPER HEATING VALUE OR GROSS CALORIFIC VALUE (GCV) OR HIGHER CALORIFIC VALUE (HCV)) IS DETERMINED BY BRINGING ALL THE PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION BACK TO THE ORIGINAL PRE-COMBUSTION TEMPERATURE, AND IN PARTICULAR CONDENSING ANY VAPOUR PRODUCED. SUCH MEASUREMENTS OFTEN USE A STANDARD TEMPERATURE OF 25°C. THIS IS THE SAME AS THE THERMODYNAMIC HEAT OF COMBUSTION SINCE THE ENTHALPY CHANGE FOR THE REACTION ASSUMES A COMMON TEMPERATURE OF THE COMPOUNDS BEFORE AND AFTER COMBUSTION, IN WHICH CASE THE WATER PRODUCED BY COMBUSTION IS LIQUID. THE HIGHER HEATING VALUE TAKES INTO ACCOUNT THE LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION OF WATER IN THE COMBUSTION PRODUCTS, AND IS USEFUL IN CALCULATING HEATING VALUES FOR FUELS WHERE CONDENSATION OF THE REACTION PRODUCTS IS PRACTICAL (E.G., IN A GAS-FIRED BOILER USED FOR SPACE HEAT). IN OTHER WORDS, HHV ASSUMES THE ENTIRE WATER COMPONENT IS IN LIQUID STATE AT THE END OF COMBUSTION (IN PRODUCT OF COMBUSTION) AND THAT HEAT ABOVE 150°C CAN BE PUT TO USE. LOWER HEATING VALUE THE QUANTITY KNOWN AS LOWER HEATING VALUE (LHV) (NET CALORIFIC VALUE (NCV) OR LOWER CALORIFIC VALUE (LCV)) IS DETERMINED BY SUBTRACTING THE HEAT OF VAPORIZATION OF THE WATER VAPOUR FROM THE HIGHER HEATING VALUE. THIS TREATS ANY H2O FORMED AS A VAPOUR. THE ENERGY REQUIRED TO VAPORIZE THE WATER THEREFORE IS NOT REALIZED AS HEAT.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_substance


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilojoule

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mole_(unit)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calorie

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_thermal_unit

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomb_calorimeter




LHV CALCULATIONS ASSUME THAT THE WATER COMPONENT OF A COMBUSTION PROCESS IS IN VAPOR STATE AT THE END OF COMBUSTION, AS OPPOSED TO THE HIGHER HEATING VALUE (HHV) (A.K.A. GROSS CALORIFIC VALUEOR GROSS CV) WHICH ASSUMES THAT ALL OF THE WATER IN A COMBUSTION PROCESS IS IN A LIQUID STATE AFTER A COMBUSTION PROCESS. THE LHV ASSUMES THAT THE LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION OF WATER IN THE FUEL AND THE REACTION PRODUCTS IS NOT RECOVERED. IT IS USEFUL IN COMPARING FUELS WHERE CONDENSATION OF THE COMBUSTION PRODUCTS IS IMPRACTICAL, OR HEAT AT A TEMPERATURE BELOW 150°C CANNOT BE PUT TO USE.

GROSS HEATING VALUE

• GROSS HEATING VALUE ACCOUNTS FOR WATER IN THE EXHAUST LEAVING AS VAPOR, AND INCLUDES LIQUID WATER IN THE FUEL PRIOR TO COMBUSTION. THIS VALUE IS IMPORTANT FOR FUELS LIKE WOOD OR COAL, WHICH WILL USUALLY CONTAIN SOME AMOUNT OF WATER PRIOR TO BURNING.

MEASURING HEATING VALUES THE HIGHER HEATING VALUE IS EXPERIMENTALLY DETERMINED IN A BOMB CALORIEMETER. THE COMBUSTION OF A STOICHIOMETRIC MIXTURE OF FUEL AND OXIDIZER (E.G., TWO MOLES OF HYDROGEN AND ONE MOLE OF OXYGEN) IN A STEEL CONTAINER AT 25° IS INITIATED BY AN IGNITION DEVICE AND THE REACTIONS ALLOWED COMPLETING. WHEN HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN REACT DURING COMBUSTION, WATER VAPOUR IS PRODUCED. THE VESSEL AND ITS CONTENTS ARE THEN COOLED TO THE ORIGINAL 25°C AND THE HIGHER HEATING VALUE IS DETERMINED AS THE HEAT RELEASED BETWEEN IDENTICAL INITIAL AND FINAL TEMPERATURES.

WHEN THE LOWER HEATING VALUE IS DETERMINED, COOLING IS STOPPED AT 150°C AND THE REACTION HEAT IS ONLY PARTIALLY RECOVERED. THE LIMIT OF 150°C IS AN ARBITRARY CHOICE.

NOTE: HIGHER HEATING VALUE (HHV) IS CALCULATED WITH THE PRODUCT OF WATER BEING IN LIQUID FORM WHILE LOWER HEATING VALUE (LHV) IS CALCULATED WITH THE PRODUCT OF WATER BEING IN VAPOUR FORM.

EXPERIMENTAL SET UP AND PROCEDURE PROJECT EXPERIMENT ONE LITRE OF NORMAL DIESEL IS TAKEN INTO CONSIDERATION AND ONE

LITRE OF DIESEL WEIGHS 846 GRAMS. POTASSIUM ALUM IS TAKEN AND DIVIDED INTO VARIOUS PROPORTIONS BY

WEIGHT NAMELY 3% ,4%,5% AND 6% COMPARED TO THE WEIGHT OF ONE LITRE OF DIESEL.

A CONTAINER IS TAKEN WITH ONE LITRE OF DIESEL AND ALUM WITH 3% BY WEIGHT OF DIESEL IS PUT INTO THE CONTAINER AND CLOSED WITH A LID.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoichiometric



IN THE SAME WAY OTHER 3 SAMPLES ARE PREPARED BY ADDING 4%, 5%, 6% OF ALUM TO THE DIESEL IN 3 CONTAINERS.

ALL THE 4 SAMPLES ARE CLOSED WITH A LID AND LEFT UNDISTURBED FOR 7 DAYS.

AFTER THE INTERVAL OF TIME LID IS OPENED SEVERAL EXPERIMENTS ARE CONDUCTED AND DIFFERENT PROPERTIES WERE FOUND OUT AND COMPARED WITH THE PROPERTIES OF NORMAL DIESEL.

THE PROPERTIES THAT ARE COMPARED ARE

• FLASH POINT AND FIRE POINT

• VISCOSITY

• CALORIFIC VALUE

PERFORMANCE TEST IS CONDUCTED AT DIFFERENT LOADS FOR ALL THE SAMPLES AND TOTAL FUEL CONSUMPTION AND BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY IS ESTIMATED ON A 4-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

EMISSIONS ARE ALSO MEASURED FOR ALL THE SAMPLES AT DIFFERENT LOADS BY USING EXHAUST GAS ANALYSER

DETERMINATION OF THE PROPERTIES OF DIESEL WITH DIFFERENT PERCENTAGES OF POTASSIUM ALUM

CLEAVELAND’S APPARATUS TO MEASURE FLASH AND FIRE POINT: TO DETERMINE THE FLASH AND FIRE POINT OF THE DIESEL SAMPLE USING CLEVELANDS’ APPARATUS THE FOLLOWING APPARATUS IS USED

APPARATUS REQUIRED ARE:

• CLEAVELANDS OPEN CUP

• HEATING SYSTEM

• STIRRER

• THERMOMETER

• SPLINTER

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THEORY OF EXPERIMENT: IT IS VERY ESSENTIAL TO KNOW THE FLASH AND FIRE POINT OF THE DIESEL BEFORE USING IT IN VARIOUS CONDITIONS FOR ANY GIVEN SAMPLE. THE FLASH POINT OF A VOLATILE MATERIAL IS THE LOWEST TEMPERATURE AT WHICH IT CAN VAPORIZE TO FORM AN IGNITABLE MIXTURE IN AIR. THE FIRE POINT, THE TEMPERATURE AT WHICH THE VAPOUR CONTINUES TO BURN AFTER BEING IGNITED.

DESCRIPTION: CLEVELANDS OPEN CUP IS PLACED ON THE STAND.A HEATING SYSTEM IS PROVIDED BENEATH THE CUP.A THERMOMETER IS PLACED IN THE CUP AND A SPLINTER IS USED TO DETECT THE POINTS

FIGURE.1

PROCEDURE: THE OPEN CUP APPARATUS IS CLEANED AND THE DIESEL IS TAKEN UP TO

THE MARK.

THE CUP IS PLACED ON THE HEATING SYSTEM AND THERMOMETER PLACED IN THE GAP SO THAT THE BULB TOUCHES THE SURFACE OF OIL.

A BURNING SPLINTER IS BROUGHT NEAR THE SURFACE OF THE OIL ,THE CORRESPONDING TEMPERATURE IS NOTED AS FLASH POINT

FURTHER RISE IN TEMPERATURE OF OIL IS NOTED AS FIRE POINT WHERE THE BURNING SPLINTER NEAR TO ITS SURFACE CATCHES FIRE

REMOVE THE CUP FROM THE HEATING SYSTEM AND CLEAN IT NEATLY

REPEAT THE EXPERIMENT WITH THE SAMPLE OF OIL TO GET CORRECT READINGS

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THE EXPERIMENT IS REPEATED FOR NORMAL DIESEL AND ALL THE SAMPLES TAKEN AND THE VALUES ARE COMPARED

DURING THE TIME OF EXPERIMENT THE PRECAUTIONS ARE TO BE TAKEN SO THAT SPLINTER SHOULD NOT TOUCH THE OIL SAMPLE AND ALSO THERMOMETER SHOULD TOUCH THE SURFACE OF OIL AND NOT THE CUP. THE OIL MUST BE HEATED CONSTANTLY FOR GRADUAL RISE IN TEMPERATURE. THE DATA SO OBTAINED HAS BEEN PRESENTED IN TABLE

REDWOOD VISCOMETER TO FIND VISCOSITY: TO DETERMINE THE KINEMATIC VISCOSITY AND ABSOLUTE VISCOSITY OF THE DIESEL AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES RED WOOD VISCOMETER IS USED THE APPARATUS REQUIRED TO DETERMINE THE VISCOSITY ARE

• RED WOOD VISCOMETER • THERMOMETER • STOP WATCH • SPIRIT LEVEL • GLASS JAR • DIESEL

DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS: IT CONSISTS OF A VERTICAL CYLINDER CONTAINING THE LIQUID WHICH IS ALLOWED TO DISCHARGE THROUGH A STANDARD ORIFICE SITUATED AT THE CENTRE OF THE BASE .THE BATH IS FITTED WITH A THERMOMETER AND STIRRING KNOB.BATH AND STIRRER ARE FURNISHED IN A HIGHLY POLISHED CHROMIUM PLATE TO FACILITATE CHARRING AND IS MOUNTED ON A STAND WITH LEVELLING NUT THE CYLINDER IS SURROUNDED BY A WATER JACKET WHICH CAN MAINTAIN THE LIQUID UNDER TEST AT A REQUIRED TEMPERATURE EITHER BY MEANS OF GAS HEATING WHERE A HEATING TUBE IS PROVIDED OR BY ELECTRONIC HEATING.

PROCEDURE: THE OIL CUP IS CLEANED WITH SUITABLE SOLVENT AND IT IS THOROUGHLY

DRIED USING SOFT TISSUE OR SIMILAR MATERIAL WHICH WILL NOT LEAVE ANY FIBRE.

THE BATH IS MOUNTED ON WHICH THE STAND AND CYLINDER LEVEL ARE PROVIDED.THE VISCOMETER IS LEVELLED

THE BATH IS FILLED WITH WATER.THE VISCOMETER BATH IS HEATED TO FEW DEGREES ABOVE THE DESIRED TEMPERATURE.

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THE PREPARED SAMPLE OF OIL IS POURED INTO THE OIL CUP THROUGH A FILTER OF MATERIAL GUAGE.

THE TEMPERATURE OF BATH IS ADJUSTED UNTILL THE SAMPLE IN THE CUP IS MAINTAINED AT THE TEST TEMPERATURE BY STIRRING THE CONTENTS OF THE BATH AND THE CUP DURING THE PROCESS,PREFERABLY BY CONSTANT STIRRING OF THE BATH

FIGURE .2

THEN THE QUITE STEADY TEMPERATURE IS NOTED THEN CLEAN AND DRY 50CC. FLASK IS PLACED CENTRALLY BELOW THE JET WITH THE TOP OF NECK

A FEW MM FROM THE BOTTOM OF THE JET, THE TIME RECORDED IS STOPPED AT THE INSTANT THE SAMPLE REACHED THE MARK.

EXPERIMENT IS REPEATED FOR DIFFERENT VALUES OF TEMPERATURES

SAME EXPERIMENT IS REPEATED FOR ALL REMAINING SAMPLES AND THE CALCULATED VISCOSITIES ARE COMPARED WITH THAT OF THE NORMAL DIESEL

THE DATA SO OBTAINED HAS BEEN TABULATED AND PRESENTED IN

BOMB CALORIEMETER TO MEASURE CALORIFIC VALUE:

TO DETERMINE THE CALORIFIC VALUE BOMB CALORIMETER IS USED.

BASIC PRINCIPLE:

A KNOWN WEIGHT OF SAMPLE IS BURNT IN THE BOMB CALORIMETER AND THE RISE IN TEMPERATURE IS DETERMINED.HEAT PRODUCED BY THE BURNING OF FUEL MUST BE EQUAL TO AMOUNT OF HEAT ABSORBED BY THE

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CALORIMETER ASSEMBLY.BEFORE CALCULATING THE CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUEL,THE WATER EQUIVALENT TO THE ASSEMBLY MUST BE CALCULATED.

DESCRIPTION:

THE APPARATUS CONSISTS OF THE FOLLOWING PARTS.

1) BOMB: - THE BOMB CONSISTS OF THREE PARTS VIZ. BOMB BODY, LID AND THE CAP.

THE BOMB VESSEL AND THE LID ARE MACHINED FROM AN CORROSION RESISTANT STAINLESS STEEL ALLOY ROD.THE BOMB BODY IS A CYLINDRICAL VESSEL HAVING CAPACITY OF 300ML.THE WALLS ARE STRONG ENOUGH TO EASILY SUPPORT THE NORMAL OPERATING PRESSURE(30 ATMOSPHERES) AND ALSO EXTREME PRESSURE AS HIGH AS 300 ATMOSPHERES.DURING BURNING AT HIGH PRESSURE THE NITROGEN AND SULPHUR CONTENTS ARE OXIDISED TO NITRIC ACID AND SULPHURIC ACID RESPECTIVELY.THE CORROSION RESISTANT NATURE OF THE BOMB MATERIAL PROTECT IT FROM THE CORROSIVE VAPOURS.THE LID IS PROVIDED WITH TWO TERMINALS.THE METALLIC RODS PASS THROUGH THESE TERMINALS,ONE OF WHICH IS PROVIDED WITH A RING FOR PLACING THE SAMPLE CRUCIBLE WITH A SMALL HOOK AND THE OTHER WITH A GROOVE.EACH ROD IS ALSO PROVIDED WITH A RING TO PRESS THE FUSE WIRE ATTACHED TO IT.THE UPPER SIDE OF THE LID IS ALSO PROVIDED WITH SMALL HOOK ROD LIFTING IT AND WITH A SCHRADER VALVE FOR FILLING OXYGEN IN THE BOMB.THE VALVE IS PROVIDED WITH A METALLIC CAP.

2)WATER JACKET: IT IS MADE OF STAINLESS STEEL POLISHED ON THE INSIDE AND ALSO OUTSIDE TO MINIMISE RADIATIVE LOSSES.THE TOP OF JACKET CARRIES A ROD TO HOLD THE STIRRER UNIT AND A SMALL PIPE THROUGH WHICH WATER IS ADDED.THE PIPE ALSO SUPPORTS THE THERMOMETER FOR MEASURING TEMPERATURE INSIDE THIS JACKET.

3)OFFSET STIRRER: IT CONSISTS OF A STIRRER DRIVEN AT CONSTANT SPEED OF 800 RPM BY A MOTOR THROUGH A HEAT INSULATOR RUBBER BELT.THE MOTOR UNIT IS KEPT AT SUFFICIENT DISTANCE FROM THE VESSEL TO ELIMINATE HEATING.

4) CALORIMETER VESSEL: IT IS MADE OF STAINLESS STEEL AND IS POLISHED OUTSIDE.

BOMB FIRING UNIT: THE FIRING UNIT IS OPERATED BY A.C MAINS (230 VOLTS).THE ELECTRICAL BOX IS PROVIDED WITH TERMINALS FOR THE STIRRER UNIT, THE ALARM UNIT AND THE BOMB FUSE WIRE.

5)PRESURE GUAGE ON STAND: AN ACCURATE PRESSURE GUAGE IS SUPPLIED FOR MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE OF OXYGEN IN THE BOMB.THE

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DIAL IS GRADUATED FROM 0 TO 56G/CM(0 TO 600 IB/IN2).NORMALLY THE OXYGEN IS FILLED IN THE BOMB AT A PRESSURE OF 25KG/CM2.

6)GAS RELEASE VALVE: IT IS TO REMOVE THE EXCESS OF OXYGEN.IT IS SCREWED ON THE SCHREDER VALVE PROVIDED ON THE LID OF THE BOMB.THE KNOB SHOULD BE TURNED DOWN TO RELEASE EXCESS OF OXYGEN GAS OUT OF THE TUBE.

7) CRUCIBLE: THE STAINLESS STEEL CRUCIBLE IS OFFERED AS STANDARD WITH INSTRUMENT.

8) IGNITION WIRE: A NICHROME WIRE OF 5M LENGTH IS PROVIDED WITH INSTRUMENT.

FIGURE .3

PROCEDURE:

A KNOWN WEIGHT (0.5_1.0) OF GIVEN FUEL IS TAKEN IN A CLEAN CRUCIBLE AND KEPT IN THE RING.

A POINT WIRE TOUCHING THE FUEL SAMPLE IS STRETCHED AND TIGHTENED TO THE TWO ELECTRODES AND IS INSERTED INTO THE CRUCIBLE.

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PLACE 10 ML OF DISTILLED WATER INSIDE THE BOMB WITH THE HELP OF PIPETTE.

SCREW THE BOMB TIGHT AND SLOWLY PASS OXYGEN GAS UPTO 2.5 ATMOSPHERES OF PRESSURE AFTER CONNECTING BOMB TO OXYGEN CYLINDER.

PLACE THE BOMB INSIDE THE COPPER CALORIMETER CONTAINING THE KNOWN WEIGHT OF WATER SO THAT BOMB IS IMMERSED IN WATER AND TERMINALS ARE OUTSIDE WATER.

CONNECT THE ELECTRODES TO 6V BATTERY. SAMPLE BURNS AND HEAT IS LIBERATED AND RISE IN TEMPERATURE

IS RECORDED. SAME EXPERIMENT IS REPEATED FOR ALL DIFFERENT SAMPLES AND

COMPARED WITH NORMAL DIESEL. THE DATA SO OBTAINED HAS BEEN TABULATED AND PRESENTED IN

PERFORMANCE TEST ON 4-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE:

PERFORMANCE TEST IS CONDUCTED ON THE 4-STROKE ENGINE USING THE DIFFERENT SAMPLES.

DESCRIPTION:

ENGINE: THE ENGINE IS SUPPLIED BY M/S ANIL COMPANY. THE ENGINE IS SINGLE CYLINDER VERTICAL TYPE FOUR STROKE, WATER COOLED, AND COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE. THE ENGINE IS SELF GOVERNED TYPE.

THE PRESENT ENGINE IS ONE OF THE EXTENSIVELY USED ENGINES IN INDUSTRIAL SECTOR IN INDIA. THIS ENGINE CAN WITHSTAND PEAK PRESSURES ENCOUNTERED BECAUSE OF ITS ORIGINAL HIGH COMPRESSION RATIO. HENCE THIS ENGINE IS SELECTED FOR PRESENT PROJECT WORK.

SPECIFICATIONS OF DIESEL ENGINE USED FOR EXPERIMENTATION

TABLE

ITEM SPECIFICATIONS ENGINE POWER 3.78KW CYLINDER BORE 80MM STROKE LENGTH 110MM ENGINE SPEED 1500RPM COMPRESSION RATIO 16.5:1

THE EXPERIMENTAL SET UP CONSIST OF ENGINE, AN ALTERNATOR,TOP LOAD SYSTEM, FUEL TANK ALONG WITH IMMERSION HEATER AND EXHAUST GAS MEASURING DIGITAL DEVICE.

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DYNAMOMETER: THE ENGINE IS COUPLED TO A GENERATED TYPE ELECTRICAL DYNAMOMETER WHICH IS PROVIDED FOR LOADING THE ENGINE.

FUEL INJECTION PUMP: THE PUMP IS DRIVEN BY CONSUMING SOME PART OF POWER PRODUCED BY THE ENGINE; IT WILL PROVIDE THE REQUIRED POWER TO THE ENGINE.THE PUMP IS BOSCH FUEL INJECTION PUMP.

FUEL INJECTOR: THE INJECTOR ASSEMBLY CONSISTS OF

1. A NEEDLE VALVE 2. A COMPRESSION SPRING 3. A NOZZLE 4. AN INJECTOR BODY

DIGITAL THERMOMETER: IT CONSISTS OF TEMPERATURE SENSING ELEMENT CONNECTED TO THE ELECTRONIC DIGITAL DISPLAY WHICH IS OPERATED BY BATTERY.

PROCEDURE:

START THE ENGINE AT NO LOAD CONDITION WITH THE HELP OF CRANK PROVIDED. LET THE ENGINE STABILISED. TIME TAKEN FOR CONSUMPTION OF 20ML OF DIESEL IS NOTED WITH THE HELP OF BURETTE AND STOP WATCH. TAKE THE READINGS ON VOLTMETER AND AMMETER FOR EVERY LOAD. INCREASE THE LOAD OF ENGINE BY 15% OF FULL LOAD AS PER LOADING PROCEDURE. REPEAT THE STEPS FOR DIFFERENT LOADS AND UNLOAD GRADUALLY. MEASUREMENT OF BRAKE POWER: THE POWER DEVELOPED IN THE ENGINE IS MEASURED BY USING ELECTRICAL DYNAMO METER. THE PUMP IS RUN BY USING THE POWER DEVELOPED BY THE ENGINE. THE TOTAL POWER IS OBTAINED BY ADDING PUMP POWER TO THE PRODUCT OF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT. MEASUREMENT OF FUEL: THE FUEL FLOW IS MEASURED BY VOLUME THROUGH A BURETTE TUBE WHICH IS FIXED BETWEEN FUEL TANK AND FUEL PUMP. A T-JOINT PREPARED AND ONE SIDE OF IT IS CONNECTED TO THE FUEL MEASURING TUBE. THE REMAINING TWO SIDES OF THE JOINTS ARE CONNECTED TO THE FUEL TANK AND THE FUEL PUMP RESPECTIVELY. FUEL FLOW IS MEASURED BY NOTING THE TIME TAKEN FOR 20 C.C OF FUEL CONSUMPTION BY STOP-WATCH. MEASUREMENT OF EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE: THE TEMPERATURE OF EXHAUST GAS IS MEASURED BY USING DIGITAL ELECTRONIC DEVICES. IT GIVES EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE DIRECTLY. REPEAT THE EXPERIMENT FOR DIFFERENT SAMPLES AND COMPARED WITH THAT OF THE NORMAL DIESEL. THE DATA OBTAINED HAS BEEN PRESENTED IN THE TABLE.

EMISSIONS

DURING THE PERFORMANCE TEST ON THE ENGINE WITH THE VARIOUS SAMPLES AT DIFFERENT LOADS WHICH ARE INCREASING GRADUALLY EMISSIONS ARE ALSO ANALYSED FOR THE SAMPLES BY USING EXHAUST

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GAS ANALYSER EQUIPMENT. THE EQUIPMENT ANALYSED DIFFERENT GASES PRESENT IN THE EXHAUST LIKE OXYGEN, CARBON DIOXIDE, CARBON MONOXIDE, HYDRO CARBONS ETC AND THE QUANTITY OF EACH GAS PRESENT IN THE EXHAUST. THE EMISSIONS ARE ANALYSED FOR VARIOUS SAMPLES AT DIFFERENT LOADS AND COMPARED WITH THAT OF THE NORMAL DIESEL. THE DATA SO OBTAINED HAS BEEN PRESENTED IN THE TABLE

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

FLASH AND FIRE POINT

FLASH AND FIRE POINTS OF ALL THE SAMPLES WERE FOUND OUT BY USING CLEVELAND’S APPARATUS AND RECORDED AS

OBSERVATIONS:

NORMAL DIESEL:

TRAILS FLASH POINT FIRE POINT 1 54 57 2 51 54 3 51 54 AVG 52 55

DIESEL WITH 3% OF ALUM

TRAILS FLASH POINT FIRE POINT 1 47 51 2 48 51 3 47 50 AVG 47.33 50.67




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VISCOSITY

KINEMATIC VISCOSITY IS FOUND OUT BY USING RED WOOD VISCO METER

KINEMATIC VISCOSITY KV =AT-B/T

WHERE T= TIME IN SECONDS

A=0.26 B= 179

ABSOLUTE VISCOSITY =SPECIFIC GRAVITY×KV

SPECIFIC GRAVITY= 0.846/ [1+0.00036(T-15.55)]

VISCOSITY IS IN CENTI POISE

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

NORMAL DIESEL:

TEMPERATURE TIME(SEC) KINEMATIC VISCOSITY(CENTI POISE)

SP.GRAVITY ABSOLUTE VISCOSITY (CENTI POISE)

30 31.19 2.37 0.8397 1.99 40 30.06 1.861 0.8410 1.565 50 29.52 1.649 0.8411 1.387 60 29.2 1.462 0.8415 1.230

DIESEL WITH 3% OF ALUM:

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30 30.65 2.129 0.8411 1.79 40 29.43 1.569 0.8419 1.32 50 29.09 1.410 0.8429 1.1872 60 28.9 1.320 0.8422 1.11

DIESEL WITH 4% OF ALUM:



30 30.53 2.075 0.8414 1.745 40 29.05 1.391 0.8423 1.172 50 28.78 1.263 0.8427 1.064 60 28.5 1.129 0.8429 0.952




30 29.99 1.829 0.8418 1.5396 40 28.95 1.344 0.8425 1.1323 50 28.71 1.229 0.8428 1.0358 60 28.05 0.911 0.8433 0.7682




30 30.69 2.147 0.8418 1.8073 40 28.6 1.177 0.8425 0.9916 50 28.1 0.936 0.8428 0.7889 60 27.5 0.641 0.8433 0.5405

CALORIFIC VALUE:

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A KNOWN WEIGHT OF SAMPLE IS BURNT IN THE BOMB CALORIMETER AND THE RISE IN TEMPERATURE IS DETERMINED.HEAT PRODUCED BY THE BURNING OF FUEL MUST BE EQUAL TO AMOUNT OF HEAT ABSORBED BY THE CALORIMETER ASSEMBLY.BEFORE CALCULATING THE CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUEL,THE WATER EQUIVALENT TO THE ASSEMBLY MUST BE CALCULATED.

HCV= (W+W) (T2-T1+TC)

W=WEIGHT OF WATER IN CALORIMETER

W=WATER EQUIVALENT OF CALORIMETER

T2=FINAL TEMPERATURE OF CALORIMETER

T1=INITIAL TEMPERATURE OF CALORIMETER

TC=COOLING CORRECTIONS

TABLE

SERIAL NO SAMPLE CHANGE IN TEMP

AVG CHANGE

CALORIFIC VALUE IN KJ/KG

1 NORMAL DIESEL

1.62 1.42

1.52 44,000

2 DIESEL WITH 3% ALUM

1.65 1.47

1.56 45,176.16

3 DIESEL WITH 4 % ALUM

1.72 1.59

1.65 47822.74


1.9 1.84

1.87 54,292


1.7 1.74

1.72 49881.207

PERFORMANCE TESTS

PERFORMANCE TEST FOR THE DIFFERENT SAMPLES IS CONDUCTED ON A 4-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE AND THE CALCULATIONS ARE DONE BY USING THE FOLLOWING FORMULAE

1) TOTAL FUEL CONSUMPTION IN KG/S =( VOL OF DIESEL ×DENSITY×10-6)/T 2) BRAKE POWER = VI/1000 KW

WHERE V=VOLTAGE IN VOLTS

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I=CURRENT IN AMPHERES 3) HEAT INPUT= TOTAL FUEL CONSUMPTION ×CALORIFIC VALUE KW 4) INDICATED POWER=BRAKE POWER + FRICTION POWER(FROM GRAPH) 5) BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY= BRAKE POWER/HEAT INPUT 6) INDICATED THERMAL EFFICIENCY=INDICATED POWER/HEAT INPUT 7) MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY= BRAKE POWER /INDICATED POWER

ALL THE VALUES ARE CALCULATED AND TABULATED IN THE FOLLOWING PAGES

PERFORMANCE TEST RESULTS FOR NORMAL DIESEL FRICTION POWER=1.53 KW

SERIAL NO

LOAD TIME IN SEC

TOTAL FUEL CONSUMPTION IN KG/S

EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE IN 0C

AIR VELOCITY IN M/S

VOLTAGE IN VOLTS

CURRENT IN AMPHERES

BRAKE POWER IN KW

1

0 84.34 200.6×10-6 165 3.2 230 0 0

2

500 81.52 207.5×10-6 235 3.9 230 1.25 0.2875

3

1000 65.54 258.16×10-

6 270 5.4 230 2.75 0.6325

4

1500 50.66 333.9X10-6 312 7.8 230 5.5 1.265

5 2000 39.42 429.22X10-

6 385 9.6 230 7.7 1.771

HEAT INPUT IN KW

INDICATED POWER IN KW

MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY

BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY

INDICATED THERMAL EFFICIENCY

8.826 1.53 0 0 17.335

9.130 1.817 15.823 3.149 19.901

11.359 2.162 29.255 5.568 20.033

14.692 2.795 45.259 8.610 19.024

18.886 3.301 53.650 9.377 17.478

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PERFORMANCE TEST RESULTS FOR DIESEL WITH 3% OF ALUM FRICTION POWER=1.5 KW

SERIAL NO

LOAD TIME IN SEC


EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE IN 0C

AIR VELOCITY IN M/S

VOLTAGE IN VOLTS

CURRENT IN AMPHERES

BRAKE POWER IN KW

1

0 104.02 162.27×10-6 180 2.8 230 0 0

2

500 86.14 196.42×10-6 228 6.6 230 1.42 0.322

3

1000 71.84 235×10-6 278 6.9 230 3.35 0.771

4

1500 55.84 303.01X10-6 310 7.6 230 5.65 1.299

5 2000 42.84 394.95X10-6 358 9.6 230 7.8 1.794

HEAT INPUT IN KW





7.331 1.5 0 0 20.461

8.873 1.822 17.673 3.629 20.531

10.616 2.271 33.949 7.263 21.392

13.689 2.729 47.599 9.489 19.936

17.842 3.294 54.463 10.055 18.462

PERFORMANCE TEST RESULTS FOR DIESEL WITH 4% OF ALUM FRICTION POWER=1.47KW

SERIAL NO

LOAD TIME IN SEC


TEMPERATURE IN 0C

AIR VELOCITY IN M/S

VOLTAGE IN VOLTS

CURRENT IN AMPHERES

BRAKE POWER IN KW

1

0 105.74 160.02×10-6 190 3 230 0 0

2

500 87.26 193.9×10-6 223 3.5 230 1.5 0.345

3

1000 72.24 234.21×10-6 302 4.9 230 3.5 0.805

4

1500 56.36 300.212X10-

6 318 5.2 230 5.75 1.322

5 2000 43.94 386.83X10-6 353 5.4 230 7.8 1.794

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HEAT INPUT IN KW





7.652 1.47 0 0 19.211

9.273 1.815 19.008 3.720 19.575

11.2 2.275 35.385 7.187 20.312

14.357 2.792 47.349 9.208 19.447

18.499 3.264 54.963 10.698 17.644

PERFORMANCE TEST RESULTS FOR DIESEL WITH 5% OF ALUM FRICTION POWER=1.35KW

SERIAL NO

LOAD TIME IN SEC


TEMPERATURE IN 0C

AIR VELOCITY IN M/S

VOLTAGE IN VOLTS

CURRENT IN AMPHERES

BRAKE POWER IN KW

1

0 106.42 158.99×10-

6 148 3.5 230 0 0

2

500 88.6 190.97×10-

6 195 4.1 230 2.1 0.483

3

1000 73.36 230.64×10-

6 240 4.6 230 3.9 0.897

4

1500 59.3 285.32X10-

6 270 5.5 230 5.85 1.345

5 2000 45.9 371.86X10-

6 345 6.1 230 7.9 1.817

HEAT INPUT IN KW





8.632 1.35 0 0 15.639

10.368 1.833 26.350 4.658 17.679

12.522 2.247 39.919 7.163 17.944

15.490 2.695 49.907 8.683 17.398

20.185 3.167 57.373 9.001 15.689

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PERFORMANCE TEST RESULTS FOR DIESEL WITH 6% OF ALUM

FRICTION POWER=1.5KW

SERIAL NO

LOAD TIME IN SEC


TEMPERATURE IN 0C

AIR VELOCITY IN M/S

VOLTAGE IN VOLTS

CURRENT IN AMPHERES

BRAKE POWER IN KW

1

0 105.32 160.653×10-

6 182 3.1 230 0 0

2

500 86.94 194.62×10-6 225 3.6 230 2.1 0.483

3

1000 69.72 242.68×10-6 283 4.2 230 3.7 0.851

4

1500 53.60 315.67X10-6 328 4.8 230 5.75 1.323

5 2000 39.34 430.10X10-6 378 5.1 230 7.7 1.771

HEAT INPUT IN KW





8.013 1.5 0 0 18.719

9.708 1.822 24.357 4.975 20.426

12.105 2.271 36.197 7.030 19.422

15.746 2.729 46.865 8.403 17.928

21.454 3.294 54.142 8.255 15.246

EMISSIONS

DURING THE PERFORMANCE TEST OF THE 4-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE WITH THE VARIOUS SAMPLES SEVERAL EXHAUST GASES ARE RELEASED. ALL THE EXHAUST GASES ARE ANALYSED AT DIFFERENT LOADS BY USING EXHAUST GAS ANALYSER

AFTER ANALYSING THE EXHAUST GASES THEY ARE TABULATED AND COMPARED WITH THAT OF THE NORMAL DIESEL

WHERE

• CO-CARBON MONOXIDE • HC-HYDRO CARBONS • CO2 –CARBON DIOXIDE • O2-OXYGEN

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EMISSIONS OF VARIOUS GASES FOR NORMAL DIESEL:

ERIAL NO LOAD IN WATTS

CO IN % VOL

HC IN PPM CO2 % VOL

O2 % VOL

1 0 0.02 0 0.3 20.6 2 500 0.02 0 0.6 20.38 3 1000 0.03 0 0.9 20.2 4 1500 0.11 10 1 20.01 5 2000 1.01 109 3.6 17.04

EMISSIONS OF VARIOUS GASES FOR DIESEL WITH 3% OF ALUM:

SERIAL NO LOAD IN WATTS

CO IN % VOL

HC IN PPM CO2 IN % VOL

O2 IN % VOL

1 0 0.02 0 0.2 20.57 2 500 0.0 0 0.1 20.69 3 1000 0.01 0 0.1 20.74 4 1500 0.06 6 0.5 20.29 5 2000 0.52 55 1.7 18.43



CO IN % VOL


O2 IN % VOL

1 0 0.0 0 0 20.73 2 500 0.01 0 0.2 20.56 3 1000 0.01 0 0.5 20.26 4 1500 0.09 3 0.7 20.05 5 2000 0.38 46 1.1 19.19



CO IN % VOL


O2 IN % VOL

1 0 0.04 0 0.9 19.8 2 500 0.02 0 0.5 20.13 3 1000 0.03 0 0.6 20.09 4 1500 0.07 1 0.5 20.12 5 2000 0.18 21 0.6 19.88



CO IN % VOL


O2 IN % VOL

1 0 0.03 1 0.7 20.16 2 500 0.03 2 1 19.8 3 1000 0.03 6 0.7 20.03 4 1500 0.17 15 1.2 19.52

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5 2000 0.25 27 0.8 19.74 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

FLASH AND FIRE POINTS

IN ORDER TO ANALYSE THE EFFECT OF VARIATION OF FLASH AND FIRE POINTS WITH RESPECT TO DIFFERENT PERCENTAGES OF ALUM, THE FOLLOWING FIGURE PRESENTED BELOW

FLASH POINT VS % OF POTASSIUM ALUM

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Tem

pera

ture

% of Alum

flash point

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Tem

pera

ture

% of Alum

fire point

fire point

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FIRE POINT VS % OF POTASSIUM ALUM

FROM THE GRAPH IT CAN BE OBSERVED THAT FLASH AND FIRE POINTS ARE CONTINUOUSLY REDUCING WITH INCREASE IN PERCENTAGE OF ALUM FROM 0 TO 6%

VISCOSITY

IN ORDER TO ANALYSE THE EFFECT OF VARIATION IN VISCOSITY WITH RESPECT TO DIFFERENT PERCENTAGES OF POTASSIUM ALUM THE FOLLOWING FIGURES ARE PRESENTED BELOW

KINEMATIC VISCOSITY VS % OF POTASSIUM ALUM AT ROOM TEMPERATURE

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

0 2 4 6 8

Visc

osity

% of Alum

kinematicviscosity at30 C

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KINEMATIC VISCOSITY VS % OF POTASSIUM ALUM AT 400C


0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2

0 2 4 6 8

Visc

osity

% of Alum

kinematicviscosity at40 C

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

0 2 4 6 8

Visc

osity

% of Alum

Kinematicviscosity at50 C

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FROM THE GRAPHS IT CAN BE OBSERVED THAT AS THE ALUM CONTENT IN DIESEL IS INCREASING FROM 0 TO 6%, VISCOSITY IS FOUND TO BE DECREASING BUT AN INCREASE IN VISCOSITY IS OBSERVED IN DIESEL WITH 6% ALUM AT ROOM TEMPERATURE.

CALORIFIC VALUE

IN ORDER TO ANALYSE THE EFFECT OF VARIATION IN CALORIFIC VALUE WITH RESPECT TO DIFFERENT PERCENTAGES OF POTASSIUM ALUM FIGURE HAS BEEN PRESENTED BELOW

CALORIFIC VALUE VS % OF POTASSIUM ALUM

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

0 2 4 6 8

Visc

osity

% of Alum

KinematicViscosity at60 C

0

10000

20000

30000

40000

50000

60000

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Calo

rific

Val

ue

% of Alum

Calorific Value

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FROM THE GRAPH IT CAN BE OBSERVED THAT CALORIFIC VALUE IS CONTINUOUSLY INCREASING WITH INCREASE IN PERCENTAGE OF ALUM FROM 0 TO 5 %. MORE THAN 5% DECREASING. IT CLEARLY INDICATES THE EXISTENCE OF AN OPTIMUM VALUE OF PERCENTAGE OF ALUM IS AROUND 5%.

PERFORMANCE TESTS - TOTAL FUEL CONSUMPTION

IN ORDER TO ANALYSE THE EFFECT OF VARIATION IN TOTAL FUEL CONSUMPTION WITH RESPECT TO DIFFERENT PERCENTAGES OF POTASSIUM ALUM AT VARIOUS LOADS THE FOLLOWING FIGURES PRESENTED BELOW

TOTAL FUEL CONSUMPTION VS % OF POTASSIUM ALUM AT NO LOAD

TOTAL FUEL CONSUMPTION VS % OF POTASSIUM ALUM AT 500 WATTS LOAD

0

50

100

150

200

250

0 2 4 6 8

Tota

l fue

l Con

sum

ptio

n

% of Alum

Total fuelConsumption atno load in 10-6kg/s

190

192

194

196

198

200

202

204

206

208

210

0 2 4 6 8

Tota

l fue

l Con

sum

ptio

n

% of Alum

Total FuelConsumption at 500watts loadin 10-6 Kg/s

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225

230

235

240

245

250

255

260

0 2 4 6 8

Tota

l fue

l Con

sum

ptio

n

% of Alum

Total FuelConsumptionat 1000 wattsload in 10-6Kg/s

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

0 2 4 6 8

Tota

l Fue

l Con

sum

ptio

n

% of Alum


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FROM THE GRAPHS IT CAN BE OBSERVED THAT TOTAL FUEL CONSUMPTION IS CONTINUOUSLY REDUCING WITH INCREASE IN PERCENTAGE OF ALUM FROM 0 TO 5% AND FURTHER IT INCREASES AS % OF ALUM INCREASES FROM 5 TO 6%.IT CLEARLY INDICATES THE EXISTENCE OF AN OPTIMUM VALUE OF PERCENTAGE OF ALUM AROUND 5%.

360

370

380

390

400

410

420

430

440

0 2 4 6 8

Tota

l fue

l Con

sum

ptio

n

% of Alum


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IN ORDER TO ANALYSE THE EFFECT OF VARIATION IN BRAKE THERMAL

EFFICIENCY WITH RESPECT TO DIFFERENT PERCENTAGES OF POTASSIUM ALUM AT

VARIOUS LOADS PRESENTED BELOW

BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY VS % OF ALUM AT 500 WATTS LOAD

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

0 2 4 6 8

Brak

e Th

erm

al E

ffici

ency

% of Alum

Brake thermalEfficiency at500 watts load

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

0 2 4 6 8

Brak

e Th

erm

al E

ffici

ency

% of Alum

Brake thermalEfficiency at 1000watts load

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FROM THE GRAPHS IT IS INFERRED THAT AS THE ALUM CONTENT IN DIESEL IS

INCREASING, THERE IS NO MAGNIFICENT CHANGE IN BRAKE THERMAL

16.5

17

17.5

18

18.5

19

19.5

0 2 4 6 8

Brak

e Th

erm

al E

ffici

ency

% of Alum

BrakethermalEfficiencyat 1500watts load

0

5

10

15

20

25

0 2 4 6 8

Brak

e th

erm

al E

ffici

ency

% of Alum

Brake thermalEfficiency at2000 wattsload

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EFFICIENCY. SLIGHT INCREASE IS OBSERVED BETWEEN 3-4% AS COMPARED

TO THAT OF THE NORMAL DIESEL.

EMISSIONS

CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) EMISSIONS IN ORDER TO ANALYSE THE EFFECT OF VARIATION IN CARBON MONOXIDE EMISSIONS WITH RESPECT TO DIFFERENT PERCENTAGES OF POTASSIUM ALUM AT VARIOUS LOADS FIGURE HAS BEEN PRESENTED BELOW

CO EMISSIONS VS % OF POTASSIUM ALUM AT NO LOAD

0

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

0.03

0.035

0.04

0.045

0 2 4 6 8

CO E

mis

sion

s

% of Alum

CO Emissions in% of volumeIJOART



CO EMISSIONS VS % OF POTASSIUM ALUM AT 500WATTS LOAD


0

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

0.03

0.035

0 2 4 6 8

CO E

mis

sion

s

% of Alum

CO Emissions in% of volume

0

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

0.03

0.035

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

CO E

mis

sion

s

% of Alum

COEmissionsin % ofvolume

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0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

0.14

0.16

0.18

0 2 4 6 8

CO E

mis

sion

s

% of Alum

CO Emissionsin % ofvolume

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

0 2 4 6 8

CO E

mis

sion

s

% of Alum

CO Emissions in % of volume

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IT CAN BE INFERRED THAT CO EMISSIONS ARE DECREASING GRADUALLY FROM 0 TO 4%, AND THEN IT IS INCREASING FROM 4 TO 6% AT MINIMUM LOADS, BUT AT MAXIMUM LOADS CO EMISSIONS ARE MINIMUM FOR THE SAMPLE OF DIESEL WITH 5% OF ALUM.

HYDRO CARBON EMISSIONS

IN ORDER TO ANALYSE THE EFFECT OF VARIATION IN HYDRO CARBON EMISSIONS WITH RESPECT TO DIFFERENT PERCENTAGES OF POTASSIUM ALUM AT VARIOUS LOADS FIGURES PRESENTED BELOW

HYDRO CARBON EMISSIONS VS % OF POTASSIUM ALUM AT NO LOAD

-0.2

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

0 2 4 6 8

HC

Emis

sion

s

% of Alum

HC Emissions inppm

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

0 2 4 6 8

HC

Emis

sion

s

% of Alum

HC Emissions inppm

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HYDRO CARBON EMISSIONS VS % OF POTASSIUM ALUM AT 500 WATTS LOAD



-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

0 2 4 6 8

HC

Emis

sion

s

% of Alum

HC Emissionsin ppm

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

0 2 4 6 8

HC

Emis

sion

s

% of Alum

HCEmissions inppm

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FROM THE GRAPHS IT IS INFERRED THAT AS THE ALUM CONTENT IN DIESEL IS INCREASING, EMISSIONS OF HYDRO CARBONS ARE DECREASING UPTO 5% AND THEN THEY STARTED INCREASING BEYOND 5%.

CONCLUSIONS

THE FOLLOWING ARE THE CONCLUSIONS BASED ON THE EXPERIMENTS CONDUCTED WITH VARIOUS SAMPLES OF DIESEL WHICH IS ADDED WITH POTASSIUM ALUM IN VARIOUS PROPORTIONS. AS THE DIESEL IS ADDED WITH ALUM THERE WAS A CHANGE IN THE SEVERAL PROPERTIES OF DIESEL. DIESEL MIXED WITH 5% OF ALUM BY WEIGHT IS FOUND TO BE OPTIMUM.

THE FOLLOWING CONCLUSIONS ARE DRAWN BASED ON THE PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS

FROM THE GRAPHS, IT IS INFERRED THAT AS THE ALUM CONTENT IN DIESEL IS INCREASING FROM 0 TO 6% FLASH AND FIRE POINTS ARE CONTINUOUSLY REDUCING.

AS THE ALUM CONTENT IN DIESEL IS INCREASING FROM 0 TO 6%, VISCOSITY IS FOUND TO BE DECREASING BUT AN INCREASE IN VISCOSITY IS OBSERVED IN DIESEL WITH 6% ALUM AT ROOM TEMPERATURE.

IT CAN BE OBSERVED THAT CALORIFIC VALUE IS CONTINUOUSLY INCREASING WITH INCREASE IN PERCENTAGE OF ALUM FROM 0 TO 5% AND FURTHER IT DECREASES AS PERCENTAGE OF ALUM INCREASES FROM 5 TO 6%.IT CLEARLY INDICATES THE EXISTENCE OF AN OPTIMUM VALUE OF PERCENTAGE OF ALUM AROUND 5%.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0 2 4 6 8

HC

Emis

sion

s

% of Alum

HC Emissions inppm

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IT CAN BE OBSERVED THAT TOTAL FUEL CONSUMPTION IS CONTINUOUSLY REDUCING WITH INCREASE IN PERCENTAGE OF ALUM FRO 0-5% AND FURTHER IT INCREASES AS PERCENTAGE OF ALUM INCREASES FROM 5 TO 6%.IT CLEARLY INDICATES THE EXISTENCE OF AN OPTIMUM VALUE OF PERCENTAGE OF ALUM AROUND 5%.

IT IS INFERRED THAT AS THE ALUM CONTENT IN DIESEL IS INCREASING THERE IS NO MAGNIFICENT CHANGE IN BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY. SLIGHT INCREASE IS OBSERVED BETWEEN 3-4% AS COMPARED TO THAT OF THE NORMAL DIESEL. IT CAN BE INFERRED THAT CO EMISSIONS ARE DECREASING GRADUALLY FROM 0 TO 4%, AND THEN IT IS INCREASING FROM 4 TO 6% AT MINIMUM LOADS, BUT AT MAXIMUM LOADS CO EMISSIONS ARE MINIMUM FOR THE SAMPLE OF DIESEL WITH 5% OF ALUM.

IT IS INFERRED THAT AS THE ALUM CONTENT IN DIESEL IS INCREASING, EMISSIONS OF HYDRO CARBONS ARE DECREASING UPTO 5% AND THEN THEY STARTED INCREASING BEYOND 5%.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I, THE AUTHOR DEDICATE MY SINCERE GRATITUDE TO JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY, ANANTAPUR AND OIL AND TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH INSTITUTE, ANANTAPUR AND GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, ANANATAPUR.

MY SPECIAL THANKS TO DR. K.GOVINDARAJULU, M.TECH, PHD, F.I.E,M.I.S.T.E,C.E., PROFESSOR OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY, ANANTAPUR AND TO HIS BELOVED FINAL YEAR B.TECH, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING STUDENTS, V.BALARAJU (HT.NO.09001A0320), P.SRAVANI (HT.NO.09001A0323), V.RAJENDRA (HT.NO.09001A0334), R.NARAYANA SWAMY NAIK (HT.NO.09001A0336), N.TEJA SWAROOPA (HT.NO.09001A0344).

REFERENCES

• PETROL AND DIESEL POLLUTION CONTROL BY POTASSIUM ALUM BY AMMINENI SHYAM SUNDAR FROM INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVANCEMENTS IN RESEARCH & TECHNOLOGY (ISSN 2278-7763)

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• GREEN DIESEL BY POTASSIUM ALUM BY AMMINENI SHAYM SUNDAR FROM INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVANCEMENTS IN RESEARCH & TECHNOLOGY (ISSN 2278-7763).

• WIKIPEDIA BY INTERNET • ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS BY P.K.NAG • THERMAL ENGINEERING BY R.K.RAJPUT • I.C ENGINES BY V.GANESHAN • THE USE OF DIESEL OIL TREATED WITH INORGANIC SALT: AN ALTERNATIVE

TO KEROSENE BY ABDULFATAI JIMOH, DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING, FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA, ARTICLE PULBLISHED IN WWW.JOURNAL.AU.EDU

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