poverty & environment indicators report … · poverty & environment indicators report...

REPUBLIC OF KENYAMINISTRY OF STATE FOR PLANNING, NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT & VISION 2030

POVERTY & ENVIRONMENT INDICATORS REPORT

POVERTY AND ENVIRONMENT INITIATIVE - KENYAJanuary 2011

POVERTY & ENVIRONMENT INdIcaTORs

REPORT

REPUBLIC OF KENYAMinistry of State for Planning, National Development & Vision 2030

POVERTY AND ENVIRONMENT INITIATIVE - KENYA

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Ministry of state for Planning, National development & Vision 2030

AbbreviAtions And Acronyms ....................................................................... III

Acknowledgements .................................................................................... V

FOREWORD ................................................................................................ VI

executive summAry ....................................................................................VII

Poverty-environment linkAges ..................................................................... 1

1.1. CatEgORIEs OF ValuE FROm bIODIVERsIty ................................................................... 1

1.2. POVERty anD EnVIROnmEnt lInkagEs ...................................................................... 1

1.3. thE lInk tO thE mIllEnnIum DEVElOPmEnt gOals .......................................................... 5

1.4. summaRy anD COnClusIOn ................................................................................ 7

descriPtion of the nAtionAl monitoring And evAluAtion system ......................... 8

2.1. IntRODuCtIOn ............................................................................................ 8

2.2. natIOnal lEVEl REPORtIng ................................................................................ 8

2.3. DIstRICt lEVEl REPORtIng ................................................................................ 9

2.4. RElEVanCE OF CuRREnt InDICatORs tO P-E lInkED mOnItORIng ..............................................12

2.5. RElatIOnshIP bEtWEEn mDg InDICatORs anD nImEs .........................................................13

2.6. summaRy anD COnClusIOn ...............................................................................13

key issues in kenyA’s environment And nAturAl resource sector .......................14

3.1. kEy EnVIROnmEnt POlICy IssuEs ..........................................................................14

3.2. ECOsystEms sERVICEs ....................................................................................16

3.3. sustaInablE usE OF natuRal REsOuRCEs ..................................................................20

3.4. EnVIROnmEntal stEWaRDshIP .............................................................................23

3.5. EnhanCIng EnVIROnmEntal qualIty ......................................................................25

3.6. sECtORal PROgRammEs/PROjECts WIthIn DEPaRtmEnts .....................................................28


A new frAmework for P-e linked monitoring .................................................33

4.1. kEnya’s natIOnal POlICy FRamEWORk anD EnVIROnmEnt ...................................................33

4.2. ChallEngEs In DEVElOPIng POVERty-EnVIROnmEnt InDICatORs ..............................................36

4.3. aPPROaChEs In DEVElOPmEnt OF POVERty-EnVIROnmEnt InDICatORs .........................................36


annEx: matRIx OF PROPOsED InDICatORs FOR POVERty-EnVIROnmEnt mOnItORIng ..................................40

REFEREnCEs ..................................................................................................63

Table of conTenTs

P-E INdIcaTORs REPORT

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AIDS AcquiredImmunodeficiencySyndromeAPRM nePAd African Peer review mechanismASALs Arid and semi-Arid AreasCBD UNConventiononBiologicalDiversityCBO Community-BasedOrganizationCDF ConstituencyDevelopmentFundCOMESA common market for eastern and southern AfricaCPPMU central Planning and Project monitoring unitDAMER DistrictAnnualMonitoringandEvaluationReportDC district commissionerDDO DistrictDevelopmentOfficerDEAP district environmental Action PlanDEC district environment committeeDfID DepartmentforInternationalDevelopment(UK)DHS DemographicandHealthSurveyDMEC district monitoring and evaluation committeeDO DistrictOfficerDRSRS DepartmentofResourceSurveysandRemoteSensingEAC EastAfricanCommunityEDPRS EconomicDevelopmentandPovertyReductionStrategy(Rwanda)EIA EnvironmentalImpactAssessmentEMCA environmental management and coordination Act, no. 8 of 1999ENR environmental and natural resourcesERS EconomicRecoveryStrategyforWealthandEmploymentCreation (2003-2007)FAO FoodandAgricultureOrganizationFBO Faith-BasedOrganizationFDI foreign direct investmentGHG greenhouse gasGoK GovernmentoftheRepublicofKenyaHIV HumanImmunodeficiencyVirusIAS InvasiveAlienSpeciesICT InformationandCommunicationTechnologyICZM integrated coastal Zone managementIEEA integrated environmental and economic AccountingIISD InternationalInstituteforSustainableDevelopmentISD IndicatorsofSustainableDevelopmentIUCN international union for the conservation of nature/world conservation unionJICA JapanInternationalCooperationAgencyJPOI JohannesburgPlanofImplementationKEFRI KenyaForestryResearchInstitute

abbreviaTions and acronyms

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KFS KenyaForestServiceKNBS KenyaNationalBureauofStatisticsKWS KenyaWildlifeServiceLA LocalAuthorityLASDAP LocalAuthorityServiceDeliveryActionPlanLATF LocalAuthorityTransferFundMDG MillenniumDevelopmentGoalsM&E monitoring and evaluationMED MonitoringandEvaluationDirectorate(MoPND&V2030)MEMR MinistryofEnvironmentandMineralResourcesMICS MultipleIndicatorClusterSurveyMPA marine Protected AreaMoPND & V2030 MinistryofStateforPlanning,NationalDevelopmentandVision2030MTEF Medium-TermExpenditureFrameworkMTP Medium-TermPlan2008-2012NEAP national environmental Action PlanNEMA NationalEnvironmentManagementAuthorityNES national environment secretariatNESC national economic and social councilNGO NongovernmentalorganizationNIMES NationalIntegratedMonitoringandEvaluationSystemNTFPs Non-TimberForestProductsODA OfficialDevelopmentAssistanceODS OzoneDepletingSubstancesOECD OrganizationforEconomicDevelopmentandCooperationPC Provincial commissionerP-E Poverty-EnvironmentPEC Provincial environment committeePEI PovertyEnvironmentInitiativePEP Poverty-EnvironmentPartnershipPER PublicExpenditureReviewPOPS Persistent organic PollutantsPPA-IV FourthParticipatoryPovertyAssessment2005-2006PPP PublicPrivatePartnershipsPRSP PovertyReductionStrategyPaperSEA strategic environmental AssessmentSWG SectorWorkingGroupUNCED UNConferenceonEnvironmentandDevelopment(theEarthSummit)UNDP UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgrammeUNEP united nations environment ProgrammeWHO WorldHealthOrganizationWSSD (Johannesburg)WorldSummitonSustainableDevelopmentWTO WorldTradeOrganizationWWF worldwide fund for nature


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ThestudywasconductedunderthegeneralguidanceofJosephN.Mukui,Head,RuralPlanningDirectorate,MinistryofStateforPlanning,NationalDevelopmentandVision2030;ChristopherGakahu,AssistantResidentRepresentativeandHead,SustainabilityUnit,UNDP;andAngelaLusigi, Programme Officer, UNDP-UNEP Poverty-Environment Initiative Division of RegionalCooperation(DRC).Theday-to-dayoversightrolewastheresponsibilityofSamsonW.Wasao,National Programme Manager, Poverty Environment Initiative; with the support of JamesMwanziaandHezbourneMackobongooftheMonitoringandEvaluationDirectorate,MinistryofStateforPlanning,NationalDevelopmentandVision2030.Thereportreceivedcommentsduring a disseminationworkshop organized by theMonitoring and Evaluation Directorate.SomeofthefindingsofthestudywereusedbytheMonitoringandEvaluationDirectorateinaworkshoponthepreparationofnationalandministerial indicatorsformonitoringtheimplementationoftheVision2030andtheMedium-TermPlan2008-2012.Theircooperationwas instrumental to the success of the consulting activity, and we are grateful to all ofthem.

John T. Mukui (team leader)

Mukui Associates Limited

acknowledgemenTs

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THE POVERTY aNd ENVIRONMENT INdIcaTORs REPORT

ThePovertyandEnvironmentIndicatorsReportistheproductofaconsultancycommissionedbyPElunderthephaseoneprojectOutput4:“Toolsdevelopedfortheintegrationofenvironmentintodevelopmentplansandbudgetprocesses”.TheactivitiesofthisparticularoutputwereimplementedincollaborationwiththeMonitoringandEvaluationDepartment(MED)ofthisMinistry.Thisreportisaresultofaconsultativeprocessofdevelopingministerialandnationalindicators, some of whose results were used during the formulation of the ministerial and nationalindicatorsformonitoringofVision2030anditsfirstMid-termPlan(2008-2012).

Thereportisdividedintofivemainsections:thefirstsectionoutlinespoverty¬environmentlinkages and discusses how these linkages are relevant in the national and sub-nationaldevelopmentprocesses;thesecondsectiondescribesthenationalmonitoringandevaluationsystem(NIMES) including itsdifferent levelsofreportingandthelinkstoMDGsindicators;thefourthsectionpresentsanddiscussesthekeyissuesinKenya’senvironmentandnaturalresourcessector.Finally,sectionfivesuggestsaframeworkforpoverty-environmentlinkedmonitoring within the context of nationalmonitoring and evaluation of the developmentprocess.Integrationofpoverty-environmentindicatorswiththemonitoringsystemwillensurethatpoverty-environmentandsectoral indicatorsarebuilt intotheVision2030monitoringsystemandtherebyembeddedintothenationalandsubnationalplanning,monitoringandevaluationsystems.

Thereportwillbeusefulasasourceofreferenceonpoverty-environmentlinkagesatnationalandsubnationallevelsforplanners,economists,statisticians,evaluatorsandotherinterestedpersonsworkinginthebroadareasthatlinkenvironmentandnaturalresourcestopovertyreductionanddevelopment. Itwillparticularlybeuseful for thoseofficers ingovernmentwiththeresponsibilityofmonitoringandevaluationofprojectsandprogrammesthatfocusonpovertyalleviationandenvironmentalsustainability.Thereportisalsorelevantforresearchersandscholarsintheareaofpoverty,environmentanddevelopment.

Dr. Edward Sambili Permanent Secretary, Ministry of State for Planning, National Development and Vision 2030

November, 2010

foreword


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1. INTROdUcTION aNd BacKGROUNd

TheGovernmentofKenyadevelopedaprogrammeofwork,theKenyaPovertyEnvironmentInitiative(PEI),tosupporttheintegrationofenvironmentintodevelopmentpolicy,planningandbudgetingprocesses.TheMinistryofStateforPlanning,NationalDevelopmentandVision2030(MoPND&V2030)leadstheprogrammeinpartnershipwiththeMinistryofEnvironmentandMineralResources(MEMR)andtheNationalEnvironmentManagementAuthority(NEMA).AspartoftheoutputsofthePEIproject,theGovernmentinitiatedanactivitytodevelopasetofpovertyandenvironmentindicatorslinkingpovertyandenvironmentatnationalandsub-nationallevels.

TheGovernment of Kenya recognizes the importance of the environment in achieving itseconomicrecoveryandpovertyreductiongoals.Forexample,theKenyaVision2030launchedin June 2008, aims at “a nation living in a clean, secure and sustainable environment”,guidedbyfourmajorthrusts:conservationofstrategicnaturalresources,pollutionandwastemanagement,aridandsemi-aridareas(ASALs)andhighriskdisasterzones,andenvironmentalplanningandgovernance.ProgressagainstVision2030andMediumTermPlanswillbemeasuredagainst targets contained in the planning documents, hence the need to review the coreindicatorsthatincludesthosethateffectivelyencompassthelinkagesbetweenpovertyandenvironment.

2. POVERTY-ENVIRONMENT LINKaGEs

Thedifferentcategoriesofvaluefromdiversity include(a)direct-usevalues(thebenefitsofawiderrangeofrawmaterialse.g.foodstuffs,medicines,buildingmaterialsandfodderfor livestock); (b) indirect-use values (environmental services that ecological biodiversitysometimesenhancese.g.microclimateregulationandprotectionfromerosion);and(c)non-usevalues(optionstousebiologicalresourcesinthefutureandculturalvalueintermsofitsrolesinoursharedsenseofhistoryandplaceintheworld).

The environment provides goods (natural resources) and services (ecosystem functions)usedforfoodproduction,theharvestingofwildproducts,energy,andrawmaterials.Theenvironment is also a recipient and partial recycler ofwaste products from the economyandan important sourceof recreation,beauty, spiritual values,andotheramenities.Theenvironmental soundness of growth is critical to the livelihood opportunities of the poor,and countries with similar levels of income and growth can have quite different levels of environmental performance as a result of differing policy, institutional frameworks andimplementationcapacities.

Poverty-environment linkagesaredynamicandcontext-specific—reflectingbothgeographiclocation and scale and the economic, social, and cultural characteristics of individuals, households,andsocialgroups. Inruralareas,poorpeopleareparticularlyconcernedwithsecure access to and the quality of natural resources - arable land and water, crop andlivestockdiversity,fishandbushmeatresources,forestproductsandbiomassforfuel.Fortheurbanpoor,water,energy,sanitationandwasteremoval,drainage,andsecuretenurearekeyconcerns.Poorwomenregardsafeandphysicallycloseaccesstopotablewater,sanitationfacilities,andabundantenergysuppliesascrucialaspectsofwell-being,reflectingwomen’sprimaryroleinmanagingthehousehold.

execuTive summary

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Ecosystems - such as forests, agroecosystems, grasslands, and freshwater and coastalecosystems (including coral reefs) and the biodiversity contained within them - provideessential“services”thatcontributeinnumerouswaystoproductiveactivitiese.g.provisionof natural habitat forwild pollinators that are essential to food crops; natural predatorsthatcontrolcroppestsandsoilorganismsimportanttoagriculturalproductivity;watershedprotection and hydrological stability, including recharging of ground water tables andbuffering of extreme hydrological conditions that might otherwise precipitate droughtor flood conditions;maintenance of soil fertility through storage and cycling of essentialnutrients;andbreakdownofwasteandpollutants.Whenecosystemfunctionsareimpaired,thisinevitablyleadstoanarrowingoflivelihoodchoicesandanincreaseinthevulnerabilityofthepoor.

Up to one-fifth of the total burden of disease in the developingworld is associatedwithenvironmental risk factors. There has also been an emergence of infectious diseases incombinationwithecosystemchanges,forexampleduetoalteredhabitat/breedingsites.Thepoor,particularlywomenandchildren,aremostaffectedbyenvironmentalhealthproblems,andtraditionalenvironmentalhazards-lackofsafewaterandsanitation,indoorairpollution,andexposuretodiseasevectors.

Pesticidepoisoningisasignificanthealthproblemamongpoorfarmersindevelopingcountries.Thepooralsosuffermoreindirecteffectsfromexcessiveuseofpesticides,suchasdepletionoffishstocksduetopesticideloadsinagriculturalrunoff.Contaminationoffoodcropswithpesticideresiduesisagrowingproblemforfarmersproducingforexportmarkets,asseveralimportantmarketsaretighteningtheirregulationsregardingpermissiblelevelsofpesticideresidues.

Insecurity is one of the key concerns of poor people, including their vulnerability tounpredictableevents.Insecurityrelatestopeople’sriskofexposure,susceptibilitytoloss,andcapacitytorecover.Boththeruralandurbanpooraremostoftenexposedtoenvironmentalhazardsandenvironment-relatedconflict,theysufferthegreatestlosses(atleastinrelativeterms),andtheyareintheweakestpositiontocopeandadapt.Tensionsbetweendiverseinterestgroupsovernaturalresourcescanalsocontributetoconflictandcivilstrife.

However,poverty-environmentlinksarenotnecessarilythesameascausallinkagesbetweentheenvironmentandpovertyi.e.howachangingenvironmentincreasesordecreasespoverty,orhowchangingpovertylevelsdamageorimprovetheenvironment.Theyaredimensionsofpovertythatconcerntheenvironmentalpartofthepoorpeople’slives,andthusrelatetopeople’sopportunitiesforeconomicadvancement(orlackofopportunities),socialorpoliticalempowerment(ordisempowerment),andsecurity(orvulnerability).Theydescribehowtheenvironmentalresourcesarepartandparcelofapoorperson’slivelihood.Inaddition,manytraditionalecosystemindicatorsarehighlysite-specific,andthereforeappearmorerelevantforlower-levelgeographicalareasratherthannationallevelmonitoring.

3. INTERNaTIONaL EXPERIENcE IN dEVELOPMENT OF P-E LINKEd INdIcaTORs

Among themajor achievements of the UN Conference on Environment and Development(UNCED),ortheEarthSummit,heldinJune1992wasAgenda21asablueprintforenvironmentanddevelopmentintothe21stcentury.Agenda21laysasolidfoundationforthepromotionofsustainabledevelopmentintermsofsocial,economicandenvironmentalprogress.Agenda


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21proposedanexpansionoftheexistingsystemsofnationaleconomicaccounts(inordertointegrateenvironmentandsocialdimensionsintheaccountingframework)andutilizationofsustainabledevelopment indicators innationaleconomicandsocialplanninganddecision-makingpractices.ThismandatewasreflectedinthedecisionoftheUnitedNationsCommissiononSustainableDevelopment(CSD)in1995toadoptanindicatorsworkprogramme,whichnowcontainsacoresetof50indicators,whicharepartofalargersetof96IndicatorsofSustainableDevelopment.The introductionofa core sethelps tokeep the indicator setmanageable,whereasthelargersetallowstheinclusionofadditionalindicatorsthatenablecountriestodoamorecomprehensiveanddifferentiatedassessmentofsustainabledevelopment.

TheCSDindicatorsethasbeenextensivelytested,appliedandusedinmanycountries.TheCSDindicatorscoverabroadrangeofissuesintrinsictoallpillarsofsustainabledevelopment-economicdevelopment,socialdevelopment,andenvironmentalprotection.Theindicatorsetisorganizedaroundthemes,namely,poverty;governance;health;education;demographics;naturalhazards;atmosphere;land;oceans,seasandcoasts;freshwater;biodiversity;economicdevelopment;globaleconomicpartnership;andconsumptionandproductionpatterns.

TheWorldBankalsodevelopeda setofPoverty-Environment Indicatorsunder thegeneralcategoriesof(a)environmentalhealthindicatorse.g.accesstosafewater,accesstosanitation,useoftraditionalfuels,useofinsecticidetreatednets,childmortality,prevalenceofdiarrheaandacuterespiratoryinfection;and(b)povertyandnaturalresourceindicatorse.g.povertyincidence,childnutrition,andexposuretonaturalhazards.TheWorldBankandtheWorldResourcesInstitutehavealsosupportedthedevelopmentofgeo-referencedindicatorsthatoverlay social or poverty indicators over a geographic framework.Other aspects ofWorldBank’sworkontheenvironmentinclude(a)aredefinitionofwealthasthecombinationofvarious forms of capital (produced, natural, and human resources) and (b) guidelines onpaymentsforenvironmentalservicessothatthosewhobenefitfromenvironmentalservicespayfortheirprovision,andthosewhoprovideenvironmentalservicesarecompensatedfordoingso.TheWorldBankalsopublishestheannualLittleGreenDataBook.

TheUnitedNationsMillenniumDevelopmentGoalshavebuiltbridgesbetweenconservationand poverty reduction, although one of theweaknesses of theMDGs is the separation ofenvironmentintooneofeightgoalssincebiodiversityconservationisnotjustthebusinessof theenvironmentgoal,butunderpins theachievementof theothers.Oneof themajorproblemswithmeasuringcountryprogresstowardMDGtargetsonenvironmentalsustainabilityisthattheyarenottime-boundandsometargetsarenotquantitative.Inaddition,theMDGsmainlyfocusonpressureindicators(measuresofecosystemuse)ratherthanecosystemserviceindicators(thecapacityofecosystemstosupplytheseservices).

UndertheglobalPEIinitiative,anumberofcountrieshavedevelopedpovertyenvironmentindicatorse.g.TanzaniaandRwanda.Tanzania’sNationalStrategyforGrowthandReductionofPoverty,knownbyitsSwahiliacronymofMKUKUTA,fullyincorporatesenvironmentalandnatural resourcesmanagement issuesandtargets in itsclustersstrategiesandprovidesanopportunity in the identification of poverty-environmental indicators, through its clearlystipulated goals and targets. MKUKUTA’s monitoring system recognizes the integration ofpoverty-environment indicators in measuring progress to achieving poverty reduction andenvironmental management targets.

TheintendedoutcomeoftheRwandaPoverty-EnvironmentInitiative(PEI)wastheintegrationof environment into national policy and planning processes to implement the Economic

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Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS). The selection criteria were policyrelevance,measurability,clarityofthelinkagebetweenpovertyandenvironment,sensitivityto changes in data, degree of representation of priority issues, cost-effectiveness in datacollection,highqualityandreliability(unambiguous),appropriatespatialandtemporalscale,andavailabilityoreaseofsettingtargetsandbaselines.Acoresetofpriorityindicatorswasthendevelopedandbaselinesandtargetssetwheredataexisted.

Other initiatives to develop poverty-environment indicators include Uganda and Nigeria.Uganda developed a set of poverty-environment indicators covering land use, water andsanitation, use of forest resources, fish resources, environment and health, housing, andvulnerabilitytodisasters.TheEnvironmentDepartmentoftheWorldBankcommissionedastudyonpoverty-environmentindicatorsforNigeriawhoseobjectivewastoapplytheWorldBank’s analytical framework to a given country context, i.e. that of Nigeria. Canada andSwedenrecentlyscoredfirst(Sweden)andthird(Canada)inEcosystemWellbeingIndex,andhaveahighenvironmentalrecordbasedontheanalysisoftenkeyenvironmentalindicatorsusedbyOrganizationforEconomicDevelopmentandCooperation(OECD).

However,mostoftheindicatorsmentionedfailtorevealhowpressuresfromnewdevelopmentpolicies and programmes influence poverty-environment dynamics. Most of the indicatorsareinformation-intensiveandrequireafairlycomplexinformationsystemtosupporttheireffective use. some of the literature does not also highlight the extent to which the countries haveimplementedthemonitoringmechanismsproposed,andtheexperiencesgainedintheprocess.

4. dEscRIPTION OF THE NaTIONaL MONITORING aNd EVaLUaTION sYsTEM

TheNationalIntegratedMonitoringandEvaluationSystem(NIMES)isaninstitutionalframeworkforprovidingfeedbackontheeffectivenessofimplementationofthepoliciesandprogrammessetoutinnationalpolicydocumentsandensuresthatGoKobjectives,programmes/activitiesandprojectionsarebasedonsoundunderstandingofthevariouscircumstances,parameters,anddynamicsthatinfluencethesuccessofplansthroughuseoflessonslearntfromcurrentplanimplementation.

For effective implementation of NIMES, there are two levels of reporting: (a) a centralstructurewhichbringstogetherthelineministriesandotherbodiesandstakeholders(includingnongovernmentalstakeholders)toprovideareportingmechanismontheprogrammesoftheVision2030andtheMediumTermPlan2008-2012,and(b)adevolvedstructurebasedonkeypublicandnongovernmentalplayersatthelocal(district)level.

TheGovernmentinitiallydevelopedasetof31outcomeindicatorswhosemainpurposewastoprovideanoverviewofIP-ERSimplementationprocessasawhole.WiththefirstMTPforVision2030however,48outcomeindicatorshavebeendevelopedfornationallevelmonitoring.Theindicatorsincludethoseformacroeconomicstabilityandacceleratinggrowth,infrastructureandamenities,roadsafety,enhancementoftourismandtradeandindustry,childsurvival,healthandtheburdenofdisease,basiceducation,employmentcreationandlaborproductivity,improved environmental management and universal environmental screening of projects,incidenceofabsolutepoverty,accesstojustice,andpublicsectortransparencyanddevolutionofpower.However,theperformanceindicatorsdevelopedfortrackingIP-ERSareinadequateforaddressingthepoverty-environmentlinkages.


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As noted in the med master Plan, one of the weaknesses of nimes is in monitoring of crosscutting issues e.g. gender, youth, HIV/AIDS, and environment. In addition, environment is a site-specificphenomenonanditsgeneralizationatthenationallevelfailstocapturesmallchangesinnaturalresourceutilizationandmanagementatthelocallevel.

5. PROTEcTORs OF THE ENVIRONMENT

Players in the environment sector are grouped into global, sub-regional, national, sub-national,community,householdand individual –allhavingdifferent interestsandactions.The competition between and within the levels is responsible for the poverty accountedbylossofenvironmentalservicesandproducts.Playersintheenvironmentsectorcanalsobe broadly grouped into three basic components of society - government, private sectorandcivil society. Inaddition,bilateral andmultilateral institutionsplaya significant role.IndividualandcollectivefunctionsoftheseinstitutionsandhowefficientlytheydispensetheirdevelopmentresponsibilitieswillinfluencetheattainmentofKenyaVision2030.Therefore,thePEIindicatorsmustcapturethecontributionsofstate,privatesectorandcivilsociety’scontributionstoenvironmentaldisruptions.

Theenabling legislation for the implementation of thenational environmentpolicy is theEnvironmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA), No. 8 of 1999. The EMCA is aframeworklawthatprovidesforeffectivecoordinationandregulationofallactionsdirectedatorlikelytohaveinfluenceontheenvironment.However,aprominentfeatureofKenya’senvironmental legislation is its diffuse nature, with provisions being contained in a widevarietyofsectorallawswhichhaveyettobeamendedtoconformtotheEMCA.

TheMinistryofEnvironmentandMineralResources(MEMR)hastheoverallresponsibilityforpolicy direction on allmatters relating to the environment.The EMCAestablishes severalinstitutions with clearly defined mandates and responsibilities. These include the multi-sectoralNationalEnvironmentCouncil(NEC)astheapexnationalenvironmentalpolicymakingorganandtheNationalEnvironmentManagementAuthority(NEMA)asthenationalregulatoryagencywithdecentralizedentitiesattheprovincialanddistrictlevels.OtherministrieswhosefunctionshavedirectimplicationsfortheenvironmentsectorincludeMinistryofForestsandWildlife,MinistryofAgriculture,MinistryofLivestockDevelopment,andMinistryofFisheriesDevelopment.MinistrieswithfunctionssupportedbytheenvironmentsectorincludeHealth,Trade,Industry,LocalGovernment,Lands,Energy,EducationandNorthernKenya.

Kenya’s coalition government is comprised of 43 ministries, including the Office of ThePresident,Office of the Vice President, andOffice of the PrimeMinister. Eachministry iscomprisedofdepartmentsresponsibleformorespecificfunctions.Themainsemi-autonomousgovernmentagencieschargedwithimplementationofenvironmentalprogrammesincludetheNational EnvironmentManagementAuthority (NEMA), KenyaWildlife Service (KWS), KenyaForest Service (KFS), Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI), Department ofMines andGeology,theDepartmentofMeteorology,andtheDepartmentofResourceSurveysandRemoteSensing(DRSRS).

Themeso-level refers to the province and districts, where eachministry is represented.Individualministriesareresponsibleforprogrammeandactivityimplementation.Ministeriallevel management decisions are channeled through district and provincial managementcommittees chaired by district commissioners (DC) and provincial commissioners (PC),respectively. In the case of the Provincial Environment Committees (PEC) and District

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EnvironmentCommittees(DEC),NEMAservesasthesecretary.However,communitieshaveinthepastreportedthatthedistrictasaplanninganddecision-makingcentredoesnothaveclearmechanismsthatlinklocallivelihoodsissuesandoptionsthatresultinactivecommunityparticipationindistrict-levelplanningandimplementation.

6. KEY IssUEs IN KENYa’s ENVIRONMENT aNd NaTURaL REsOURcE sEcTOR

Thedraftnationalenvironmentpolicy,2008,hasidentifiedthefollowingaskeyenvironmentand natural resource issues: harmonization of sectoral policy instruments with EMCA;implementationoflandpolicy;valuationofenvironmentalandnaturalresources;rehabilitationofdegradedareas;lossofbiodiversity;concessionsandincentives;urbanizationandwastemanagement;pollution;energy;climatechangeanddisastermanagement;conservationofsharednaturalresources;invasiveandalienspecies;andpublicparticipation,environmentaleducation and awareness.

Theenvironmentisunderimmensepressurefromanincreasingpopulationandnaturalresourcealterations associated with the development process. Kenya’s important environmentalcomponentsincludeforest,freshwater,wetlands,coastalandmarine,mountains,aridandsemi-aridlands(ASALs),grasslandsandagriculturalland.

Forestecosystemsarebeingconvertedtootheruses,whichhasadverseenvironmentaleffectsonlong-termsustainabilityofforestecosystemsandendangersthecountry’swatersuppliessincethefivemajorwatertowersarelocatedinforestedlands.Manyfreshwaterecosystemshavebeendegradedbyimpoundment,excessiveabstraction,landusechangesandpollution.Wetlands are also being drained for agricultural use at an alarming rate. Other threatsto wetlands are degradation of catchments areas, pollution and unsustainable harvestingpractices.

Coastalandmarineecosystemsareunder increasingthreat fromurbanization,poorwastemanagement, shoreline modification, pollution (from land-based and other sources),overexploitationofmarinelivingresources,oilandgasexploration,useofdestructivefishingmethods,invasivealienspecies,andeffectsofclimatechange.

Mountain ecosystems are important for biodiversity conservation as they harbor uniqueassemblagesofplantsandanimals,includingendemicspecies.Mountainsareanimportantsourceofwater.Mountainecosystemshavebeensubjectedtoavarietyofusesandintheprocesshavebeensusceptibletodegradationthroughdeforestation,illegallogging,poachingofwildplantsandanimals,destructionofhabitatsbyfireandmining,grazing,encroachmentfor human settlements and agriculture as well as the effects of climate change.

AridandSemi-AridLands(ASALs)arefragileecosystemsthatreceiveverylowandunreliablerainfall.ThemainthreatstoASALsincludeexpandingagriculture,charcoalburningandfuel-wood,uncontrolledfires,humansettlements,landdegradation,deforestation,overgrazingandinvasivespecies.Thisisexacerbatedbytheimpactsofclimatechange.

Theagriculturalecosystemsprovidemanygoodsandservicesofenvironmental,economicandsocialimportanceandmakeimportantcontributionstosustainablelivelihoods,foodsecurityandnationaleconomy.However,thepresentcapitalandtechnology intensivefarmingandmonocultures have negatively impacted the environment e.g. loss of crop yields due topests.


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7. sUsTaINaBLE UsE OF NaTURaL REsOURcEs

The foundation for sustainableuseofnatural resources is secure,equitableaccess toandcontrolofnaturalresourcesincludingfairdistributionofthecosts,associatedbenefitsandopportunities. Activities contributing to land degradation include unsuitable agriculturallanduse,poorsoilandwatermanagementpractices,deforestationandovergrazing.Naturaldisasters,includingdroughts,floodsandlandslides,alsocontributetolanddegradation.Soilerosion is a major factor in land degradation and has severe effects on soil functions such as the soil’sability toactasabufferandfilter forpollutants, its role in thehydrologicalandnitrogencycle,and itsability toprovidehabitatandsupportbiodiversity.Soilerosionreduces theproductivityof land, requiring farmers toapplymoreandmore fertilizerandotherchemicals,whichinturncontributestosoildegradationandwaterpollution.

In Kenya, loss of biological diversity is taking place at an unprecedented rate. Themostimportantdriversarelandconversion,climatechange,pollution,unsustainableharvestingofnaturalresources,unsustainablepatternsofconsumptionandproduction,andintroductionofinvasiveandalienspecies.Invasivealienspeciessuchasprosopsisjuliflora,eichorniacrassipes,andlantanacamaraconstituteathreattobiodiversity.

Kenya isconsideredawater scarcecountry.Pollutionofwater resources isalsoagrowingconcernintermsofcostandhealth.Themaincausesofwaterpollutionareeffluentfromagriculturalactivitiesandrelatedindustries,soilerosion,industrialandhouseholdeffluent,andleachatesfromlandfillsites.

Increasing population, growing numbers of refugees, human-wildlife conflicts, widespreadpollution and the transformation of vast wildlife areas in ASALs threaten the continuedexistenceofwildlifeinKenya.

Kenya’s forestsareunderpressure fromcompetinguser-groupse.g. commercialusersandforest-adjacentcommunities.Therehasbeenimmensepressureforconversionofforestlandtootherusesespeciallytoagricultureandsettlements. Inaddition,illegallogging,cuttingtreesforfuel-woodandcharcoalaswellasgrazingcattlehasdegradedforests.Largescalelossof forestswould lead tocatastrophicandpermanentchange in thecountry’secology,withconsequentlossofagriculturalproductivity,industrialpotential,livingconditions,andaggravatednaturaldisasters,inparticularfloodsanddrought.

The overall state of Kenya’s fishery resources and their ecosystems is deteriorating dueto unsustainable fishing practices, habitat destruction, pollution, and weak managementstructures.Otherchallengesincludeuncoordinateddevelopmentapproaches,lowinvestment,inadequateaquaculturedevelopment,weaklinkagesbetweenresearchandmanagement,andcross-borderconflicts.To reverse this trendandachieve sustainabilityoffisheries, carefulstewardshipisrequiredtoconserveandprotectallaquatichabitatsforpresentandfuturegenerations.

8. ENHaNcING ENVIRONMENTaL QUaLITY

Environmentalhealthisaffectedbyharmfulenvironmentalfactorsthatimpacthumanhealthandcausedisease.Themostpressingproblemsintermsofenvironmentalhealth,including

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occupational health, are those associatedwith air andwater pollution,water supply andsanitation,wastedisposal,chemicalandfoodsafety.Thethreattotheatmospherearisesfromheightenedpollutionandvariesasaresultoflocalemissions,topographyandweather.Industryandvehiclescontinuetobethemainemittersofpollutantsintotheatmosphere.Airpollutionisoneoftheleadingriskfactorforrespiratorydiseasessuchaschronicobstructivepulmonarydisease,lungcancer,pulmonaryheartdiseaseandbronchitis.Themainairpollutantsaresuspendedparticulatematter,lead,sulphur,carbonmonoxide,hydrogensulphide,andoxideofnitrogen.Kenyadoesnothavesetstandardsformostorallairpollutants.

Despite efforts that encourage reuse, recycling and recovery, the amount of solid wastegeneratedremainshighandappearstobeontheincrease.Othercategoriesofwastesthatrequirespecialconsiderationareelectronicwastes,militarywastesandclinicalwastes.ThemainproblemsofsolidwastemanagementfacingKenyaarelackofacomprehensivenationallawonsolidwastemanagement;inadequatedumptrucks;illegalanduncontrolleddisposalofwaste;lackoffinancialresourcesforinvestmentandoperation;lackofpublicawarenessregarding solid waste management; and inadequate space for expansion/development ofdumpsites(especiallyinNairobicity).

Toxicandhazardoussubstancesareacriticalpartoftheglobaleconomyandalsooneofthegreatestthreatstohumanhealthandtheenvironment.Forexample,toxicandhazardouschemicalsarewidelyusedinKenyaparticularlyintheagriculturalsector.Toxicandhazardoussubstancesandtheirdisposalhavenotbeencomprehensivelyandadequatelyaddressedbyanypolicyorlegislationtodate.KenyalikemanyothercountriesinAfricaisvulnerabletoillegaldumpingofobsoleteandbannedtoxicandhazardoussubstances.

Exposuretohighlevelsofnoisecanresult insignificantadversehealthimpacts.Themostimportant is lossofhearingacuitycausedbyrepeatedexposuretohighnoiselevels.Suchexposuresoccurprimarilyintheworkplace,loudmusicinpublictransportvehicles,commercialactivitieswithinorclosetoresidentialareas(e.g.discos,factories,informalindustries),andreligious activities.

Theoffensiveodorornoxioussmellsofdecayisagrowingproblemespeciallyinmajorurbanareas. Itresultsfromhydrogensulphidereleasebydecomposinggarbageatdisposalsites,damreservoirsandbrokensewageconduits.

Changing patterns of consumption and production through integration of environmentalconsiderationsinallsectorsandotherpolicyareasisaprerequisiteforsustainabledevelopment.Currently,mostoftheproductionandconsumptionpracticesdonottakeintoaccounttheenvironmentalcosts.Asaresult,thebenefitsprovidedbynaturalresourcesappeartobemuchsmallerthantheyreallyare.Anintegratedaccountingsystemwillensurethatenvironmentalcostsintheproductionsystemsareconsidered.

Climatechangeisarealityandthathumanactivitiesarelargelyresponsibleforincreasingconcentrationofgreenhousegases(GHG)intheearth’satmosphere.Kenyaexperiencesheavy,devastatingfloodsduringstrongElNinoandLaNinaevents.Itisexpectedthatwithclimatechange,thefrequencyandintensityofextremeweathereventssuchasfloodsanddroughtswillincrease.ManyofthedisastersinKenyaareclimaterelated.Theyareassociatedwiththeextremeclimateeventswhichoccasionlandslides,increaseddiseaseepisodes,negativeeffects on farming, and massive livestock deaths.


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Energyconsumptionperunitoftransportationactivity isakeymeasureofhowefficientlytransportationsystemsconvertenergyintohumanmobilityandgoodsdistribution.Inparticular,energyconsumptionfortransportationrelativetotheamountoffreightorpassengerscarriedandthedistancetraveledandtheresultantpollutionandclimatechangeisdependentonboththemixofvehiclesandtheenergyintensitiesofparticulartypesofvehicles.Theenergyintensities of train and bus transportation per passenger-km are commonly less than forcarsorairtransportation.Forfreight,energyintensitiesforrailandshiptransportationarecommonlylessthanfortruckingpertonne-km.

9. a NEW FRaMEWORK FOR P-E LINKEd MONITORING

Overtheyears,theGovernmentofKenyahasacknowledgedtheimportanceoftheenvironmentinachievingitseconomicrecoveryandpovertyreductiongoalsasdemonstratedinvariouskeypolicyguidelines.Forexample,environmentalchallengeshavebeenidentifiedintheKenyaVision2030andrecentparticipatorypovertyassessmentsandothermechanismsofpickingvoices of the poor have recorded increase in awareness and concerns for environmentalissues,especiallywithregardtopovertyreductionandsustainabilityofcurrentdevelopmentpoliciesandactivities.

Forexample, according to the fourthParticipatoryPovertyAssessment2005-2006, all thecommunities visited were concerned about the environment, e.g. destruction of naturalvegetation in the water catchments areas and conversion of such areas to agricultural use, reduction inwatervolumes fromnatural sources,disposalofnon-biodegradablematerials(plastics),urbanpollution,disposalofhumanwasteespeciallyinurbaninformalsettlementsandsmallurbancenters,anddenudationoftreesinmostpartsofthecountry.

AcommunityconsultativeplanningstudyundertakenbyWWFinBondo,Murang’aandMeruSouth districts listed the poverty-environment challenges to include an ever increasingpopulationanddiminishingresources,seasonalandenvironmentalstress,copingwithhungerand other povertymanifestations, environmental health and diseases, limited communityinvolvementinthemanagementofnaturalresources,andgovernanceandcorruption(e.g.illegallogging,sandharvesting,andlittletrustinpublicinstitutions).

Regionalandprovincialconsultativemeetingsheldaspartoftheprocessofpreparingthedraftnationalenvironmentpolicyrevealedthatcommunitiesareawareofthelinksbetweenlivelihoods and the environment, and the attendant dangers with the wanton destruction of theKenya’snaturalresourcebase.Someofthecommonissuesthatarosefromtheregional/provincialconsultativemeetingsinclude:wastemanagementinmosturbancenters,pollutioninlakesanddeclininglakewaterlevels,waterscarcityandwaterquality,encroachmentonwetlands,deforestation,pooragriculturalpractices,human-wildlifeconflict,lossofdiversity,quarryingandminingincludingsandharvesting,inconsistenciesinlawsandweakinstitutionalarrangements,unplanned settlements, climatechange, lackofdisastermanagement, andinvasivespeciese.g.waterhyacinth,prosopisjurifloraandhippograss.

However,thepolicyframeworkcontainedinVision2030andtheMediumTermPlan2008-2012shouldhavebeensubjectedtoaStrategicEnvironmentalAssessment(SEA)beforebeingusedasabasis fordevelopmentofP-E indicators, soas togaugetheenvironmental soundnessof thepolicy frameworkandensure that it doesnothurt thepoor in the short-termand

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underminelong-rungrowthanditseffectivenessinreducingpoverty.

TheoverallpurposeoftheP-EIndicatorswillbetoprovideameasurementframeworkthroughwhich to: (a) identify whether environment and poverty reduction linkages contribute toachievingnationalandsub-nationaldevelopmentpolicies,objectivesandtargetswithintheframeworkofVision2030andtheMediumTermPlan2008-2012;and(b)enableassessmentofprogresstowardssoundenvironmentalmanagementandpovertyreduction.This linkagebetweennationalpoliciesandtheimplementedprogrammesthroughtheP-Eindicatorswillassisttodemonstratetheextenttowhichdevelopmentissustainableinthelong-term,andprovidecruciallessonsforfutureprogrammedesign.Themeasurementswillbedoneatthenationalandsub-nationallevelsaselaboratedunderNIMES.

10. OUTLINE OF THE REPORT

The report consists of fourmain chapters.To lay the groundwork fordevelopingpoverty-environment indicators, the first chapter describes the role of environment in povertyreductionandotherpoverty-environmentlinkages,usingthemillenniumdevelopmentgoalsasaspringboard.

Thesecondchapterisadescriptionofthenationalmonitoringandevaluationsystemcoveringnational level reporting (e.g. NIMES and theNational EnvironmentalAction Plan), districtlevelreporting,andareviewofrelevanceofcurrentindicatorstoP-Elinkedmonitoring.Theaimofthischapteristopresentcurrentnationalandsub-nationalstructureswithinwhichtheproposedP-Eindicatorswillfall,andalsoserveasabasisfordiscussiononappropriateinstitutional arrangements for generation of data for the indicators.

ThethirdchapterpresentsspecificenvironmentalissuesinKenyagroupedaroundfivemainthemes: environmental issues, ecosystem services, sustainable use of natural resources,environmental stewardship, and enhancing environmental quality. The chapter serves toidentifythecriticalissuesthattheproposedpoverty-environmentindicatorsshouldcover.

Chapterfourcoverstheneedforanationalenvironmentframework,therelationshipbetweenP-EindicatorsandnationalP-Epolicyguidelines(e.g.Vision2030,draftenvironmentpolicy),anewframeworkforP-Elinkedmonitoring,andtherangeofproposedindicators.

The matrix of proposed national and sub-national level indicators in theAnnex uses thethematicissuesaspresentedinVision2030andMedium-TermPlan2008-2012.Theindicatorsselectedaresupposedtoprovideamenufromwhichacoresetofindicatorscanbeselected.Otherindicatorscanalsobechosenforministerialandagencylevel.

During the preparation of national and ministerial level indicators for tracking theimplementationofVision2030andMedium-TermPlan2008-2012,theconsultantsparticipatedinproviding inputsonpoverty-environment linked indicators.Table2showsthe indicatorsthatwere tentativelyagreedupon for inclusion in thenationalmonitoringandevaluationframework.


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PoverTy-environmenT linkages 11.1 caTEGORIEs OF VaLUE FROM BIOdIVERsITY

TheobjectivesoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversityare(a)theconservationofbiologicaldiversity;(b)thesustainableuseofitscomponents;and(c)thefairandequitablesharingofthebenefitsarisingoutoftheutilizationofgeneticresources.

According to the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992), ‘biodiversity’ refers to ‘thevariabilityamonglivingorganismsfromallsourcesincluding,amongotherthings,terrestrial,marineandotheraquaticecosystemsandtheecologicalcomplexesofwhichtheyarepart;thisincludesdiversitywithinspecies,betweenspeciesandofecosystems’.Biodiversityreferstothelivingworld’scapacitytochange–variability–andtherangeofbiologicalformsandprocessesthatderiveasaresult–variety.Theimportanceofbiodiversitytohumansisthechoicesthatitoffers,fromtheperspectiveofboththepresentbenefitsofvariedandvariablelifeformsandthefutureoptionsassociatedwithvarietyandthecapacityoforganismstomutateandadapt(Vermeulen,2004).

Thedifferentcategoriesofvaluefromdiversityinclude:•Direct-usevalues:thebenefitsofawiderrangeofrawmaterials(e.g.foodstuffs,medicines,buildingmaterialsandfodderforlivestock).

•Indirect-use values: the environmental services that ecological biodiversity sometimesenhances. More diverse ecosystems may be better providers of stable and effectivemicroclimate regulation, protection from erosion, or other services. A perhapsunderestimated indirect-usevalueofgreaterbiodiversity isprotection frompredators,parasitesanddiseases.

•Non-usevalues:options tousebiological resources in the future (optionvalue),eitherduringourownlifetimesorinfuturegenerations(bequestvalue).Morediversecommunitiesofplantsandanimalsofferagreatervarietyofpotentialfutureusesaswellasagreatercapacitytoevolvenewformsandprocesses.Biodiversityalsohasanon-useculturalvalueintermsofitsrolesinoursharedsenseofhistoryandplaceintheworld,includingtheintrinsicvalueofnon-humanspecies’righttoexistence.

BiodiversityisalsointimatelylinkedtoEarth’sclimateand,inevitably,toclimatechange.Forinstance,changestonaturalecosystemsinfluencebothclimatechangeandpeople’sabilitytocopewithsomeofitsdamagingimpacts(ReidandSwiderska,2008).Inturn,climatechangeaswellaspeople’sresponsestoit,affectbiodiversity.Biodiversityiskeytoman’sadaptationtoclimatechange,effectivenessoflandscapesfunctionsinabsorbingandstoringcarbon,andtheeffectivenessofvegetationandecosystemsinreducingtheadverseimpactsofclimatechange.

1.2 POVERTY aNd ENVIRONMENT LINKaGEs1

Poverty encompasses both income and non-income dimensions of deprivation, includinglack of income and othermaterialmeans; lack of access to basic social services such aseducation,health,andsafewater;lackofpersonalsecurity;andlackofempowermentto

1This section is mainly based on UNDP, World Bank, European Commission, DfID, Linking Poverty Reduction and Environmental Management: Policy Challenges and Opportunities, July 2002

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participateinthepoliticalprocessandindecisionsthatinfluenceaccesstobasicrights.Theenvironmentalsoundnessofeconomicgrowthiscriticaltothelivelihoodsopportunitiesofthepoor,andcountrieswithsimilarlevelsofincomeandgrowthcanhavequitedifferentlevelsofenvironmentalperformanceasaresultofdifferencesinpolicy,institutionalarrangementsandimplementationcapacities.

The environment provides goods (natural resources) and services (ecosystem functions)usedforfoodproduction,theharvestingofwildproducts,energy,andrawmaterials.Theenvironmentisalsoarecipientandpartialrecyclerofwasteproductsfromtheeconomyandan important sourceof recreation,beauty, spiritual values,andotheramenities.Poverty-environmentlinkagesaredynamicandcontext-specific—reflectingbothgeographiclocationand scale and the economic, social, and cultural characteristics of individuals, households, andsocialgroups.Inruralareas,poorpeopleareparticularlyconcernedwithsecureaccesstoandthequalityofnaturalresources—arablelandandwater,cropandlivestockdiversity,fishandbushmeatresources,forestproductsandbiomassforfuel.Fortheurbanpoor,water,energy, sanitation andwaste disposal, drainage, and secure tenure are key concerns. Forpoorwomen,accesstopotablewater,sanitationfacilities,andabundantenergysuppliesarecrucialaspectsofwell-being,reflectingwomen’sprimaryroleinmanagingthehousehold.

Thepoor,particularlythoselivinginruralareas,oftendirectlyrelyonavarietyofnaturalresourceproducts(biodiversity)andecosystemservicesasasourceoflivelihood.Increasingly,theruralpoorliveinareasofhighecologicalvulnerabilityandrelativelylowlevelsofbiologicalorresourceproductivity,suchassubtropicaldry-landsorsteepmountainslopes.Thus,bothenvironmentalconditionsandaccesstoavarietyofnaturalresourcesarecrucialtotheabilityofpoorpeopletosustaintheirlivelihoods.

Naturalresourcescanbeaprimarysourceoflivelihoodormaysupplementahousehold’sdailyneedsandincome,andthepooraremostdependentonenvironmental incomeinrelativeterms.Soildegradationandthelossofpest-anddrought-resistantcropandlivestockvarietiesrepresentmajorthreatstoimprovingagriculturalproductivity,whichunderpinsthelivelihoodsof the vastmajority of rural poor and is a cornerstoneof poverty reduction strategies inmanycountries.Poorpeopleareaffectedbynaturalresourcedegradationandbiodiversitylossmuchmorethantherichbecauseoftheirlimitedassetsandtheirgreaterdependenceoncommonpropertyresourcesfortheirlivelihoods.Thepoorarealsomoredependentonbiomassfuelsandlessefficienttraditionaltechnologiese.g.openfirecookingandheatingmethods.Inaddition,poorruralwomenaredisproportionatelyaffectedbynaturalresourcedegradationandbiodiversityloss,asevidentbyincreasedtime,physicalburden,andpersonalrisk women face in traveling greater distances to collect fuel, fodder, and water due to growingresourcescarcityormorerestrictedaccesstocommonpropertyareas.Thisreducesthetimespentonincome-generatingactivities,cropproduction,andhouseholdandchild-rearingresponsibilities.

Ecosystems - such as forests, agroecosystems, grasslands, and freshwater and coastalecosystems (including coral reefs) and the biodiversity contained within them - provideessential“services”thatcontributeinnumerouswaystoproductiveactivitiese.g.provisionof natural habitat forwild pollinators that are essential to food crop production; naturalpredatorsthatcontrolcroppestsandsoilorganismsnecessaryformaintenanceofsoilfertilityandagriculturalproductivity;watershedprotectionandhydrologicalstability,includingtherecharging of ground water tables and buffering of extreme hydrological conditions thatmightotherwiseprecipitatedroughtorfloodconditions;maintenanceofsoilfertilitythrough


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storage and cycling of essential nutrients; and breakdown ofwaste and pollutants.Whenecosystemfunctionsareimpaired,thisinevitablyleadstoanarrowingoflivelihoodchoicesandanincreaseinthevulnerabilityofthepoor.Somekeyecosystemtypes inKenyaareat riskofcollapse.These includecoral reefsandfreshwater systems that are at risk of fast decline due to pollution, overuse, or otherperturbationsthatreducebiodiversityorthatexceedacertainthresholdoftolerance.Theconsequenceisthatpeoplewhodependontheseecosystemsmayfindthemselvesdeprivedofessentialgoodsandservicesinarelativelyshorttimespanandunabletocopeoradapt.

Up to one-fifth of the total burden of disease in the developingworld is associatedwithenvironmentalriskfactors.Thepoor,particularlywomenandchildren,aremostaffectedbyenvironmentalhealthproblems,andtraditionalenvironmentalhazards-lackofsafewaterandsanitation,indoorairpollution,andexposuretodiseasevectors.

Therehasalsobeenanemergenceofinfectiousdiseasesincombinationwithecosystemchanges(PatzandConfalonieri,2005;seealsoPattanayakandYasuoka,2008,ondeforestationandmalaria).Thereasons(ordriversandtrends)canbedividedinsixgroups.Theseinclude:•Alteredhabitat/breedingsites:increasingbreedingsitesforthevectors(e.g.mosquitoes)duetoirrigationandwaterprojectsincultivatedsystems.

•Niche invasion or interspecies host transfer effects on infectious diseases transmissione.g.throughinteractionsbetweenwildnonhumanprimatesandhumansintropicalforesthabitats.

•Biodiversitychangeeffectsofinfectiousdiseasetransmission:e.g.batsinBrazilattackhumansandnexttothattheytransmitpathogensthatcauserabies.

•Human-inducedgeneticchangesofdiseasevectorsorpathogens:Forinstance,intensiveanimal production routinely uses antibiotics, and such sub-therapeutic levels exertselectivepressureontheemergenceofresistantbacteria(e.g.thedrug-resistantbacteriaSalmonellaenteritidis).

•Environmentalcontaminationofinfectiousagentsofdiseases:Oneexampleiscontaminationofwaterthroughinfectiousoocystslocatedinthefecalofmammals.

•Synergiesbetweenmalnutritionandinfectiousdiseases:Malnutrition,asaconsequenceofenvironmentaldegradation,hasahugeimpactonmorbidityandmortalityduetoinfectiousdiseases(e.g.diarrhoea,malaria,pneumoniaandmeasles).

Inadequate access to safe drinking water and sanitation, combined with poor hygienepractices, are major causes of ill health and life-threatening diseases, especially amongchildrenunderfiveyears.Theruralpoorrelyonnaturalwatersourcessuchasstreamsfortheirwashinganddrinkingwater.Vector-bornediseasessuchasmalariaarealsolinkedtoarange of environmental conditions and factors related to water contamination and inadequate sanitation.

Indoor air pollution from open burning of wood fuels (wood, dung, crop residues) duringcookingandheatingresultinprematuredeathformanywomenandchildrenasaresultofacute respiratory infections.Outdoor air pollution is becoming a health concern in urbanareas,andisprojectedtorivalindoorairpollutionasahealthriskfactoroverthenexttwodecades.Thethreemostcommonenvironment-relatedillnessesprevalentinpoorcountries,namely,diarrhealdiseases,respiratoryinfectionsandmalaria,arerelatedtowaterandindoorairpollution.Theseillnessesarealsofundamentallylinkedtoquantityandqualityofwatersupplyanduseoftraditionalenergy.

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Pesticidepoisoningisasignificanthealthproblemamongpoorfarmersindevelopingcountries.Thepooralsosuffermoreindirecteffectsfromexcessiveuseofpesticides,suchasdepletionoffishstocksduetopesticideloadsinagriculturalrunoff.Contaminationoffoodcropswithpesticideresidues isagrowing incomeproblemfor farmersproducing forexportmarkets,asseveralimportantmarketsaretighteningtheirregulationsregardingpermissiblelevelsofpesticideresidues.

Insecurityisoneofthekeyconcernsofpoorpeople,includingtheirvulnerabilitytounpredictableevents.Insecurityrelatestopeople’sriskassociatedwithexposure,susceptibilitytoloss,andcapacitytorecover.Boththeruralandurbanpooraremostoftenexposedtoenvironmentalhazardsandenvironment-relatedconflict,theysufferthegreatestlosses(atleastinrelativeterms),andtheyareintheweakestpositiontocopeandadapt.

Resourcemismanagementandenvironmentaldegradationcanexacerbatethefrequencyandimpactofdroughts,floods,forestfires,andothernaturalhazards.Thepoorarethemostvulnerable to environmental disasters (“shocks”) aswell as tomore gradual processes ofenvironmentaldegradation(“stresses”)-asthemajorityoftheruralpoorliveinecologicallyfragileareas,whiletheurbanpooroftenliveandworkinenvironmentswithhighexposuretoenvironmentalhazards.Thefrequency,intensityanddurationofextremeweathereventsis also likely to increase as a result of climate change,with significant negative impactsfromincreasedfoodinsecurity,greaterspreadofvector-bornedisease,moreflooding,andexacerbationoflanddegradation.

Tensionsbetweendiverseinterestgroupsovernaturalresourcescancontributetoconflict.Thesetensionsmaybeplayedoutattheregionallevel;atthenationallevel;andatthelocalleveloveraccesstonaturalresourcesonwhichthepoordirectlydependfortheirlivelihoods.Insuchcircumstances,thepoorwillbethemostnegativelyaffectedbecausetheyhavethefewestresourcestocopewithphysicalloss,andtheyarethemostvulnerabletoviolenceandlackappropriatemeansforlegalredress.Newresearchsuggeststhatcivilwarsmoreoftenarefueledbyrebelgroupscompetingwithnationalgovernmentsforcontrolofdiamonds,coffee,andothervaluableprimarycommodities thanbypolitical,ethnic,or religiousdifferences(Ross,2004).Insomecases,naturalresourceconflictscanbesoseverethattheycontributetowiderunrestandcanaffectthepoliticalstabilityofacountry.

Insummary,thevariouslinkagesbetweenpovertyandecosystemsrevealsthefollowingtenconstituentsand/ordeterminantsofwell-beingcloselyrelatedwithecosystems(Duraiappah,2002;citedinUNEPandtheInternationalInstituteforSustainableDevelopment,2004):•Beingabletobeadequatelynourished•Beingabletobefreefromavoidabledisease•Beingabletoliveinanenvironmentallycleanandsafeshelter•Beingabletohaveadequateandcleandrinkingwater•Beingabletohavecleanair•Beingabletohaveenergytokeepwarmandtocook•Beingabletousetraditionalmedicine•Beingabletocontinueusingnaturalelementsfoundinecosystemsfortraditionalculturalandspiritualpractices

•Being able to cope with extreme natural events including floods, tropical storms andlandslides

•Beingabletomakesustainablemanagementdecisionsthatrespectnaturalresourcesandenabletheachievementofasustainableincomestream


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However,poverty-environmentlinksarenotnecessarilythesameascausallinkagesbetweentheenvironmentandpoverty(i.e.howachangingenvironmentincreasesordecreasespoverty,orhowchangingpovertylevelsdamageorimprovetheenvironment).Theyaredimensionsofpovertythatconcerntheenvironmentalpartofthepoorpeople’slives,andthusrelatetopeople’sopportunitiesforeconomicadvancement(orlackofopportunities),socialorpoliticalempowerment(ordisempowerment),andsecurity(orvulnerability).Theydescribehowtheenvironmentalresourcesarepartandparcelofapoorperson’slivelihood.

AsobservedbyHenningerandHammond(2002),thereareseriousconceptualproblems inmoving fromP&E links into P&E indicators. For example, “lack of an adequate supply ofcleanwatercontributestoillhealthandtheburdenofdisease;lackofasecurefoodsupplycontributestomalnutritionandhunger;andtheseinturnbearsomerelationshiptolevelsofpollutionandtheconditionofthenaturalresourcebasewithinacountry.Butprovable,causalrelationships between national average statistical indicators of environmental quality orconditionsandpovertyreductiongenerallydonotexist”(HenningerandHammond,2002).Inaddition,manytraditionalecosystemindicatorsarehighlysite-specific,andthereforeappearmorerelevantforlower-levelgeographicalareasratherthannationallevelmonitoring.

1.3 THE LINK TO THE MILLENNIUM dEVELOPMENT GOaLs

Itiswidelyacceptedthatbiodiversitylossandpovertyarelinked,andthatconservationandpovertyreductionshouldthereforebeaddressedjointly(RoeandElliott,2004).TheUnitedNationsMillenniumDevelopmentGoalshasbuiltbridgesbetweenthetwo,althoughoneoftheweaknessesoftheMDGsistheseparationofenvironmentintooneofeightgoalssincebiodiversityconservationisnotjustthebusinessoftheenvironmentgoal,butunderpinstheachievement of the other goals.

BiodiversityconservationisdirectlyaddressedinMDG-7(‘EnsureEnvironmentalSustainability’).Thisincludesatargetto‘integratetheprinciplesofsustainabledevelopmentincountrypoliciesandprogrammesandreversethelossofenvironmentalresources.’OfthetenindicatorsforMDG-7, four specifically address conservation: proportion of land area covered by forest,proportionoffish stockswithin safebiological limits,proportionof terrestrialandmarineareasprotected,andproportionofspeciesthreatenedwithextinction.

Inthecaseofincomepoverty(MDG-1),biodiversitycanprovideopportunitiesforjobs,smallandmicroenterprise,andgenerateincomethroughpaymentsforenvironmentalservices(e.g.intourismandwildproductsasasourceofcashincomeandemploymentforpoorpeople).Biodiversityunderpinsfoodsecurity(HungerMDG1),whilehealth-relatedMDGs4,5and6aredependent onbiodiversity asmoderndrugshave their origin in natural products, andmanypeoplerelyonwildherbalmedicinalplants.Water(MDG-7)isdependentonthegoodsandservicesthatbiodiversityprovides,andconservationofareassuchaswatercatchmentsforestsandfloodplainsisvitaltosustaindeliveryofecosystemservicessuchaswatersuppliesandfloodcontroltosettlementsandproductioncenters.Biodiversityhasavaluableroletoplayinachievingtheothermillenniumdevelopmentgoals,assummarizedinTable1below:

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mdg ExamplesoflinkstotheEnvironmenteradicate extreme povertyandhunger

Livelihoodsandfoodsecuritydependonfunctioningecosystems;Thepooroftenhavenoentitlementstoenvironmentalresources and inadequate access to environmental information, marketsanddecision-making;Lackofenergyserviceslimitsproductiveopportunitiesforthepoorest

Achieve universal primaryeducation

Timespentcollectingwaterandfuelwoodcanreducetimeavailableforschooling;Lackofenergy,waterandsanitationdiscourageteacherstolivein rural areas

Promotegenderequalityandempowerwomen

water and fuel collection reduce the time that women and girlsmighthaveavailableforeducation,literacyandincome-generatingactivities;Womendonotbenefitfromequalentitlementstolandandother natural resources

Reducechildmortality Waterandsanitation-relateddiseases(e.g.diarrhea)andrespiratoryinfectionsarethetwomostimportantcausesofunder-fivechildmortality;Lackofcleanwaterandfuelsforboilingwatercontributetopreventablewater-bornediseases

Improvematernalhealth Indoorairpollutionandcarryingheavyloadsofwaterandfuel-woodaffectwomen’shealth,increasingrisksofcomplicationduringpregnancy;Lackofenergy(light,refrigeration)andsanitationlimitthequalityofhealthservicesinruralareas

Combatmajordiseases Environmentalhealthhazardsareassociatedwithriskfactors(e.g.malaria,parasiticinfections);disease vector host from wildlife to humans due to environmental degradation

ensure environmental sustainability

Keepingtheresourcebase(landareacoveredbyforests,biodiversity,watersources)andregulatingenergy,carbondioxideemissionsandrecyclingprovidesthefoundationforthelinksdescribedinthistable

Globalpartnershipfordevelopment

Globalenvironmentalproblemsneedtheparticipationofrichcountries(thatconsumemoreresources);Externaldebt,unfairtermsoftradeandpredatoryinvestmentcanincreasepressuretooverexploitenvironmentalassetsindevelopingcountries;Productionofpollutantsasaresultofdevelopmentactivities

MainSource:UNDP/WorldBank/EuropeanCommission/DfID,LinkingPovertyReductionandEnvironmentalManagement:PolicyChallengesandOpportunities,July2002;alsoreproducedinPoverty-EnvironmentPartnership,2005.

Table1:ThelinksbetweentheenvironmentandtheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals


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1.4 sUMMaRY aNd cONcLUsION

Thechapterpresentstherelationshipsbetweenpovertyandenvironment,wherepoverty-environmentlinkagesaredescribedasthedimensionsofpovertythatconcerntheenvironmentalpartofpoorpeople’slives.Theyareaspectsofpovertythatrelatetopeople’sopportunitiesforeconomicadvancement(or lackofopportunities), socialorpoliticalempowerment(ordisempowerment), and security (or vulnerability). Poverty-environment linkages are notnecessarilythesameascausal linkagesbetweentheenvironmentandpoverty(i.e.howachangingenvironmentincreasesordecreasespoverty,orhowchangingpovertylevelsdamageor improvetheenvironment). Insteadtheydescribehowenvironmentalresourcesarepartandparcelofapoorperson’slivelihood.

Thechapterclassifiesenvironmentalservicesandproductsintoprovisioning,regulatingandenrichingservices.Bothenvironmentalconditionsandaccesstoavarietyofnaturalresourcesarecrucialtotheabilityofpoorpeopletosustaintheirlivelihoods,andthepooraregenerallymoreaffectedbynaturalresourcedegradationandbiodiversity lossthantherichbecauseof their limited assets and their greater dependence on common property resources fortheirlivelihoods.TheP-Eindicatorsshouldbeabletotrackcontributionsofenvironmentalresourcestopoorpeople’seffortsforimprovingtheirwell-being.

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descriPTion of The naTional moniToring and evaluaTion sysTem

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2.1 INTROdUcTION

TheNationalIntegratedMonitoringandEvaluationSystem(NIMES)isaninstitutionalframeworkforprovidingfeedbackontheeffectivenessofimplementationofthepoliciesandprogrammessetoutinnationaldocumentsliketheVision2030,theMediumTermPlan2008-2012,sectoralpolicydocuments,Ministries’ strategicplans,annualworkplansandperformance targets.TheNIMESensuresthatGoKobjectives,programmes/activitiesandprojectionsarebasedonsoundunderstandingofthevariouscircumstances,parameters,anddynamicsthatinfluencethesuccessofplansthroughusinglessonslearntforfutureplanning.

TheVision2030andsectoralpoliciesarenationalprogramsthatarenotnecessarilyconfinedtoGovernmentactivitiesandNIMES is thereforedesignedtoencompassallother relevantstakeholders that contribute toeffective implementationof these keyprograms includingpublic bodies at central and devolved levels, the private sector and civil society e.g.nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), faith-based organizations (FBOs) and community-basedorganizations(CBOs).

ThemainpurposeoftheNIMESisto:•BuildanM&Esystemforreportingatbothcentralgovernmentandlowerdevolvedlevels(mainlythedistrictlevel)

•PromotethepracticeofM&Eatalllevelsofgovernmentandcivilsociety•Providetimelyandreliablefeedbacktothebudgetarypreparationprocessthroughthepreparationofreports

•Provideregular,timelyandreliablereportontheeffectivenessofgovernmentprogrammes,and

•Ensuretheactiveparticipationofcivilsociety.

For effective implementation of NIMES, there are two levels of reportingwhich arewellstructured and integrated. The first is a central structure which brings together the lineministries and other bodies and stakeholders (including nongovernmental stakeholders) toprovideareportingmechanismontheprogrammesoftheVision2030andtheMediumTermPlan2008-2012.Thesecondisadevolvedstructurebasedonkeypublicandnongovernmentalplayersatthelocal(district)level.

2.2 NaTIONaL LEVEL REPORTING

Progress against the Economic Recovery Strategy for Wealth and Employment Creation(ERS) was measured against 31 indicators contained in the ERS implementation matrix.The outcome indicators for Vision 2030 were later developed consisting of 48 outcomeindicators for national level reporting andmonitoring, 16Districts andConstituency levelindicators,aswellas30genderreportingandmonitoringindicators.Atthenationallevel,theMonitoring and Evaluation Directorate of theMoPND&V2030 compilesAnnual ProgressReportsagainsttheagreedperformanceindicatorsusingdataandinformationsuppliedbytheKenyaNationalBureauofStatistics(KNBS)andrelevantfocalministries’CentralPlanningandProjectMonitoringUnits(CPPMUs).ThesedatasetsarealsosupplementedbyDistrictAnnual


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MonitoringandEvaluationReports(DAMER)compiledbytheDistrictDevelopmentOfficerwithinputsfromsectoraldistrictofficersandforwardedtoMoPND&V2030.ThenationalAnnualProgressReport(APR)isacompositeonthenationalperformancetowardstheachievementofnationalobjectives.Itisbuiltaroundaperiodicreportingsystembasedonindicatorsattheoutput,outcome,andimpactlevels.

InordertoreporttothenationalM&Esystem,eachministrypreparesandsubmitsreportsonabiannualbasistocentralgovernmentthroughtheMonitoringandEvaluationDirectorate(MED)oftheMoPND&V2030.ThesereportsarepreparedinadherencetotheagreedformatsandaresummarizedasrequiredbytheMED.Initially,reportingtotheMEDwasrequiredonanannualbasis,normallyinJuly-August,priortothecommencementoftheannualbudgetarypreparation process in September/October, but this has been reviewed to biannual (six-monthly)reportingtoimprovetheeffectivenessandtimelinessofthesystem.

AttheMinistrylevel,severaltypesofreportinghavebeenestablishedtomeettherequirementsoftheNationalM&Esystem:•Reporting by sections/departments to the CPPMU: this form of reporting is of basicinformationnecessary for thecompilationofministerialM&Ereports.This reporting isundertakenbyeachdepartmentonthebasisofitsprogrammesassetoutintheministerialStrategicPlanandAnnualWork-plans(AWP).ThislevelofreportingiscoordinatedbytheCPPMUthatensurestheMEDM&Esystemiscompliedwithintermsofthesetstandards.Each Ministry has a CPPMU and the Head of the Ministry’s CPPMU is the designatedPrincipalM&EOfficer.Inthecaseofparastatalsandothersemi-autonomousgovernmentagencies(SAGAs),theM&Efocalpointisvestedintherespectiveplanningdepartment,whoforwardtheSAGA’sreportsthroughtheir respectiveparentministries totheMED.Thesekeyofficesareresponsibleforensuringthatthenecessaryflowsofinformationandreportsareprovidedonatimelybasis.

•Reporting by the CPPMU tomanagement takes the form of the submission of routinereportsbytheHeadofCPPMUtoseniormanagement intheMinistry.This isaprimarymechanismofinternalfeedbackwithintheMinistryintermsoftheprogressbeingmadeintheimplementationoftheAWPandachievingtheministerialperformancetargets.ThisinternalfeedbackmechanismisveryimportantbeforethereportsareforwardedtoMEDasitensuresMinisterialownershipofthereports.

OncethereportsarereceivedbyMEDandconsolidated,theMEDreportsbackinatimelymanner toall theMinistries/departmentswhoseprogrammesare themainobjectof theReport.ThisencouragesfuturecompliancewiththeM&EsystemaswellasprovidingimportantfeedbackonprogrammeeffectivenesstoadministrativeandtechnicalstaffintheconcernedMinistries.ThefeedbackprovidedalsoensuresbetterutilizationofthereportsbyMinistriesandtheentirenationalplanningandbudgetingactivitiese.g.SectorWorkingGroups(SWGs),Public Expenditure Reviews (PERs) and Public Expenditure Tracking Surveys (PETS). ThenationalM&E reports also form a valuable frame of reference to the NEPADAfrican PeerReviewMechanism(APRM)andtheMDGs.

2.3 dIsTRIcT LEVEL REPORTING

The broad purpose of M&E activities at the District level is tomonitor and evaluate theimplementation and effectiveness of programmes at the community level in order toprovidefeedbackfortheimprovementandfurtherdevelopmentofappropriatepoliciesandprogrammes.ThisbroadpurposeisdesignedtogiveKenyansavoicetoexpresstheirviews

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ontheappropriatenessandeffectivenessofdevelopmentpoliciesandprogrammes;assessprogressmadewiththecorenationalobjectiveoffosteringempowermentatthelocallevel;providedistricts’viewsoftheperformanceofthecentralministriesindeliveringservicestothepeopleandcommunitiesineverydistrict;provideanalysisandrecommendationsrelatingto institutional structuresand systemsat thedistrict levelandbelow; informtheprocessof refinementof thenationalpolicyofdecentralizationon thebasisofactual conditions,constraintsandopportunitiesatthedistrict,constituencyandcommunitylevel;complementthe monitoring and evaluation of central government through the central structure of the nationalM&Esystem;andidentifyanddefineappropriateissuesarisingatthedistrictlevelwhichrequireappropriatepolicyresponseseitheratdistrict,constituencyornationallevels.The16districtandconstituencyoutcomeindicatorsspecifiedintheMTP(2008-2012)oftheVision2030aremeanttoservethispurpose.

Theorganizationalstructureatthedistrictlevelischaracterizedbythepresenceofdifferenttypesofstructures,including(a)theprovincialadministrationbothatdistrictlevelandthelower levels such as division, location and sub-location, and (b) the various categories oflocal authorities (includingTownCouncils, CountyCouncil,Municipal Councils),which areself-governingunitswhichreportadministrativelytotheMinistryofLocalGovernment.Therearealso structuresand systemswhicharedefinedon thebasisofconstituencies,and thelocalofficesoftheMinistriesofcentralgovernment.Otherthanthegovernmentstructures,thereareotherstakeholderssuchastheprivatesector,civilsocieties(e.g.nongovernmentalorganizations)whichoperateatthislevel.TheinstitutionalstructureforM&Eatthedistrictlevelisthereforedesignedtobeall-inclusiveandcoversallinstitutions,whichcoexistwithinanygivendistrict.

Therefore,district levelM&Eneeds to takeaccountofdistrict-specificplanningprocessesandthevariouscategoriesoforganizationoperatingatthedistrictlevel.Someofthevariousplanningprocessesthatthedistrictsmustconsiderinclude:•ThenationalprogrammessetoutintheVision2030andtheMediumTermPlan2008-2012,whichdefinesbothbroadgoalsandawiderangeofsectoralpoliciesandprogrammes,whichareimplementedbycentralandlocalgovernmentandbynongovernmentalstakeholders.ThisisanimportantfunctionofM&EatthedistrictleveltotracktheextenttowhichthenationalgoalssetoutintheVision2030andtheMediumTermPlan2008-2012arebeingrealizedateachdevolvedlevel.

•Thedistrict level planning processes,which are centered on theDistrictDevelopmentPlans.Theseplanssetouttheprogrammesandprojectsonasectoralbasisforachievingthestateddevelopmentobjectivesatthedistrictlevel.

•Theplanspreparedbylocalauthorities(LAs),whichrelatetotheapplicationofrecurrentanddevelopmentexpenditurebytheLAs.Theseincludethelocalauthorityservicedeliveryactionplans(LASDAPs)whicharepreparedannuallybyeveryLAandwhichunderpinstheplanning and the LA’s applications for funding from the LocalAuthority Transfer Fund(LATF).

•Plans prepared at the Constituency level for prioritization of the application of fundsavailablethroughtheConstituencyDevelopmentFund(CDF).

•Planspreparedbythecommitteesresponsibleforthemanagementofthevariousspecialfundsavailabletothedistrictlevel,includingtheDistrictRoadsCommittee,theHIV/AIDSCommitteeandtheBursaryFundCommittees.

•DistrictPovertyReductionStrategydocumentspreparedintherun-uptothepreparationof the national PrsP and ers.


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Tobeabletocoordinatemonitoringandevaluationthatservethemanyplayersatthedistrictlevel,aDistrictMonitoringandEvaluationCommittee(DMEC)exists ineachdistrictwherealltheinstitutionalcategoriesfunctioningatthedistrictlevelareincluded.ThesecretarytoDMECistheDistrictDevelopmentOfficer(DDO)andthemembershipisallkeystakeholdersindevelopmentmattersineachdistrict.TheCommitteecoordinatesthedistrictM&Esystemwhileappreciatingthediversityofplanningandimplementationprocessforeachstakeholder.

The District Monitoring and Evaluation Committee ensure that all programmes/ projectsimplementedatthedistrictlevel,irrespectiveoftheimplementingagency,aremonitoredandevaluatedandaDistrictAnnualMonitoringandEvaluationReview(DAMER)reportisprepared.TheDAMERinprinciplecoversthefullrangeofactivitiesandprogrammesbeingundertakeninthedistricttopromotedevelopment,includingthoseundertakenbycentralgovernmentagencies,localpublicsectorinstitutions,theprivatesector,thenongovernmentalsectorandcivilsociety.TheDAMERispreparedinJune-AugustofeachyearandsubmittedtotheMEDby31August.

Keyactivitiesundertaken in thepreparationof theDAMER include:preparationofaworkplanandbudgetfortheannualDAMERpreparationprocessbytheDDO;holdingofaninitialstakeholdermeeting from both governmental and nongovernmental sectors to brief themontheDAMERpreparationprocess;establishmentofaTaskForcebytheDMECtopreparetheDAMER;collectionofinformationrequiredforthecompletionoftheDAMER;holdingofinterviewswithkeystakeholdersbytheTaskForcemembers;preparationofadraftDAMERdocument;holdingasecondstakeholdermeetingtobriefstakeholdersfromthedistrictonthe provisional findings of theDAMER exercise and to obtain feedback before finalizationoftheDAMER;revisionofthedraftDAMERtoproduceafinalDAMER;andsubmissionoftheDAMERtolocalstakeholders,theProvincialPlanningOfficerandtheMED.

The DAMER preparation team relies on a wide range of sources of information includingexisting reports prepared by various organizations under existing reporting channels suchasperiodicdistrictreportspreparedbythedistrictadministration,whicharesubmittedtotheOfficeofthePresident;reportssubmittedbytheDDOtoMoPND&V2030;reportsontheCDFtotheMoPND&V2030;LASDAPandotherLocalAuthorityreportstotheMinistryofLocalGovernment;lineMinistryDistrictofficesreportstotheirheadoffices;RegionalDevelopmentAuthorities’reportstotheirparentministries;Specialprogrammes(e.g.ASALprogramme)reportstotheOfficeofthePresident;crosscuttingprogrammes(e.g.HIV/AIDS);andreportspreparedbythevariousNGOs,faith-basedorganizations,localcommunitiesandDevelopmentPartnersoperatinginthedistrictwhereapplicable.Useofsuchexistingreportsisverycrucialtothewholeprocessesbecauseitensuresconsistencybetweenthevariousreportsemanatingfromthedistrictandminimizesduplicationofeffortinthecollectionofinformation.

Othersourcesof information includededicatedsurveysundertakenbyoronbehalfoftheDAMERpreparationteam,tocollectinformation,forexample,onthepublic’sperceptiononthedevelopmentprocesses;formalsurveysundertakenbytheKNBSandotherdata-gatheringinstitutionsinthepublicsectorandcivilsociety;andinformationcollectedthroughsurveysconductedbytheAfricanPeerReviewMechanism.

TheMEDreviewsasampleoftheDAMERsandundertakesananalysisto identifythematicconclusionsarisinginthedistrict-levelreports.TheAnnualProgressSynthesisReportforthe

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devolvedstructureincludes,inannexform,thefindingsfromadistrictinrelationtothemainareascoveredbythereport.ThethematicfindingsarepresentedinaseparatechapterintheMED’sNationalAnnualProgressReport.

2.4 RELEVaNcE OF cURRENT INdIcaTORs TO P-E LINKEd MONITORING

For purposes of the overall monitoring and evaluation of the MTP and Vision 2030, theGovernmentdevelopedasetof48outcomeindicatorswhosemainpurposewastoprovideanoverviewofMTPimplementationprocessasawhole.Theintentionwastohavethe48performanceindicatorsformacontinuingbasisofoverallmonitoringandevaluationoftheMTPoveraperiodoffiveyears.The48performanceindicatorsselectedforsummaryreportingarenotanexhaustivesetofoutcomeindicatorsfortheMTPand,ingeneral,ministriesdevelopedanduseseveralotherindicatorsthatdonotfeatureinthelistof48indicators.MostoftheMinisterial level indicators are at output level and are relevant in informing the nationallevelmonitoring.NIMESconsistsofcoreindicatorsforeachsector(fromtheMinisterial-levelindicators)duetotheneedtohaveamanageablesystem.

The 48 indicators include those for macroeconomic performance monitoring(e.g.macroeconomicstabilityandeconomicgrowth,pricestability,domesticdebt,publicsectorwagebill,governmentrevenue,andpublicexpendituremanagementreform),infrastructureandamenities(roadnetwork,powercoverage,andwatercoverage),roadsafety(saferroadsystem), enhancement of tourism and trade and industry, child survival (infantmortality,underweightinchildren),healthandtheburdenofdisease(e.g.HIV/AIDS,maternalmortality),basic education (net enrolment rate, incidence of school dropouts and school repetition,transitionratetosecondaryeducation),employmentcreationandlaborproductivity,improvedenvironmentalmanagementanduniversalenvironmentalscreeningofprojects,incidenceofabsolutepoverty,accesstojustice,andpublicsectortransparencyanddevolutionofpower.Asnoted in the med master Plan, one of the weaknesses of nimes is in monitoring of crosscutting issuese.g.gender,youth,HIV/AIDS,andenvironment.

Out of the 48 outcome indicators, there are some that are very important for purposesof trackingpovertyandenvironment,but the linkagesarenotveryclearor inbuilt in theindicators.Theanalysisontherelevanceoftheindicatorsisthereforebasedontheircurrentstatewheretheissueoflinkagesisnotwelldefined.

Someoftheindicatorshaveinherentweaknessesinmeasuringwhattheysetouttomeasure.Forexample,theoutcomeindicatorfortheroadsectoristhe“proportionofroadnetworkinbad/poorcondition”,whichdoesnotshowprogressinkilometersofdifferentcategoriesofroadse.g.tarmacorgraveled/expanded.Inaddition,theindicatordoesnotcaptureanythingtodowithnegativeimpactonenvironmentasaresultofroadsconstruction.Theindicatoronwatercapturesaccess tosafewater,butdoesnotaddress important issues todowithenvironment likeprotectionof catchment areas, sanitation issues andefficiencyofwateruse.Indicatorsontourism(annualgrowthrateoftourists)andagriculture(growthrate)focusmoreonproductionandrevenue,withminimalconcernonconservationoftheecosystems(incaseoftourism)andsoilfertility,soilprotectionandlanddemarcation/tenure(incaseofagriculture).

The direct environmental indicators include forest area protected by gazettement andproportionofpublic sectorprojects subjected toEIA.Amore informative indicatorwouldhavebeen theabsolutenumberofhectaresexcisedeachyearorestimatedareaof trees


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plantedthroughre-afforestationinthecountry.Theindicatorsdonotcoverthewholerangeofenvironmentalprotectione.g.numberoftreesplantedandsurvived,hectaresoflandprotectedfromerosion,pollutioncontrol,andcompliancewithEIAs.Theindicatorontheprevalenceofabsolutepovertyisagoodsummaryindicatorofpovertybutitisnotenvironmentallylinked,andmightnotthereforecapturewhatisbeingdonetotheenvironmentaspoorpeopleattempttomoveoutofpoverty.Theindicatorofhealthrelatingtoinpatientmalariamorbidityhassomeelementsofenvironmentlinkages,butthereisneedforindicatorsfocusingonwaterandsanitation-relateddiseasesanddeathscausedbyairpollutionandpoorhygieneorlimitedaccess to safe water and clean sanitation.

2.5 RELaTIONsHIP BETWEEN MdG INdIcaTORs aNd NIMEs

TheindicatorsforreportingunderNIMESandMDGsdifferincoverage,andevendefinitions(Mukui, 2008). At the national level, statistics are available that satisfy reporting underthetwosystems,althoughindicatorsforlowerlevelgeographicalareasmaynotbereadilyavailableorup-to-date(withtheexceptionofeducationandhealthindicators).

AlthoughKenyaregularlypreparesprogressreportsontheachievementoftheMDGs,ithasnotaligned thenational level reporting to its international reporting requirements to theUnitedNationsontheMDGs.TheGovernmentshouldstrivetomeetitsinternationalreportingrequirements,andincorporatepoverty-environmentindicatorsthatarenotreflectedintheNIMESorreportingontheMDGs.Inaddition,thefullrangeofindicatorsunderMDGreportingrequirementsshouldbeasubsetofNIMES,sothatresourcesareallocatedforcompilingMDGindicatorsandtheindicatorsbecomepartofthenationalinformationbase.

Several Ministries also maintain lists of indicators that satisfy both the MDG reportingrequirements, nimes, and their own internal needs. however, some of the ministerial-level indicatorsarenotincludedinthe31ERSindicators.Thereshouldthereforebeaconcertedeffort to document the information base at theministerial level, and an analysis of theextenttowhichitmeetsreportingundertheMDGsandtheproposedpoverty-environmentindicators.


TheNIMESisawellstructuredsystembothatthenationalanddistrictlevels.ThenationalanddistrictreportingrequirementsarealsocleartoimplementingMinistriesanddepartmentsas well as district-based stakeholders. The organizational structure for reporting appearswellcoordinatedandsystematic inthewayinformationisexpectedtoflow.However,theperformanceindicatorsdevelopedfortrackingIP-ERSareinadequateforaddressingpoverty-environment linkages and there is need to review them with an intention of improving/revisingtheindicatorsfortrackingVision2030programmes.

Inaddition,thereisaweakrelationshipbetweentheexistingindicatorsandresourceallocation(asanindicatorofeffortrequiredtoeffectchange)andtheoutcomeindicatorsarehardlyusedforministerialperformancemonitoring.Ministerialperformancecontractsmainlyrelyon Input Indicators (resources required for implementation of project or programme) andOutput Indicators (activities carriedout,measuredby training seminarsandworkshopsorgoodsandservicesgeneratedbytheprojectorprogramme),whileNIMESfocusesonOutcomeIndicators(useofoutputandlevelofsustainedproductionofbenefits).

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Thelackofastructuredprocessofmainstreamingenvironmentandnaturalresourcesintotheplanningandbudgetaryframeworksalsomakesitdifficulttotracktheeffectsofdevelopmentactivitiesontheenvironmentandnaturalresourcebase,ortheextenttowhichcurrentgrowthachievementsunderminelong-termdevelopmentthroughover-miningofnaturalresources.


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key issues in kenya’s environmenT and naTural resource secTor

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this Chapter presents the key issues in Kenya’s environment and natural resourcesectorsanditsimplicationsforP-Elinkages.TheChapteraimstodevelopaconceptualframeworkthatservesasalinkbetweenenvironmentalissuesandthePE-Indicators.

The issuescovered include (a)ecosystems, (b)environmental stewardship, (c) sustainableuseofnaturalresources,and(d)howtoenhanceenvironmentalquality.TheChapterisbasedonareviewofthedraftNationalEnvironmentPolicy(developedundertheleadershipoftheMinistryofEnvironmentandMineralResources),Kenya’scountryprofileonenvironmentbyJICA(2002),Vision2030,MTP2008-2012,andtheClimateChangeThematic reportontheNationalCapacityNeedsself-Assessment(NCSA)forKenya.

3.1 KEY ENVIRONMENT POLIcY IssUEs

The impactofhumanson theenvironment is a functionof totalpopulation, consumptionpatterns,wastegenerationandthetypeoftechnologiesused.TherateofgrowthinhumanpopulationisamajordriverofenvironmentaldegradationinKenya.

There is need to sustainably manage the finite natural resources on which economicdevelopment and people’s livelihoods, especially the poor, depend. In particular, there isneed to: (a) integrate environmental consideration in development planning, budgetinganddecision-makingprocessesforachievingaspirationsofVision2030anddomesticationofmultilateralandregionalenvironmentalagreements;(b)addresstheemergingenvironmentalchallenges such as climate change, and unsustainable consumption and productionpatterns, and unsustainable human settlements; (c) provide policy direction for effectiveimplementation of the Environmental Management and Coordination Act; (d) harmonizeconflictingpolicies inkeysectors suchaswater, forestry,wildlife,energy,andagriculturewithaviewtoenhancingcross-and inter-sectoral linkages; (e) raisepublicawarenessonenvironmentalissuesandenhancepartnershipsandstakeholderinvolvement;(f)curbmarkedincrease in environmental degradation and loss of biodiversity; and (g) decentralize anddevolveenvironmentalprotectiontothegrassrootsandenlisttheparticipationoftheprivatesector,nongovernmentalorganizations,community-basedorganizationsandothernon-stateactors.

Thedraftnationalenvironmentpolicy,2008,hasidentifiedthefollowingaskeyissues:

(a)Harmonization of sectoral policy instruments with EMCA: There are several sectoralpolicies and laws that deal with matters related to the environment which are notharmonizedwithEMCA.Someofthepolicies (e.g. inagriculture, tradeand industry)have significant negative impacts on the environment. It is imperative that policyinstrumentsinthesesectorsareharmonizedwithEMCAinordertoenhancesustainableenvironmentalmanagementandutilizationofnaturalresources.

(b)Implementation of land policy: Kenya does not have a clearly definedNational LandPolicy.Thishasresultedinlandconflictsandpoorlanduseplanning,thuscontributingto serious environmental degradation. however, it is acknowledged that at the time of developing this report, theGovernment had formulated a draftNational Land PolicywhichisawaitingCabinetapproval.

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(c)Valuationofenvironmentalandnaturalresources:Itisevidentthatthereismarketfailuregiventhatthevalueofenvironmentalresourcesishardlyreflectedinpricingofmarketedgoods and services as they are considered “public goods”. Integrating environmentalconsiderationsintothebehaviorofenterprisesandconsumerswouldreflectachangeinconsumptionandproductionpatterns.

(d)Rehabilitation of degraded areas: There are several degraded areas that requirerehabilitation.Theseincludequarries,riverbanks,deforestedareas,abandonedminesandquarries,erodedshorelineandhilltops.

(e)Lossofbiodiversity:Biodiversityplaysafundamentalroleinunderpinningthefunctionsof ecosystems and the services they provide. Themost important drivers of loss ofbiodiversityincludehabitatlossandfragmentation,landdegradation,climatechange,pollution,unsustainableharvestingofnaturalresources,bio-piracyandintroductionofinvasiveandalienspecies.Ingeneral,theavailabledatasuggestthatdespiteavarietyofinitiatives,biodiversitycontinuestodecline.

(f) Concessionsandincentives:Severalpoliciesparticularlyintheagricultural,tradeandindustrysectorprovideforconcessionsandincentivescausingnegativeenvironmentalimpacts.

(g)Urbanizationandwastemanagement: Increasing levelsofurbanizationarecausedbynaturalgrowthoftheurbanpopulationandmigrationoftheruralpopulationtowardsurban centers. Urbanization often leads to destruction of sensitive ecosystems. Inaddition, inadequate waste collection and waste management are the cause of serious urbanpollutionandhealthhazards.Thus,manyurbanenvironmentalproblemsaretheresultofpoormanagement,poorplanningandabsenceofcoherenturbanpoliciesratherthanofurbanizationitself.

(h)Pollution: Pollution continues to have a negative impact on the environment. Theintroductionofpollutantsintoair,waterandland,intentionallyoraccidentally,negativelyaffectspeople’shealthandwell-being,andtheenvironment.

(i) Energy:EnergyconsumptioninKenyaisontheincrease.However,therelativeutilizationofrenewableenergysources,excludinghydro-electric,islowandevenhydro-electricpoweroutputfluctuates in linewithprecipitationvolumes.Policy incentives todrivethe integration of renewable energy (i.e. solar, wind and biogas) into all aspects ofdevelopmentareurgentlyneeded.

(j) Climatechangeanddisastermanagement:Globally,theclimateischangingresultingindirectimpactsontheenvironment.AdverseimpactsfromclimatechangearealreadybeingobservedasevidencedbyvanishingglaciersonMt.KenyaandMt.Kilimanjaro.People and the environment are increasingly suffering from the effects of naturaldisasterssuchasfloods,landslidesandprolongeddroughts.Thereasonsforthisincludehigh population growth and density, environmental degradation, and the effects ofclimate change. managing disasters remains a challenge.

(k)Conservation of shared natural resources: Conflicts over control and managementof shared/trans-boundary resources are very common. For example, Lake Victoriaexperiencessuchseriousconflictsespeciallyinaccessingfisheriesresources.Thiscallsfor a framework for a harmonized and common approach to the conservation andmanagementofsuchshared/trans-boundaryresources.

(l) Invasive and alien species: Invasive and alien species are a major threat to theenvironment.Thesespeciesareathreatto indigenousspeciesthroughtheeffectsofpredation,alterationofhabitatordisruptionofecosystemprocesses.Theprevention,control or eradication of those invasive and alien species that threaten ecosystems,habitatsandspeciesisamajormanagementchallenge.

(m)Publicparticipation,environmentaleducationandawareness:broadpublicparticipation


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inthedecision-makingprocessesisoneofthefundamentalpreconditionsforsustainabledevelopment, and this presupposes access to information on the environment anddevelopment. Sound environmental management has to be based on openness andparticipationatalllevels.Tostrengthenthepossibilityofthepublictoexertpressure,itisimperativethatenvironmentaleducationandpublicawarenessisenhanced.

3.2 EcOsYsTEMs sERVIcEs

Kenya’s national environment priorities recognize that life and thewell-being of Kenyansdependontheenvironment(throughitsservices)andhowwelltheenvironmentistakencareof.Recognitionofthevalueofenvironmentalhealthforwell-beingisinformedbyknowledgethatdevelopmentisadouble-edgedswordthatincludesdisruptionstoenvironmentalfunctionsforservicesandproducts,hencetheneedtopromotetheconceptofsustainabledevelopmentinordertomoderatethenegativeimpactsofdevelopment.

According toDaily (1997),ecosystem servicesarebroadly grouped into threecomponents-provisioning, regulating, and enriching. Under the provisioning services are food,microorganisms, animal products, genetic material, bio-chemicals and pharmaceuticals,fuels/energy,fiber,non-livingmaterials,freshwater,etc.

Undertheregulatingenvironmentalservicesarepurificationofairandwater,mitigationoffloodsanddroughts,detoxificationanddecompositionofwastes, renewalof soilsandsoilfertility,pollinationof cropsandnatural vegetation, control of vastmajorityofpotentialagriculturalpests,dispersalofseedsandtranslocationofnutrients,maintenanceofbiodiversityfromwhichhumanityhasderivedkeyelementsofitsagricultural,medicinalandindustrialenterprise,protectionfromthesun’sharmfulultravioletrays,partialstabilizationofclimate,moderationoftemperatureextremesandtheforceofwindsandwaves,etc.

Theenrichingenvironmentalservicesarecomprisedofspiritualusesandrelationshipofpeopleto land and water, aesthetic values, social relations and values, education and scientificvalue, etc.

However,inspiteoftheseimportantfunctions,theenvironmentisunderimmensepressurefromanincreasingpopulation.Kenya’skeyenvironmentalcomponentsincludeforest,freshwater,wetlands,coastalandmarine,mountains,aridandsemi-aridlands(ASALs),grasslandsandagricultural land.

3.2.1 Forest EcosystemsThe conservation and sustainabledevelopmentofforestecosystemsandtheir associated resources are essential foraneffectivepovertyreductionandsustainable development strategy.Consequently, the limited existingforestswhichcomprise less than2%ofKenya’stotallandareaareofvitalimportance. Forest ecosystems areimportant in conservation of soil,water, moderation of climate, and biodiversity. Forest ecosystems are

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therichestterrestrialhabitatsforbiodiversity.Maintainingforestbiodiversityprotectstheeconomicpotentialoffutureopportunitiesfornewnon-timberproducts,suchasfoodandmedicines aswell as social sustainability by offering aesthetic, spiritual and recreationalsettingsforpeople.

Forestecosystemsarebeingconvertedtootheruses.Agriculture,industry,humansettlementand development of infrastructure affect them most. These competing land uses haveadverseenvironmentaleffectsonlong-termsustainabilityofforestecosystems.Lossofforestecosystemshasnegativeimpactsonagricultureandthetourismindustrywhicharevitaltothenationaleconomy. Italsoendangers thecountry’swater supplies since thefivemajorwater towers are located in forested lands.

3.2.2 Fresh Water EcosystemsProvisioning services of freshwater ecosystemsincludethestorageandretention of water for domestic, agricultural and industrial use. regulating services include modifyingwaterflows(hydrologicalflows),recharginganddischarginggroundwater resources and diluting orremovingpollutants.Supportingservices of the hydrological cycleare important for soil formationand soil retention and nutrient cycling. Freshwater ecosystemsalso provide habitat for a greatnumberofspecies,promotingbiodiversitywhichunderliestheresilienceandproductivityofecosystems.Theyarealsoimportantforrecreation(e.g.LakesNakuruandNaivasha)aswellastheirspiritualandinspirationalrolesindifferentcultures.

In Kenya, many freshwater ecosystems have been degraded by impoundment, excessiveabstraction, landuse changes andpollution.Thepollutants tend to accumulate in rivers,lakesandwetlandscausingmuchdamagetowildlife.Asriversruntothesea,pollutantsalsoendupincoastalandmarineecosystemssuchaslagoons,estuariesandbays.Anexampleoftheimpactofhighchemicalpollutionwithoriginsfromagricultureisthewaterhyacinth.

3.2.3 Wetlands EcosystemsWetlandscoverabout3%ofKenya’ssurfacearea.Wetlandsplayanimportantroleinregulatingwater flow, groundwater recharge, water storage, filtering of nutrients and pollutants,shorelineandmicroclimatestabilizationandareofexceptionalimportanceashabitatsforlargenumberofspeciesespeciallybirds.Wetlandhabitatsarealsoofhigheconomicimportanceforprovisionofwaterandfisheries.Wetlandsinaridandsemi-aridlandsareanimportantrefugeforgrazing.Wetlandsarebeingdrainedforagriculturaluseatanalarmingrate.Otherthreatsto wetlands are degradation of catchments areas, pollution and unsustainable harvestingpractices.

Given their fragility, there is an urgent need to effectively manage and sustainably usewetlands.Abalancehastobestruckbetweentheenvironmentalfunctioningofwetlandsandtheiruseforlivelihood.Thisrequiresmanagementregimeswhichhelpmaintainsomeofthe


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natural characteristics of wetlands while also allowing for their wise use. the convention on WetlandsofInternationalImportanceEspeciallyasWaterfowlHabitat(RamsarConvention)towhichKenyaisacontractingpartyprovidesaframeworkfornationalactionandinternationalcooperationfortheconservationandwiseuseofwetlandsandtheirresources.

KenyahasdevelopedaDraftWetlandsConservationandManagementPolicytodomesticatetheprovisionsoftheRamsarConvention.Currently,KenyahasfiveRamsarlistedsites,namely,LakesNakuru,Naivasha,Bogoria,BaringoandElementaita.TheTanaDeltaisintheprocessofbeinglistedasaRamsarsite.

3.2.4 coastal and Marine EcosystemsCoastal and marine ecosystems are composed of multiple interacting systems: maritime,terrestrialandaquatic,includingtheislandsandthe200nauticalmilesexclusiveeconomiczone(EEZ).Islandsofferuniqueecosystems.Coastalandmarineecosystemsprovideawiderangeof importantgoodsandservices.Theservices include storingandcyclingnutrients,regulatingwaterbalances,bufferinglandandprotectingitagainsterosionfromstormsandwaves,andfilteringpollutants.Onalargerscale,theoceansalsoplayanimportantroleinregulatingplanetarybalancesinhydrologyandclimate.

Coastal and marine ecosystems are under increasing pressure from overexploitation andpollution.Themajor direct threats to these ecosystems include urbanization, poorwastemanagement, shoreline modification, pollution (from land-based and other sources),overexploitationofmarinelivingresources,oilandgasexploration,useofdestructivefishingmethods, invasive alien species, and effects of climate change. The coastal zone is also

receivingincreasingnumbersoftourists.

Kenyawasoneof thefirstAfricancountriestoestablishmarineprotectedareas(MPAs)in1968.Atpresent,Kenyahas 6marineparksandreservesaccountingforabout1%ofthePAs in the country,with commitment underthe Nairobi Convention to increase it to atleast10%.TheGovernmenthasputinplaceaframework for the formulation of integrated CoastalZoneManagement (ICZM)PolicyandIntegratedOceanManagementPolicy.

3.2.5 Mountain EcosystemsMountain ecosystems are important for biodiversity conservation as they harbor uniqueassemblagesofplantsandanimals,includingendemicspecies.Mountainsareanimportantsourceofwater.Forexample,MtKenya,MtElgon,AberdaresRanges,MauEscarpmentandCherangani Hills are some of the Kenya’s major water towers. Mountain ecosystems areverydistinctfromlowlands,beingparticularlyfragileandhighlysusceptibletoerosionandlandslides.

Kenya’smountainecosystemshavebeensubjectedtoavarietyofusesandintheprocesshavebeensusceptibletodegradation.Themaindriversofmountainecosystemsdegradationaredeforestation,illegallogging,poachingofwildplantsandanimals,destructionofhabitatsbyfireandmining,grazing,encroachmentforhumansettlementsandagriculture,aswellastheeffects of climate change.

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3.2.6 arid and semi-arid Lands EcosystemsArid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASALs) arefragile ecosystems that receive verylowandunreliable rainfall.TheASALsconstitute about 80% of Kenya’s landarea and supports about 30% of thepopulation.Themainformoflandusein ASALs is pastoral grazing (mainlycamels, cattle and goats), accountingfor about 60% of the total livestockpopulation. Pastoralism involvesconsiderable mobility to capitalizeon spatially and temporally dispersed

commonly-ownednaturalresourceswhichareregulatedatthe levelofcollectivity,ratherthanbyseparatelandowners.TheASALs further provide critical habitats forwildlife and ecosystem diversity, includingwetlands formigratory species.Themain threats toASALs include expanding agriculture,charcoalburningand fuel-wood,uncontrolledfires,humansettlements, landdegradation,deforestationandovergrazing.This isexacerbatedbythe impactsofclimatechange.TheGovernmentisgivingspecialattentiontoinvestmentinASALsthatincludedevelopmentofanintegrated land use master Plan.

3.2.7 Grassland EcosystemsThereareseveraltypesofgrasslandsdependingonlocation:highland,savannah,moorlandand

rangelands.Otherimportantgrasslandtypesincludefireinducedgrasslands,seasonal flood plain and deltagrasslands. Grasslands are importanthabitats for wildlife and migratoryspeciesespeciallybirds.Consequently,grasslands are important for nature-based tourism, extensive livestockproduction and recreation activitiesas well as for water conservation and erosion control.

3.2.8 agricultural EcosystemsAgricultural ecosystems provide different types of goods and services of environmental,economicandsocialimportanceandmakeimportantcontributionstosustainablelivelihoods,foodsecurityandnationaleconomy.Forexample,theagriculturalsectoraccountsforabout24%oftheGDP.Whereasthepresentcapitalandtechnologyintensivefarmingandmonocultureshave been extremely productive and competitive, they also bring a variety of economic,environmentalandsocialproblems.TheamountofcropdiversityperunitofarablelandinKenyahasdecreased.Therefore,relianceonmonoculturefarmingandagro-industrialinputs(suchascapitalintensivetechnology,pesticidesandchemicalfertilizers)negativelyimpactontheenvironment.Forexample,thelossofcropyieldsduetopestsdespitethesubstantialincreaseintheuseofpesticidesisasymptomoftheenvironmentalcrisisinagriculture.


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The range of solutions tomitigate the environment-based crisis in the agricultural sectorshouldincluderesearchanddevelopment(R&D),asbiotechnologyhasimmensepotentialtoenhancelivelihoodsandcontributetotheeconomicdevelopmentofthecountry.However,livingmodifiedorganisms(LMOs), ifnotregulated,mayposesignificantriskstoecologicalresources andhuman and animal health.TheGovernment is in the process of enacting aBiotechnologyandBiosafetylegislation.

3.3 sUsTaINaBLE UsE OF NaTURaL REsOURcEs

Thefoundationforsustainableuseofnatural resources issecure,equitableaccesstoandcontrolofnaturalresourcesincludingfairdistributionofthecosts,associatedbenefitsandopportunities.Themajorityofthepopulationlivesinruralareas,andmostofthemdependonnaturalresourcesfortheir livelihoods,andoftenfortheir immediatesurvival.Thekeynaturalresourcesareland,soils,biodiversity,water,wildlife,forest,fisheries,mineralsandlivestock.

3.3.1 LandLandresourcesarefinite,fragileandnon-renewable.Landisaresourcethatprovidestheessentialservicesfordevelopmentandhumanwellbeing.Consequently,thepressureonlandiseverincreasing,mainlyfrompressuretoincreasefoodproductionandunsustainablehumansettlements.

Theunsustainableuseof land inurbanand ruralareas isamajorareaofconcerndue totheseriousimpactontheenvironment.Activitiescontributingtolanddegradationincludeunsuitableagricultural landuse,poorsoilandwatermanagementpractices,deforestationandovergrazing.Naturaldisasters,includingdroughts,floodsandlandslides,alsocontributeto landdegradation. Inorder toachievesustainablemanagementof theenvironmentandnaturalresources,itisimperativetohaveaNationalLandPolicy.

3.3.2 soilsFertilesoilsareafoundationforsustainableagriculture.Soilsarealsoanessentialplayerin thehydrological cycle. Soildegradationprocessesofparticular concern throughout thecountryincludeerosion,compactionandsoilfertilitydepletion.Thelossofvegetationcoverhasexposedsoilstowindandsoilerosion.soil erosion is a major factor in land degradation and has severe effects on soil functions suchasthesoil’sabilitytoactasabufferandfilterforpollutants,itsroleinthehydrologicalandnitrogencycle,and itsabilitytoprovidehabitatandsupportbiodiversity.Soilerosionalsocausesincreasedratesofsiltationofdamsandrivers,andincreasedriskoffloodinginriversandestuaries.Thus,soilerosionreducestheproductivityof land,requiringfarmerstoapplymoreandmorefertilizerandotherchemicalsthathelpcheckfallingproductivity.Theresultantexcessiveuseoffertilizersandotherchemicalscontributetosoildegradationandwaterpollution.However,manysmall-scalefarmerscannotaffordproduction-enhancingchemicalinputsandsogetlowcropyieldsandreturns.Also,soilsinmanypartsofKenyaarecontaminatedbyheavymetals(lead,exhaustgasesandcadmium)thatfindtheirwayintothefood chain.

Wastewater irrigation in Nairobi may be a significant source of kale, spinach, tomatoes,chilies,onions,cabbages,arrowroots,sugarcaneandmaize(Mukui,2002).Thesevegetablesposeahealthrisktoconsumerssinceheavymetalslikeleadandmercuryaredepositedintheplanttissuesandcanleadtoheavymetalpoisoningwhensubstantialquantitiesareconsumed

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overalongtime.Afewfarmersalsogrowfoddercrops(e.g.Napiergrass)alongtheriver,andheavymetalsmightbefindingtheirwayintoplanttissuesandfinallyintoanimalproductswhichcanposeaserioushealthrisktoconsumers(Mukui,2002).

Currently,nomonitoringforsoilpollutionisbeingdone.SomeoftheinstitutionsresponsibleforregulatingandmonitoringsoilcontaminationaretheMinistryofAgriculture,MinistryofEnvironmentandMineralResources(includingNEMA),MinistryofWaterandIrrigation,andMinistryofHealth,withthesupportofNGOsandCBOsatthelocallevel.

3.3.3 BiodiversityBiodiversitycontributes toawidevarietyofenvironmental services, suchas regulationofthegaseouscompositionof theatmosphere,protectionofcoastal zone, regulationof thehydrological cycle and climate, generation and conservationof fertile soils, dispersal andbreakdownofwastes,pollinationofmanycrops,andabsorptionofpollutants.Humanhealthandwell-beingaredirectlydependentonbiodiversity.Forexample,10%oftheworld’s25topsellingdrugs in2000werederivedfromnaturalsources.Biodiversityalsoprovidesgeneticresources for foodandagriculture,and thereforeconstitutes thebiologicalbasis for foodsecurity and support for human livelihoods.A number ofwild crop relatives are of greatimportancetothenationaleconomy.

InKenya,lossofbiologicaldiversityistakingplaceatanunprecedentedrate.Theimportantdriversoflossofbiodiversityincludelandconversion,climatechange,pollution,unsustainableharvestingofnaturalresources,unsustainablepatternsofconsumptionandproduction,andintroductionofinvasiveandalienspecies.Invasivealienspeciessuchasprosopsisjuliflora,eichorniacrassipes,andlantanacamaraconstituteathreattobiodiversity.

3.3.4 Water ResourcesKenya is considered awater scarce countrywith annual renewable freshwater supplyof 647m3 per capita. Kenya’s total annualrenewable water resource is estimated at30.7billioncubicmetresperyear,with20.2billion cubic metres coming from internalrenewablesurfacewaterandtheremaindersuppliedbygroundwaterandincomingflowsfrom trans-boundary rivers. Most of thedrinking water comes from surface water sources or from underground aquifers. About 32% of Kenyan households rely ongroundwaterfortheirdrinkingwatersupply.Currentestimatesofwatersupplyindicatethat75%ofthecountry’surbanpopulationhasaccesstosafedrinkingwater,whileabout50%oftheruralpopulationhasaccesstopotablewater from various sources. the demand for water is high and increasing. the main demand comesfromhouseholds,industry,agriculture,irrigationandhydropowerproduction.Atthesametime,plentyofwaterisrequiredtosustaintheecosystemsandoftenthiscomponentisomittedwhenquantifyingdemand.

Pollutionofwaterresources isagrowingconcernandprovidesamajorchallenge,both in

2Leachate is a liquid that has percolated through soil and dissolved some soil materials in the process (McGraw-Hill, 2003


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termsofcostandhealth,withpollutantscomingmainlyfromagriculture,untreatedsewage,industry andmining. Infestations of variouswater bodies by invasiveweeds are a furthersourceofsurfacewaterdegradation.Unsustainablelandusepracticesthatleadtocatchmentsdegradationisalsoamajorproblemthataffectsquantityandqualityofwater.

one of the greatest threats to human health remains the continued use of untreated water.Whilethepercentageofpeopleservedwith improvedwatersupplieshas increased,alargemajorityofthoselivinginruralareasand informal settlements still lack access to safedrinkingwaterandimprovedsanitation,which is a major cause of water-related diseases.Themaincausesofwaterpollutionare effluent from agricultural activities andrelatedindustries;soilerosion;industrialandhouseholdeffluent;andleachatesfromlandfillsites2 .The institutions andorganizations responsible formonitoringand regulatingwaterpollutionincludetheMinistryofWaterandIrrigation,MinistryofEnvironmentandMineralResources(includingNEMA),NairobiandMoiuniversities,NationalWaterConservationandPipelineCorporation,MinistryofLocalGovernment,MinistryofLands,MinistryofAgriculture,andMinistryofTransportandCommunication.

3.3.5 Wildlife ResourcesWildliferesourcescontributedirectlyandindirectlytothelocalandnationaleconomythroughrevenuegenerationandwealthcreation.Forexample,in2007,wildlifeaccountedfor70%ofthegrosstourismearnings,25%oftheGrossDomesticProduct(GDP)andmorethan10%oftotalformalsectoremployment.Increasingpopulation,growingnumbersofrefugees,human-wildlifeconflicts,widespreadpollutionandthetransformationofvastwildlifeareasinASALsthreatenthecontinuedexistenceofwildlifeinKenya.

3.3.6 Forest ResourcesForestsareimportantformaintainingbiologicaldiversityandarevitalfortheeconomythroughthe production of timber and non-timber products and provision of other environmentalservices (e.g. sustainable eco-tourism). Besides providing a habitat for wildlife, forestsconservesoilandmitigatefloodsanddrought.Forestssupportthelivelihoodsofruralandurbancommunitiesbyprovidinghouseholdenergy for cooking,buildingmaterials, fodder,medicinesandemploymentopportunities.Inaddition,forestsprovidenumerousculturalandreligiousbenefitstolocalpeople.

Kenya’s forests are under pressure fromcompeting user-groups, namely commercialusers and forest-adjacent communities. Immensepressurealsocomesfromconversionof forest land to other uses especially toagriculture and settlements. in addition, illegal logging, cutting trees for fuel-wood and charcoalaswellasgrazingcattlehasdegradedforests. large scale loss of forests would lead tocatastrophicandpermanentchangeinthe

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country’s ecology, with consequent loss of agricultural productivity, industrial potential,livelihoods,andaggravatednaturaldisasters,inparticularfloodsanddrought.

3.3.7 Fishery ResourcesFisheriescontributeabout3%oftheGDPandover860,000peopledependonfisheriesbothdirectlyandindirectlyfortheirlivelihoodsthroughfishingandlinkagestofishprocessingandtrade.Thefisheriessectorhasbeenidentifiedasonewithgreatpotentialforvalue-additionandprovisionofruralincomesinthecountry.

Apartfromdeepseamarinefishing,theoverallstateofKenya’sfisheryresourcesandtheirecosystems is deteriorating due to unsustainable fishing practices, habitat destruction,pollution, and weak management structures. Other challenges include uncoordinateddevelopment approaches, low investment, inadequate aquaculture development, weaklinkagesbetweenresearchandmanagement,andcross-borderconflicts.Carefulstewardshipis therefore required to conserve and protect all aquatic habitats for present and futuregenerations.

Globalagreementsaimedatsustainablefisheriesexploitationincludetheadoptionin1995ofanAgreementonConservationandManagementofStraddlingandHighlyMigratoryFishStocks,andtheCodeofConductforResponsibleFisheriesdevelopedbytheFAO.

3.3.8 Mineral ResourcesKenya’smineralpotentialisyettobefullyexploiteddue to lack of adequate geological information on deposits occurrence. Countrywide coverage ofgeological surveys and mineral exploration wouldmakeitpossibletofullyexploitthemineralpotential.Increasedminingactivity,includingquarryingandsandharvesting,mayresultinenvironmentaldegradationunlessmeasuresaretakentoguideoperationsintheminingsub-sector.TheGovernmenthasformulatedadraftmineralresourcespolicyandlaw.

3.3.9 Livestock ResourcesLivestock production is the major activity in ASALs and contributes about 10% of GDP.Overgrazing inASALs leads to land degradation. In high potential areas, especiallywherezerograzingispracticed,themainissueinlivestockproductioniswastemanagementanddisposal, resulting inwaterpollution. Inurbanareas,disposalofeffluents fromabattoirs,butcheriesandtanneriesisamajorproblem.

3.4 ENVIRONMENTaL sTEWaRdsHIP

Sustainabledevelopmentrequiresthatatcompetitiveprices,businessandindustrycansupplygoodsandservicesthatmeetsocietalandindividualneeds,contributetoimprovedqualityoflife,andensuremanagementandefficientuseofrenewableandnon-renewableresources.

3.4.1 Trade and EnvironmentInternationalandregionaltradeareimportantdriversofeconomicgrowthandhenceKenya’scommitmenttoregionalintegrationthroughregionaleconomicblocs,suchastheEastAfricanCommunity(EAC)andCommonMarketforEasternandSouthernAfrica(COMESA).Furthermore,


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globalizationhasinpartreducedbarrierstointernationaltradeandinvestmentflows.Thereisabroadconsensusthatinthelong-term,developmentshouldfocusontheachievementofrapid,equitableandsustainableeconomicgrowth.

Theenvironmentalgoodsandservicescanalsobelinkedtothegoalsofthe2002JohannesburgWorld Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), which reaffirmed that sustainabledevelopmentisdependentuponstrongcommitmentstotangibletargetsandtimeframeswithrespect toWater,Energy,Health,AgricultureandBiodiversity (WEHAB).Thus, thecountrymustaimtosustainthebenefitsfromtradeandinvestmentwithouthavingadverseimpactson the environment.

3.4.2 sustainable consumption and Production PatternsChanging patterns of consumption and production through integration of environmentalconsiderationsinallsectorsandpolicyareasisaprerequisiteforsustainabledevelopment.Currently,mostoftheproductionandconsumptionpracticesdonottakeintoaccounttheenvironmental costs.Asa result, thebenefitsprovidedbynatural resourcesappear tobemuchsmallerthantheyreallyare.

Anintegratedaccountingsystemwillensurethat environmental costs in the productionsystemsareconsidered.Therepercussionsofunsustainable consumption and productionpractices have been growing and haveresulted in environmental challenges such as climate change, ozone depletion, lossof biodiversity, water and air pollution,forest and soil degradation, and increasing waste generation. Environment-friendlytechnological developments can yieldenormousenvironmentalbenefits.

AsespousedinPrinciple8oftheRioDeclaration,“toachievesustainabledevelopmentandahigherqualityoflifeforallpeople,Statesshouldreduceandeliminateunsustainablepatternsof production and consumption and promote appropriate demographic policies.” There isaneed todevelopandapplymethodsand tools serving topromote resourceefficiency inconsumptionandproductionpatternsacrosssectors.

3.4.3 Industrial developmentThestructuralchangesimplicitinattainingthegrowthratesdemandedbytheincomepovertyMDGs and Vision 2030 means that ways must be found to achieve sustainable industrialdevelopment.Thiscallsforanenvironmentallysoundindustrialdevelopmentstrategythatintegratesandpromotescohesionofindustrialandenvironmentalpoliciesandthatenhancestransfer ofenvironmentally sound technologies.The Small andMediumEnterprises (SMEs)have been recognized as the engine to industrialization, at least in the early stages of acountry’sdevelopment.SMEsandotherindustriescontributesignificantlytoenvironmentaldegradationandpollutionduetofactorssuchasthetypeandageofthetechnologiesinuse,shop-floorpracticesandotherindustry-specificcharacteristics.

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3.4.4 sustainable Human settlementThepatternofhumansettlementsinthecountryisinfluencedbynaturalresourceendowmentswhichincludeavailabilityandaccessibilityofland,shelter,water,foodandsocialamenities.Althoughurbanizationhasgrownrapidly,Kenyaisstilllargelyaruralsociety.Ruralsettlementshave environmental problems which are influenced by many factors including populationgrowth,culturaltraditions,topography,climate,availableresourcesandtheeconomy.Thehugenumberofrefugeesseekingasafeplacefromconflicts,ofteninmassivecamps,canhavemajorimpactonthelocalenvironment,throughtheirownfuel-woodandfoodneeds.

The capacity of the urban centers to provide housing, infrastructure, services and jobopportunities remains a challenge. Sustainable human settlement involves creating theconditionsunderwhichpeopleinbothruralandurbansettingscanenjoyhealthy,productiveandwellintegratedlives.Thisshouldensurethatpeopleliveinsafe,healthyanddignifiedconditions,withrelativelyeasyaccesstoamenities.

3.4.5 EnergyToagreatextentenergydrivesdevelopment.TheGovernmenthasmadedeliberateeffortstoprovidepowertoremoteareastospurdevelopmentandimprovethelivelihoodsofpeople.Theseincludehydroenergy,petroleumenergyandgeothermalenergy.Fuel-woodprovides83%ofthetotalenergyrequirementsforhouseholdcooking.Thecountry’senergyrequirementswillincreasesubstantially,andtheenergypoliciesmustthereforeensurearobustandefficientenergysupplysystemandahighdegreeofself-sufficiencyinkeepingwiththegoalsofsustainabledevelopmentandindustrialcompetitiveness.Thus,theenergysystemshouldincreasetheuseofrenewableenergy.

Energyconsumptionperunitoftransportationactivity isakeymeasureofhowefficientlytransportationsystemsconvertenergyintohumanmobilityandgoodsdistribution.Inparticular,energyconsumptionfortransportationrelativetotheamountoffreightorpassengerscarriedandthedistancetraveledandtheresultantpollutionandclimatechangeisdependentonboththemixofvehiclesandtheenergyintensitiesofparticulartypesofvehicles.Theenergyintensities of train and bus transportation per passenger-km are commonly less than forcarsorairtransportation.Forfreight,energyintensitiesforrailandshiptransportationarecommonlylessthanfortruckingpertonne-km.

3.4.6 climate change and disaster ManagementThereisscientificconsensusbytheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)thatclimatechangeisarealityandthathumanactivitiesarelargelyresponsibleforincreasingconcentrationofgreenhousegases(GHG)intheearth’satmosphere.Kenya,likemanyothercountries,isconcernedaboutclimatechangeanditsresultantimpacts.Inaddressingclimatechange,twoapproachesareadopted,aimedattacklingboththecausesofclimatechange(GHGemissions)andtheadaptationmeasuresontheimpactsofclimatechange.

Manyofthedisastersareclimaterelated,andareassociatedwiththeextremeclimateeventswhich occasion landslides, increased disease episodes, negative effects on farming, andmassivelivestockdeaths.Kenyaexperiencesheavy,devastatingfloodsduringstrongElNinoandLaNinaevents.Theeconomicimpactsoffloodsanddroughtcutacrossallkeysectorsoftheeconomy,includingagriculture,industryandmanufacturing,tourism,infrastructureandpublichealth.Itisexpectedthatclimatechangewillincreasethefrequencyandintensityofextremeweathereventssuchasfloodsanddroughts.


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3.5 ENHaNcING ENVIRONMENTaL QUaLITY

Alllifedependsonacleanandhealthyenvironment.Thisvastwebofinterwovensystemsisoftenthreatenedbythepresenceofharmfulsubstancesaswellasionizingagents.Inthisregard,environmentalhealth,airquality,wastemanagement,radiation,toxicandhazardoussubstancesandnoiserequirespecialattention.

3.5.1 Environmental HealthThemost pressingproblemswith respect to environmental health, including occupationalhealth,arethoseassociatedwithairandwaterpollution,watersupplyandsanitation,wastedisposal,chemicalandfoodsafety.Theill-healtheffectsofharmfulenvironmentalexposuresmaybeacuteandsometimesalongtimemayelapsebetweentheinitialexposureandtheappearance of an adverse health effect. A better understanding is needed of biologicaldispositiontoaparticularhealthoutcomeandthewayinwhichhumanactivitiesandlifestylesput people at higher risk. In linewith the principle of sustainability, development shouldminimizenegativeenvironmentalhealthimpactsandmaximizehealthbenefits.

3.5.2 air QualityThethreattotheatmospherearisesfromheightenedpollutionandvariesasaresultoflocalemissions,topographyandweather.Industryandvehiclescontinuetobethemainemittersofpollutantsintotheatmosphere,withfossilfuelsaccountingforthebulkofthem.Oneresultisglobalwarmingwhichaffectsmanynaturalsystemsandtheotherisairpollutionthatmaycausebothacuteandchronichealtheffects.

Airpollutionisoneoftheleadingriskfactorforrespiratorydiseasessuchaschronicobstructivepulmonarydisease(COPD),lungcancer,pulmonaryheartdiseaseandbronchitis.Theeffectsofoutdoorairpollutionarecompoundedbythoseofindoorairpollution.Mosthouseholdsusecharcoalandfirewoodfordomesticcooking,andthusindoorairpollutionaffectsbothurbanandruralpopulations.Themainairpollutantsaresuspendedparticulatematter(SPM),lead(Pb),sulphur(SOx),carbonmonoxide(CO),hydrogensulphide(H2S),andoxideofnitrogen(NOx).

Kenyadoesnothavesetstandardsformostorallairpollutants,exceptforThikatown,wherestandardshavebeendeveloped.Theinstitutionsandorganizationsresponsibleformonitoringand regulating air pollution includeMinistry of Environment andMineral Resources (MinesandGeology,NEMA,DepartmentofResourceSurveysandRemoteSensing),MinistryofLabour(DirectorateofOccupationalHealthandSafety),KenyaBureauofStandards(KEBS),MinistryofLocalGovernment,NairobiandMoiuniversities,MinistryofEnergy,MinistryofHealth,andMinistryofTransportandCommunication.

3.5.3 Waste ManagementInefficient production processes, low durability ofgoods and unsustainable consumption patterns leadto excessive waste generation. Despite efforts thatencouragereuse,recyclingandrecovery,theamountofsolidwastegeneratedremainshighandappearstobeontheincrease.SolidwastesandwastewatereffluentsarethelargestthreatstothequalityofKenya’swaters.By2002,about12,955 tonsof solidwastewasbeinggenerated daily throughout Kenya, with Nairobi City

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alonegenerating1,785tonsdaily(JICA,2002).In1996,only45%ofthetotalannualwastewas collected.

Insomepartsofthecountry,effectivecollectionandtreatmentfacilitiesexist,whileinotherplacessuchfacilitiesdonotexist.Manyoftheunsanitarysystemshavebeenresponsibleforthespreadoftyphoidandcholera,eitherdirectlythroughcontaminatedwatersuppliesorindirectlythroughcontaminatedfoods.Wastewateroftenresultsinincreasednutrientlevelsleading to algal blooms anddepleted dissolved oxygen resulting in destruction of aquatichabitats.Mostoftheurbancentreslackwastewatertreatmentinfrastructure.

The other categories of wastes that require special consideration are electronic wastes,militarywastesandclinicalwastes.Spillsfromoiltankerscandevastatecoastalandmarineecosystems.ThemainproblemsofsolidwastemanagementfacingKenyaare:(a)lackofacomprehensivenational lawon solidwastemanagement; (b) inadequatedump trucks; (c)illegalanduncontrolleddisposalofwaste;(d)lackoffinancialresourcesforinvestmentandoperation;(e)lackofpublicawarenessregardingsolidwastemanagement;and(f)inadequatespaceforexpansion/developmentofdumpsites(especiallyinNairobicity).

TheinstitutionsresponsibleforregulationandmonitoringofsolidwastemanagementincludetheMinistryofLocalGovernment,MinistryofWaterandIrrigation,MinistryofEnvironmentandMineral Resources (Mines andGeology, NEMA),Ministry of Health,Ministry of Labour,MinistryofLands,MinistryofLocalGovernment(urbanauthorities),andMinistryofCommerceandIndustry.

3.5.4 Radioactive WasteAlthoughtherearenonuclearpowerplantsinKenya,radioactivematerialsarecommonlyusedinconsumerproductssuchastobacco,beer,rubber,tyreandsteelmanufacturingindustries,oil well drilling, medical institutions and agriculture. Concern exists about radioactivepollution,includingradioactivewastedumpedonuncontrolledlandfillsiteswithoutinspectionbylocalgovernmentsthatmayaffectthehealthofgarbage-relatedworkersandscavengers,radioactivematerialsdumpedon thecoast thatmayaffect thenatural environment, andthe international transport of nuclear waste. The Kenya government has signed severalinternational agreements for the purpose ofmanaging radioactivewastes and other toxicwastes.

Differenttypesofradiationvaryintheirabilitytoaffecthealth.Allkindsofionizingradiationcan cause cancer and other health effects. other long-term effects are teratogenic and genetic mutations3.Teratogenicmutations result from the exposure of fetus to radiation,whilegeneticeffectsarethosethatcanbepassedfromparenttooffspring.Itisthereforecriticaltolimitexposuresfromaspecificsourcetothepublictolevelsunder100millirem4.

Matters concerning the use, importation, exportation and introduction of radioactivematerialsandequipmentarestrictlymanagedbytheRadiationProtectionCommitteesetupundertheRadiationProtectionAct.InstitutionsandorganizationsresponsibleforregulatingandmonitoringofradioactivewasteincludetheMinistryofHealth,MinistryofEnvironmentandMineralResources (MinesandGeology,NEMA),UniversityofNairobi,MinistryofLocalGovernment,andMinistryofLabour(DirectorateofOccupationalHealthandSafety).

3Teratogens are chemicals or other factors that specifically cause abnormalities during embryonic growth and development.4Roentgen equivalent man (rem) is a unit of ionizing radiation equal to the amount that produces the same damage to humans as 1 roentgen of high-voltage x-rays (McGraw-Hill, 2003).


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3.5.5 Toxic and Hazardous substancesToxicandhazardoussubstancesareacriticalpartoftheglobaleconomyandalsooneofthegreatestthreatstohumanhealthandtheenvironment.Forexample,toxicandhazardouschemicalsarewidelyusedinKenyaparticularlyintheagriculturalsector.Toxicandhazardoussubstancesandtheirdisposalhavenotbeencomprehensivelyandadequatelyaddressedbyanypolicyorlegislationtodate.Toxicandhazardoussubstancesarewidelydispersedintheenvironmentandtheirproductionisontheincrease.Kenya,likemanyotherAfricacountries,isvulnerabletoillegaldumpingofobsoleteandbannedtoxicandhazardoussubstances.

3.5.6 NoiseRepeated exposure to high noise levels can result in significant adverse health impacts,especiallylossofhearingacuity.Suchexposuresoccurprimarilyintheworkplace.Thenoiselevelsthatcanresultinhearingdamagearequiteloud,andoftensignificantlyinterferewithcommunication,andthusleadtoquantifiableproductivitylosses.Noisealsocausesannoyancewhichleadstonegativecommunityreactions.Therelativelyhighlevelsofsoundthatcanresultinannoyancemaypropagateoverconsiderabledistancesandconsequentlyaffectalargepopulation.Sourcesofnoiseincludecommercialactivitieswithinor close to residential areas (e.g. discos and othermachinery), transportation sector andreligiousactivities.Theproblemofnoiseiscreatedbyconstructionwork,vehiclemovement,factories, informal industries, loudmusic in public transport vehicles (i.e.matatus), andaeroplanes.TheKenyaGovernmentrecentlyenactedaspecificlegislationthatgovernsand/orregulatesnoiselevels.Inaddition,section55oftheFactoryActempowerstheMinisterof Labour to develop guidelines on noise in the workplace. Some of the institutions andorganizations responsible for regulating andmonitoring noisepollution includeMinistry ofLabour (Department ofOccupationalHealth and Safety, Factory Inspectorate),Ministry ofEnvironmentandMineralResources (MinesandGeology,NEMA),MinistryofTransport,andKenyaBureauofStandards.

3.5.7 Environmental Monitoring and assessmentEnvironmentalmonitoringisintendedtoprovidescientificallysounddataandinformationonthe status and trends of the environment. the mechanisms for coordinated environmental monitoring,datacollection,processing,managementandassessmentarestill inadequate.Thereisaneedtodevelopaworkingprogrammeforenvironmentalmonitoringtocoordinateenvironmental data collection and assessment and to ensure compatibility of data andreportingstandards.

3.5.8 Offensive OdourThe offensive odor or noxious smells of decay is a growing problem especially in majorurbanareas. Itmainly results fromhydrogen sulphide releasebydecomposing garbageatdisposal sites, dam reservoirs and broken sewage conduits. Other causes of odor includetanninplantsatAthiRiver,slaughterhousesandpiggeriesinDagoreti,papermanufacturingplantsinWebuye,leachatesfromthewastelandfillsites,bone-mealplants,andwastewaterfromgarbagecollectionvehicles.TheEnvironmentManagementandCoordinationAct1999,Section107,providesforproceduresformeasurementanddeterminationofnoxioussmellsand ways of controlling them. Some of the institutions and organizations responsible forregulating and monitoring noxious smells include the Ministry of Labour (Department ofOccupationalHealthandSafety),MinistryofEnvironmentandMineralResources(MinesandGeology,NEMA),KenyaBureauofStandards,MinistryofLocalgovernment,MinistryofEnergyandMinistryofHealth.

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3.6 sEcTORaL PROGRaMMEs/PROJEcTs WITHIN dEPaRTMENTs

ThissectionpresentsflagshipprojectsandprogrammesidentifiedinthefirstMediumTermPlans2008-2012forimplementingVision2030toserveasalinktoenvironmentalissuesandtheproposedP-Eindicatorsatanoutcomelevel.TheMTPplacesapremiumonhigheconomicgrowth, faster job creation, poverty reduction, improved income distribution and genderequitywhilealsoensuringthatbalanceisattainedindevelopmentacrossallregionsofthecountry.Vision2030acknowledgesthatdisparitiesexistbetweentherichandthepoorandinequitabledistributionofpublic resourcesbetween individuals, regionsandalonggenderlines.ThekeytargetstoaddressthedualproblemofpovertyandinequalityintheMTP(2008-2012)include:(a)raisingtheaverageannualincomeperpersonfromanestimatedUS$650in2006toaboveUS$992by2012;(b)reducepovertylevelsfrom46.9%to28%by2012;(c)reduceruralandurbaninequalityGiniindicesfromthecurrentlevelsof0.38and0.447to0.34and0.407,respectivelyby2012;and(d)raisethelevelofHumanDevelopmentIndexfromabout0.532in2007tobetween0.6and0.7by2012.According to the MTP, identified flagship projects/programmes aim to achieve faster andsignificantstructuralchangesintheKenyaneconomybyincreasingtheshareofmanufacturingandindustryinGDPandthatofmanufacturedexportsintotalexports.Projectsandprogrammeslistedbelowarethosethathaveabearingonenvironment,butcoveringallthethreepillarsofVision2030.

3.6.1 TourismTourismcurrentlyaccountsfor10%ofGDP,makingitthethirdlargestsectoroftheeconomyafteragricultureandmanufacturing.TourismisakeyplayerincreationofemploymentandKenya’sleadingforeignexchangeearnergeneratingaboutKShs65.7billionin2007,upfromKShs21.7billionin2002.Emergingissuesinthetourismsectorincludeenvironmental(i.e.loss ofwildlife habitat, inappropriate policies, human/wildlife conflicts, etc), inadequateinfrastructure,narrowproductdiversity,inadequatebed/hotelcapacity,untappeddomestictourism, inadequate skilled human resources, and inadequate research and developmentbudget.

ThefollowingaresomeoftheflagshipprojectsidentifiedintheMTP(2008-2012):a) Developmentofthreeresortcities(Isiolo,DianiandKilifi);b) Premierparksinitiative;c) Underutilizedparksinitiative;d) Development of niche products (eco-tourism, cultural-tourism, local tourism

entrepreneurship,water-basedtourism,sportstourism,andcruisetourism);e) Legalreforms(i.e.amendmentoftheKTDCAct, implementationoftheDevelopment

Finance Institutions reform strategy forKTDC,enactment ofKTBandKICCActs, andpassingandenhancementoftheTourismBill2007).

3.6.2 agriculture, Livestock and FishingAgriculture contributes about 24%GDP, 75%of industrial rawmaterials and60%ofexportearnings.ComponentsoftheagriculturalsectorthatKenyansderivealivelihoodfromincludefoodcrops, industrial crops, horticulture,fishproduction,dairy andbeefproduction, andagricultural marketing.

Among theemerging issues in agriculture arehigh cost of inputs, landuseproblems (i.e.subdivision), limitedapplicationofagricultural technologiesand innovations,weakfarmer


31

institutions, poor livestock husbandry practices, overdependence on rain-fed agriculture,inadequatecreditfacilities,andlowmarinefishexports.TheflagshipprojectsidentifiedintheMTPashavingpotentialforreducingtheconstraintsfacingagricultureinclude:a) Enactmentoftheconsolidatedagriculturalreformbill;b) Investmentinfertilizercost-reduction;c) Establishmentofdisease-freezones;d) Landusemasterplan;e) ASALdevelopmentproject;f) Key support initiatives: agricultural research and development; extension services;

transformationofparastatalsandproducerorganizations;thecooperativesector;seedand breed quality improvement; low-cost irrigation technology; livestock initiatives;reorganizationofagriculturalinvestmentandexportpromotionagencies;developmentofidentifiedidlelandsinhighpotentialandASALareas;legal,regulatoryandinstitutionalreforms; improvingaccesstofarminputs;promotingthegrowingandconsumptionoftraditional foods; empowering farmers through participatory grassroots stakeholders’forums;andagriculturalfinancialservices.

3.6.3 Wholesale, Retail and International TradeThe trade sector is singled out by theMTPas playing a crucial role in the attainment ofthenationaldevelopmentobjectivesincludingtheMDG1(eradicatingextremepovertyandhunger)andMDG8(developingglobalpartnerships fordevelopment).Thefivemainareasidentifiedunderthetradesectorare(a)distributionandwholesaletrade;(b)retailtrade;(c) international trade; (d) informal trade; and (e) trade in services and electronic trade(e-trade).

ThecontributionofthewholesaleandretailtradetoGDPgrewby10.3%perannumbetween2003 and 2006. Emerging issues for the wholesale, retail and international trade sectorincludeweakbusinessregulatoryframework,poorinfrastructure,poormarketaccess,poorlydevelopedbusinessskills,lowutilizationofinformationandcommunicationtechnology(ICT),low capacity in market development, limited access to finance and credit, and negativeimpactoftheHIV/AIDSpandemic.Someoftheflagshipprojects/programmes identified intheMTP(2008-2012)are:a) Createatleast10hubsand1,000-1,500ProductBusinessGroupswithpilotprojectsin

Maraguatobeextendedtootherregions;b) Buildatleast10tier-onemarketwithpilotprojectsinAthiRiver,constructwholeand

retailhawkersmarketinselectedurbanareas;c) Developandinstitutionalisecapacitybuildingandtrainingprogrammesontechnology

andbusinessprocurementnegotiationskillsfortraderassociationsandtheirmembers;d) Businesslinkagesandsub-contractingprogrammesthroughPublicPrivatePartnerships

(PPP);e) Support and promote the development of cooperative organizations tomarket their

producedirectly, therebyshortening supplychains,achievingeconomiesof scaleandreducingconsumerpriceswhileincreasingproducerearnings;and,

f) EstablishandstrengtheninformaltradersassociationstoformSACCOssoastoenhancesavingsmobilization,andenhancementofmanagementoftheexistingSACCOs.

3.6.4 ManufacturingThemanufacturing sector is expected to provide impetus for achievingMDGs in both themedium-andlong-term.Vision2030outlinesfourobjectivesforthemanufacturingsector:(a)strengthenproductioncapacityand localcontentofdomestically-manufacturedgoods;

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(b)increasethegenerationandutilizationofR&Dresults;(c)raisetheshareofproductsintheregionalmarketsfrom7%to15%;and,(d)developnicheproductsforexistingandnewmarkets.

some of the emerging issues in the manufacturing sector include low value addition and narrow export base; underdeveloped and /or dilapidated transport network; inadequate, costlyandunstablesupplyofenergy;lowadoptionofinformationandcommunicationtechnology(ICT); overlaps and ambiguity inmandates and functions; low technology, innovation andR&D uptake; weak legal, regulatory and institutional frameworks; influx of sub-standard,counterfeit and contraband goods; inadequate capacity to meet quality and standards;limitedaccesstofinancialservices;andlimitedproductionandmanagerialskills.Theflagshipprojects/programmeslistedbytheMTP(2008-2012)include:a) Developmentofindustrialandmanufacturingzones;b) DevelopmentofatleastfiveSMEindustrialparksandspecializedeconomiczonesinkey

urbancentres;c) Productionandmarketdiversification;d) Researchdevelopmentandcommercializationprogrammes;e) CreateanSMER&D,riskandventurecapitalfund;f) Createbusinessandtechnologyincubationprogrammetoincludeanincubationfund;g) One-villageone-product;and,h) 4K(KEBS,KIRDI,KIPI,KNFJKA)MSE2030initiativesproject.

3.6.5 Environment, Water and sanitationthe goal of the environment sector is to enhance access to water and sanitation and a clean, secure,andsustainableenvironment.TheVision2030recognizestheeconomicimportanceoftheenvironmentsector,e.g.byattributingabout42%oftheGDPasderivedfromnaturalresource-basedsectorsofagriculture,forestry,tourism,mining,waterandenergy.Itisfurtherstatedthatthesustainabilityofsupplyoftheseenvironmentalservicesandnaturalresourceproductsrequirescience-basedmanagementandconservationpractices.Consequently,Vision2030hasplannedflagshipactivities/programmesaimedatachievingvaryingimpactsonthestate of the environment. this is where careful integration of environmental concerns into allsectorsoftheeconomyisrequired,assomeoftheplannedprojectswillleadtoincreasednegative impacts e.g. pollution, large quantities of solid waste, effluent discharge frommanufacturing,soilerosionfrompoorland-usepracticesandlossofbiologicaldiversity.

Emergingissuesinenvironmentincludeenvironmentaldegradation;waterresources(waterscarcity, water security, water catchments management, water quality, infrastructuredevelopment, sanitation, andmonitoringof resources); pollutionandwastemanagement;climate change; biotechnology; integrated environmental planning; institutional and legalframework;forests;wildlife;biologicaldiversity,ecosystemandhabitatmanagement;andmineralsandmining.Theenvironmentalflagshipprojects/programmesinclude:a) Rehabilitationandprotectionofindigenousforestsinthefivewatertowers;b) Securewildlifecorridorsandmigratoryroutes;c) Preparationofanationalspatialland-usemasterplan;d) Wastemanagementsystems;e) Rehabilitation,regenerationandrestorationofNairobirivers;f) Waterresourcesinformationmanagement;g) Waterharvestingandstorageprogramme;h) Urbansewerageprogramme;i) Waterstorageandharvesting;


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j) Nationalwatersupplyandsanitation;k) Waterresourceinformationmanagement;l) Irrigationanddrainage;m)Additionalprograms:carbonoffsetschemes;disasterpreparedness;compensationfor

environmental services programme; exploration and mining; invasive species; trans-boundary waters; geological mapping; linkages with institutions of higher learning;and,

n) Policy,legalandinstitutionalreforms.

3.6.6 Population, Urbanization and HousingHighpopulationgrowth,rapidrural-urbanmigration,skyrocketing costs of housing constructionmaterials, and high cost of housing finance havebeena challenge to theKenya government sinceindependence.SomeoftheissuesidentifiedbytheMTP (2008-2012) include rural-urban migration,increasinghighratesofurbanisation,andinabilityfor housing sector to grow at the same rate as the population, and hence the mushrooming ofurban slums. Flagship projects include preparingand implementing strategic development andinvestment plans for six metropolitan regions(Nairobi, Mombasa, Kisumu-Kakamega, Nakuru-

Eldoret,Wajir-Garissa,Kitui-Mwingi-Meru).More specifically, the following projectsareearmarkedforthedurationofthefirstMTP2008-2012:a) Preparationofanationalland-useplan in order to facilitate better urbanplanning;b) Installation of physical and socialinfrastructure in slums in 20 urban areastomakethemformalsettlements,permitconstruction of permanent houses andattractprivateinvestment;c) Producing 200,000 housing unitsannually by 2012 under PPP and otherinitiatives;

d) Establishinghousingtechnologycentresineachconstituencytoincreaseaccesstodecenthousingbypromotinglocation-specificbuildingmaterialsandlow-costhousing;

e) Establishing secondary mortgage finance corporation to increase access to housingfinance;and,

f) Enacting the Housing Bill, 2006 to legislate for a one-stop housing developmentapprovalmechanismtofast-trackapprovalofhousingplansandreducethetimecostofconstruction.

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ThischapterpresentsspecificenvironmentalissuesinKenyagroupedaroundfivemainthemes:environmentalissues,ecosystemsservices,sustainableuseofnaturalresources,environmentalstewardship,andenhancingenvironmentalquality.Ineach,issuesarepresented,challengesandcurrenteffortstoresolvethemhighlighted,andsourcesofdataandinstitutionsresponsibleforcollectingdatapresented.

Our understanding of the environmental sector should be informed by outcomes of theMillenniumEcosystemAssessmentandlessonsfromseveralsources,includingtheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals.Inordertoeffectivelylinkenvironmenttopoverty,threerelationshipshavebeenexplored:(a)theappreciationofhowhuman-wellbeingisdependantonenvironmentalservicesandproducts;(b)theidentificationofbarriersanddriversthatpreventKenyansfromsustainableuseofenvironmentalservicesandnaturalresourceproductstoimprovetheirwellbeing;and(c)the identificationofpolicyresponseoptionsthatremoveidentifiedbarriersso as to allowpoorKenyans improve theirwell-being throughenvironmental services andnaturalresourceproducts.Thischapterservestoidentifythecriticalissuesthattheproposedpoverty-environmentindicatorsshouldcover.


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a new framework for P-e linked moniToring

4

4.1 KENYa’s NaTIONaL POLIcY FRaMEWORK aNd ENVIRONMENT

Overtheyears,theGovernmentofKenyahasacknowledgedtheimportanceoftheenvironmentinachievingitseconomicrecoveryandpovertyreductiongoalsasdemonstratedinvariouskeypolicyguidelines.Forexample,theEconomicRecoveryStrategyforWealthandEmploymentCreation(2003-2007)recognizedtheneedtoachievebroadmacroandsectoralobjectiveswithoutcompromisingtheenvironment.EnvironmentalchallengeshavealsobeenidentifiedintheKenyaVision2030,whichaimsat“anationlivinginaclean,secureandsustainableenvironment”.Recentparticipatorypoverty assessments andothermechanismsofpickingvoicesofthepoorhavealsorecordedincreaseinawarenessandconcernsforenvironmentalissues,especiallywithregardtopovertyreductionandsustainabilityofcurrentdevelopmentpoliciesandactivities.Thedevelopmentofgenericindicatorswillbeinformedbyareviewofenvironmentalissuesraisedbythepoorthroughparticipatorypovertyassessments,Kenya’senvironmentpolicyframework,reportonconnectingpovertyandecosystemservicesinKenya(UNEPandIISD,2005),andrelevantindicatorinitiativesinothercountries.

Ideally,thepolicyframeworkcontainedinVision2030andtheMediumTermPlan2008-2012shouldhavebeensubjectedtoaStrategicEnvironmentalAssessment(SEA)beforebeingusedasabasis fordevelopmentofP-E indicators, soas togauge theenvironmental soundnessof thepolicy framework andensure that it doesnot hurt thepoor in the short-termandunderminelong-rungrowthanditseffectivenessinreducingpoverty.SEAisnowwidelyusedtorefertoasystematicprocesstoanalyzetheenvironmental (and increasinglythesocialandsometimestheeconomic)effectsofpolicies,plans,andprograms.Forexample,growthcanleadtocollapseornearcollapseoffisheries,declineofagricultureduetosalinizationfromirrigation,downstreamimpactsduetoupstreamlandusechange(e.g.severefloodingcaused by deforestation in the upper watersheds), and decline in exports of intensivelyfarmed commercial aquaculture operations (e.g. shrimp farming due primarily to diseasefrompollutionandpoorenvironmentalcontrols).

Thus, to improvetheenvironmental soundnessofgrowth,economicpoliciesanddecision-makingneedtobetterreflectthe“publicgoods”natureofmanyenvironmentalgoodsandservicesbyaddressingthepersistentpolicyandmarketfailuresthatleadtotheirundervaluationandmisuse(UNDP,WorldBank,EC,DfID,2002).

4.1.1 Voices from the Field

ThefourthParticipatoryPovertyAssessment2005-2006(PPA-IV)dealswithperceptionsofthepeopleonissuesrelatedtopovertydynamicsanddiagnostics,andanalysisoftheimpactoffivepro-poorpolicyareas,namely,agriculturalextensionservices,waterandsanitation,ruralaccessroads,basiceducationandpublichealthcare.AlthoughenvironmentwasnotpartofthescopeofthePPA-IV,“allthecommunitiesvisitedwereconcernedabouttheenvironment,e.g. destruction of water catchments areas and conversion of such areas to private use,reduction inwatervolumes fromnatural sources,disposalofnon-biodegradablematerials(plastics),urbanpollution,disposalofhumanwasteespeciallyinurbaninformalsettlementsandsmallurbancenters,anddenudationoftreesinmostpartsofthecountry”(page96).

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WWFEasternAfricaRegionalProgrammeOffice(EARPO)undertookacommunityconsultativeplanningstudy,onbehalfofthePovertyandEnvironmentInitiative-Kenya,toidentifypovertyand environmental challenges, causes and solutions in bondo, murang’a and meru south districts (WWF, 2006).The following poverty-environment challenges cut across the threedistricts:

• Everincreasingpopulationanddiminishingresources:decreasingavailabilityoflandandlarge families

• Seasonal and environmental stress: notably flooding, landslides, physical erosion anddepletedsoilsasaresultofdeforestationandpoorlandusepractices

• Copingwithhungerandotherpovertymanifestations• Environmental health and diseases: waterborne diseases and poor access to potable

water due to environmental degradation• Limitedcommunityinvolvementinthemanagementofnaturalresources• Governance and corruption: illegal logging in the forests, sand harvesting, and little

trustinpublicinstitutions(includingthosethatmanagedevolvedfunds).

Aspartoftheprocessofpreparingthedraftnationalenvironmentpolicy,12regional/provincialconsultativemeetingswereheld inMarch-April2008toseekopinionsandcontributionsofthestakeholdersattheregionallevel.Themeetingscapturedtheenvironmentalchallengesfacing different areas and suggestions on future actions needed to promote and enhanceenvironmental conservation and sustainable utilization of natural resources. The processrevealedthatcommunitiesareawareofthelinksbetweenlivelihoodsandtheenvironment,andtheattendantdangerswiththewantondestructionoftheKenya’snaturalresourcebase,andrecommendedawiderangeofpolicyactionstoreversethesituation.

Someof thecommon issues thatarose fromthe regional/provincialconsultativemeetingsinclude:(a)wastemanagementinmosturbancenters,(b)pollutioninlakesanddeclininglakewaterlevels,(c)waterscarcityandwaterquality,(d)encroachmentonwetlands,(f)deforestation, (g) poor agricultural practices that lead todecline in soil fertility and lossoftopsoil,(h)human-wildlifeconflictsasaresultofpoaching,encroachmentandblockingofwildlifemigrationcorridors,(i) lossofdiversity,(j)quarryingandminingincludingsandharvesting, (k) inconsistencies in lawsandweak institutional arrangements, (l) unplannedsettlements,(m)climatechange,(n)lackofdisastermanagement,and(p)invasivespeciese.g.waterhyacinth,prosopisjurifloraandhippograss.

4.1.2 Vision 2030 and The Medium-Term Plan 2008-2012

TheKenyaVision2030,whichisbeingimplementedthroughfiveyearmedium-termrollingplans with the first one covering the period 2008-2012, anchored on three main pillars(economic,socialandpolitical)isexpectedtotransformKenyaintoarapidlyindustrializingmiddle-incomenationbytheyear2030.Vision2030doesnotexplicitlyrecognizeenvironmentandnaturalresourcesasfoundationfordevelopment,butasoneofthesevenkeysectorsin the social pillar, alongside education and training, health sector,water and sanitation,housingandurbanization,andgender,youthandvulnerablegroups.

Vision 2030 lists the major challenges relating to environmental management to includesustainablemanagementofnatural resources (especially thecontinueddestructionof thefivewatertowers),demandforfarmlandandforestproducts,wildlifeintheirnaturalhabitats(poaching,human-wildlifeconflicts,habitatdestruction,andchangesinlandusepatterns),


37

medicalandhazardouswastes,climatechangeanddesertification,andharnessingofstrategicnaturalresources(e.g.innovationinutilizationofnaturalresources).

The Flagship Projects for 2008-2012 Medium-Term Plan period include rehabilitation andprotection of indigenous forests in the five Water Towers (Mau Escarpment, Mt. Kenya,AberdaresRanges,CheranganyHillsandMt.Elgon);securewildlifecorridorsandmigratoryroutes;preparationofaNationalSpatialPlan (LandUseMasterPlan);wastemanagementsystem;rehabilitation,regenerationandrestorationofNairobirivers;waterharvestingandstorageprogramme;urbansewerageprogramme;nationalwatersupplyandsanitation;waterresource information management; and irrigation and drainage. Additional programmesinclude carbon offset scheme, disaster preparedness, compensation for environmentalservicesprogramme,explorationandmining,managementandcontrolof invasive species(e.g. prosopsis juriflora andwater hyacinth), trans-boundary waters, geologicalmapping,andlinkageswithinstitutionsofhigherlearning(forcapacitybuildinginenvironment-relateddisciplines).

Progress in human development depends on environmental services and products. TheKenyaGovernmenthasthereforetriedtoenrichtheone-dimensionalperspectiveofpovertyas income or deprivation to amulti-dimensional approach that encompasses amultitudeof constituents anddeterminants ofwell-being.The relationships amongconstituents anddeterminantsofwell-beingarecloselylinkedtoenvironmentalservices,andthemagnitudeoftheirrelationshipsdiffersacrossstakeholders.Forexample,richKenyanscanaffordtobuycleanwaterorequipmenttofilterandpurifyit.PoorKenyanshavenooptionsbutdependonnaturaland/orpublicwatersupply.

However,Kenyastillfacessomeproblemsandissuesinenvironment.Theseinclude:

• Parameterstomeasureand/orquantifyenvironmentalphenomenaarepoorlydevelopedor lacking all together.

• Poorunderstandingofenvironmentalphenomenahasledtotheentrenchedbeliefthatenvironmentalproducts(naturalresources)mustbemined(factorsofproduction)foreconomicdevelopmentwithoutregardforsustainableproduction.Forexample,mostofwaterforNairobicomesfromMuran’ga,butpaymentforwaterbyNairobiresidentsisonlyfortheliquidatthetapandinvestmentisforinfrastructure.ItdoesnotincludepaymentstoguaranteethesustainabilityofwatersupplyfromtheAberdaresecosystemsothattheAberdaresresidentsdonotengageinactivitiesandpracticesthatthreatensustainableflowofwater(quantityandquality).

• ThefragmentednatureoftheKenya’senvironment-povertyframework,e.g.thescatterednatureofthesector/constituentsorabsenceofanationalenvironmentalframework;andtheviewofenvironmentasbeingindisharmonywiththenationalleveleconomicdevelopmentduetopoorcommunicationatapolicylevel.

TheoverallpurposeoftheP-EIndicatorswillthereforebetoprovideameasurementframeworkthroughwhichto:(a)identifywhetherenvironmentandpovertyreductionlinkagescontributeto achieving national and sub-national development policies, objectives and targets (e.g.Vision2030,MediumTermPlan2008-2012,DistrictDevelopmentPlans,EnvironmentActionPlans);and(b)enableassessmentofprogresstowardssoundenvironmentalmanagementandpovertyreduction.Thislinkagebetweennationalpoliciesandtheimplementedprogrammesthrough theP-E indicatorswill assist to demonstrate the extent towhich development issustainableinthelong-term,andprovidecruciallessonsforfutureprogrammedesign.

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Progress towards implementationof thepoliciesandachievementofplannedprogrammeswillbemeasuredagainstthesettargetsthroughtheP-Eindicators.Themeasurementwillbedoneatthenationalandsub-nationallevelsaselaboratedunderNIMES.AnnualProgressReportswillbepreparedusingdataandinformationsuppliedbytheKenyaNationalBureauofStatistics(KNBS),relevantfocalministries’CentralPlanningandProjectMonitoringUnits(CPPMUs), District Development Officers, and specialized semi-autonomous governmentagencies(SAGAs).

4.2 cHaLLENGEs IN dEVELOPING POVERTY-ENVIRONMENT INdIcaTORs

Thepurposeoftheassignmentwastodeveloppoverty-environmentindicatorsthatarerelevanttopoverty,environment,andthelinkagebetweenthetwo.However,asmentionedpreviously,poverty-environment links are not necessarily the same as causal linkages between theenvironmentandpoverty,butaredimensionsofpovertythatconcerntheenvironmentalpartofpoorpeople’slives,andthusrelatetopeople’sopportunitiesforeconomicadvancement,socialorpoliticalempowerment,andvulnerability.Inaddition,manytraditionalecosystemsindicators are highly site-specific, and therefore appear more relevant for lower-levelgeographicalareasratherthannationallevelmonitoring.

TherangeofindicatorsandknowledgebasederivedfromtheNIMES,millenniumdevelopmentgoalsandotherinternationalexperiencesdifferinscopeandsometimesindefinitions.The31 ERS indicators mainly focused on improvement of incomes without a commensuratefocusonsustainabilityofecosystemsuponwhichthatdevelopmentisderived.The48MTPoutcome indicators for national level reporting andmonitoring are an improvement fromtheERSindicators.Mostindicatorsdevelopedforinternationallevelreportingarealsomoresuited to national level performancemonitoring, rather than sub-national or site-specificconcerns.Theindicatorsalsorarelyincludeanyqualitativeorquantitativemeasurementsoftheextenttowhichacountry’splanningandbudgetaryframeworksmainstreamenvironmentandsustainablemanagementofnaturalresources.TherangeofindicatorsunderNIMESdoesnotfullymeettheneedsforinternationalreportingobligationsundertheMDGs.

4.3 aPPROacHEs IN dEVELOPMENT OF POVERTY-ENVIRONMENT INdIcaTORs

TheframeworkfordevelopingP-Eindicatorswillneedtomeetanumberofrequirements.First, there is need for national and sub-national level indicators for mainstreamingenvironmentandnaturalresourcesintoplanningandbudgetaryframeworks.Secondly,therewillbeseparateindicatorsonpovertyandenvironment,andP-Eindicatorsthatreflecttherelationshipbetweenpovertyandenvironment.

Thematrix of proposed indicators in theAnnex uses the thematic issues as presented inVision2030andMedium-TermPlan2008-2012,withthefirstcolumnshowingthepillarandsectorclassificationandthesecondcolumnshowingthedevelopmentissuesfortheparticularpillar/sector.Thethirdandfourthcolumnspresentnationalandsub-nationallevelindicators,respectively.Theindicatorsselectedaresupposedtoprovideamenufromwhichacoresetofindicatorscanbeselected.Otherindicatorscanalsobechosenforministerialandagencylevel.

ThemainadditiontoexistingERSindicatorsistheinclusionofmeasurementsofsustainable


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development,adoptionofstrategiesthatmainstreamenvironmentinplanningandbudgetaryframeworks,governanceissues(e.g.participatorynaturalresourcemanagementatcommunitylevel),andtheroleofconsumptionandproductionpatternsinsustainabledevelopment.Inshort,theexistingenvironmentalpressureindicatorshavebeenaugmentedbymeasuresofbiodiversityandecosystemsstress.

Attheministeriallevel,indicatorsshouldbeharmonizedwiththestrategicplans,andtheministerialandagencylevelperformancecontractingshouldincludeanumberofinputandoutputlevelindicatorswhichareproperlyalignedtospecificoutcome/impactindicators.

During the preparation of national and ministerial level indicators for tracking theimplementationofVision2030andMedium-TermPlan2008-2012,theconsultantsparticipatedin providing inputs on poverty-environment linked indicators. Table 2 below shows theindicators thatwere tentatively agreed upon for inclusion in the nationalmonitoring andevaluation framework.

4.4 sUMMaRY aNd cONcLUsIONThedevelopment of generic indicatorswas informedby a reviewof environmental issuesraisedby thepoor throughparticipatorypovertyassessments,Kenya’senvironmentpolicyframework,reportonconnectingpovertyandecosystemservicesinKenya(UNEPandIISD,2005),andrelevantindicatorinitiativesinothercountries.

TheoverallpurposeoftheP-E Indicators istoprovideameasurementframeworkthroughwhich to: (a) identify whether environment and poverty reduction linkages contribute toachievingnationalandsub-nationaldevelopmentpolicies,objectivesandtargetswithintheframeworkofVision2030;and(b)enableassessmentofprogresstowardssoundenvironmentalmanagementandpovertyreduction.Outputlevelindicatorswillbetrackedatsub-nationallevelwhileoutcome/impactindicatorswillbetrackedatnationallevel.ItisalsoimportanttoensurethatperformancecontractingprocessesintheMinistriesisalignedwiththemonitoringprocesswherethesettargetsforeachindicatorshouldguidethespecifictasksforindividualofficersinspecificGovernmentministries.

Table2:ReportingFrameworkforEnvironment,WaterandSanitation,AgricultureandRuralDevelopment

medium-term PlAn outPut/flAgshiP ProJects

outPut indicAtor dAtA source ministry resPonsible

forest cover increased by50%

Landareacoveredbyforests(hectares,%oftotallandarea)

KFSAnnualReport mfw

solid waste managementsystemsdevelopedin5municipalities

%ofsolidwaste(i)recycled,(ii)composted,(iii)incinerated,and(iv)land-filledonacontrolledsite

nemA Annual Report

memr

three climate change databasesestablished

No.ofdatabasesestablished–nemA, memr, mfw

nemA/kfs Annual Reports

memr/mfw

Fiveadaptationprogrammesonclimate change and desertificationpiloted

No.ofprogramspiloted nemA/kfs Annual Reports

memr/mfw

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Spatialdataonlanduseincreasedfrom30%to50%

Up-to-datelandusemaps drsrs/nemA records

memr/mol

Spatialdataonlandcover increased from 30%to70%

Landcovermaps drsrs/nemA records

memr/mol

five clean DevelopmentMechanismsprojectsattracted

No.ofCDMprojectsoperational nemA Annual Report

memr

Fivewatertowers(MauEscarpment,Mt.Kenya,AberdaresRanges,cherangani hills, mt. Elgon)rehabilitated/conserved

No.ofrehabilitated/conservedwater towers

kfs /kws Annual Reports

mfw

wildlife corridors andmigratoryroutessecured from human activity

no. of wildlife corridors and migratoryroutessecured

kfs /kws Annual Reports

mfw

Improvementofsolidwaste management systemforNairobi

%ofsolidwaste(i)recycled,(ii)composted,(iii)incinerated,and(iv)land-filledonacontrolledsite;

Numberoflicensedwaste management sites

NEMAAnnualReport memr

Land-usemapsupdated/modernized

Updated/modernizedland-usemaps

drsrs/mols/moA records

memr/mol

tana river delta Initiativeimplemented

tana river delta initiative implementedandoperational

tArdA Annual Report

mrdA

bura irrigation scheme rehabilitated

RehabilitatedBuraIrrigationscheme commissioned

NIBAnnualReport MOW&I/MOA

Developmanagementplansfor5wetlands

no. of wetlands that are protectedfromintensivehumanactivities(prerequisitesincludepreparationofawetlandsmasterplanandharmonizationofvariouspiecesofenablinglegislation)

nemA Annual Report

memr

All marine area protected

Proportionofmarineareasprotected

kws and nemA AnnualReports

mfw/memr

Complianceofalldischarges to meet thewaterqualityregulations

Levelofwaterpollutants(byspecifiedpollutants)

wrmA/nemA Annualreports

mow and i /memr

All wastewater from municipalitiestreated

Wastewatertreatment(numberofmunicipalitiesandpercentvolumewastewatertreated)

mol/ wrmA/ nemA Annual reports

MoL/MOW&I

100%compliancetoeiA/eA regulations

%levelofadherencetoEIA/environmental audit regulations

nemA Annual Report

memr

100%compliancetoairandnoisepollutionregulations

Ambientconcentrationofair/noisepollutantsinurbanareas

nemA/kmd AnnualReports

memr


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gauging of water volume in major rivers

water volume gauging for major rivers(inFebruary,thedriestmonthoftheyear)

wrmA Annual Report

MOW&I

Computerizedlandregistryestablished

Numberofcomputerizedlandregistries

mol Annual Report

mol

national land use masterplanestablished

Preparationandimplementationofanationallanduseplan(prerequisitesincludeharmonizationofvariouspiecesofenablinglegislation)

mol Annual Report

mol

Production of the majorfoodcropsincreasedby45%

Increaseagriculturalyield(perunitarea)formajorfoodcropsby45%(maize,riceandwheat)

moA Annual Report

moA

20newagro-processingtechnologiesdeveloped

increased value addition in agriculturalcommodities;

No.ofagro-processingtechnologies developed/applied

MOA/MoCDMAnnualReports

3tierfertilizercostreductionby30%

Tonnesoffertilizers(i)bulked,(ii)locallyblendedand(iii)locallyproduced(fertilizerplant)

MOA/MOT&IAnnualReports

moA

4LivestockdiseasefreezonesestablishedinASALregions(1inCoast;1inLaikipia,1in isiolo, and 1 north Rift)

Numberoflivestockdiseasefreezonescreated

mold Annual Report

mold

Mobilize/investsavings/depositsinviablecooperativeventures/enterprises

Valueofsavingsmobilized/investedthroughcooperatives/sAccos

MOCD&MAnnualReports

MOCD&M

Note:Therewereadditionalindicatorson(a)accesstosafewater(urban/rural,andNorthernKenya),(b)waterstorageandharvestingcapacitypercapita,(c)accesstosanitation(urban/rural,andNorthernKenya),(d)assenttonationalenvironmentalpolicyandpolicyonwildlifeecosystemsprotection,and(e)reductioninlossesduetofloods(valueofpropertyandfarmsdestroyedduetofloods).

42


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ENT

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ESN

ATIO

NA

L-LE

VEL

OU

TCO

ME

IND

ICAT

ORS

SUB-

NAT

ION

AL

OU

TPU

T LE

VEL

IND

ICAT

ORS

ECO

NO

MIC

PIL

LAR

the

mAc

roec

on

om

ic

frAm

ewo

rk

Thepu

rsuitofam

acroecon

omicframew

orkthat

willfacilitatelo

wand

stableinfla

tion

and

interest

rates,asustainab

lepub

licsectorde

btposition,

andacompe

titiverea

lexcha

ngeratetosupp

ort

anexp

ort-ledecon

omicgrowthand

helptodeliver

highand

sustainab

lele

velsofgrow

th,em

ploymen

tan

dpo

vertyredu

ction.The

rateofgrowthofthe

econ

omywasprojected

toriseto10%by

2012/13,

andwou

ldreq

uirecon

tinu

edim

plem

entation

ofprude

ntfiscal,mon

etaryan

dexchan

gerate

polic

ies;enh

ancedefforttoraisethelevelo

fin

vest

men

ts a

nd s

avin

gs,

and

acce

lera

ting

str

uctu

ral

reform

sinordertoincrea

sethe

efficien

cyofbo

th

physicaland

hum

ancap

italand

raisetotalfactor

prod

uctivity.Th

eGovernm

entwillensurethatthe

bu

lkofexpe

ndituresarem

etfromtaxreven

ueand

thatoverallexpe

nditureiscon

trolledtoensure

thatthe

overallgovernmen

tde

ficitissustainab

le,

whi

ch in

clud

es m

aint

aini

ng a

str

ong

reve

nue

effo

rt,

keep

ingtheoverallfi

scaldefi

citatle

sstha

n5%

of

GDP,con

taininggrow

thoftotale

xpen

dituresan

dshiftingresou

rcestopriorityareas,an

dincrea

sing

theshareofdevelop

men

texpe

nditures.

mAc

roec

on

om

ic P

erfo

rmAn

ceGrossdom

esticprod

uct(GDP)percap

ita;

Investmen

tshareinGDP;

Grosssaving;

Adjusted

netsavingsaspe

rcen

tageofgross

nation

alin

come(GNI);

Infla

tion

rate;

Remittancesaspe

rcen

tageofGNI

sust

Ain

Able

Pu

blic

fin

Ance

Deb

ttoGNIratio;

Curren

taccoun

tde

ficitaspe

rcen

tageofGDP

emPl

oym

ent

Employmen

t-to-pop

ulationratio;

Labo

rprod

uctivityand

unitlabo

rcosts

Acce

ss t

o e

ner

gy

Grossdom

esticexpe

nditureon

ren

ewab

le

energy(solar,windan

dhydroe

lectricity)asa

percen

tofGDP;

Annu

alene

rgyconsum

ption,totaland

by

mainusercategory;

Intensityofene

rgyuse,totaland

byecon

omic

activity;

Percen

tageofho

useh

oldsin

ruraland

urban

area

susingalternativesourcesofene

rgyto

woo

dfuel(includ

ingcharcoal)forcooking

Acce

ss t

o e

ner

gy

Rateofad

option

ofeffic

ient

energysavingtechno

logies

for

diff

eren

t ca

tego

ries

of

energyusers;

Prop

ortion

ofpo

pulation

de

pend

enton

biomass,solar,

windan

dhydro-electric

energy;

tonn

es o

f ch

arco

al e

stim

ated

torea

churban

marke

ts;

Num

bersofscho

olspiloting

biogas,solar,winden

ergy;

Num

berofhou

seho

ldswith

operationa

lbiogas,solar,

winden

ergyunits

an

nex

: m

aTri

x o

f Pr

oPo

sed in

dic

aTo

rs f

or

P ove

rTy-

envi

ron

men

T m

on

iTo

rin

g


43

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ENT

ISSU

ESN

ATIO

NA

L-LE

VEL

OU

TCO

ME

IND

ICAT

ORS

SUB-

NAT

ION

AL

OU

TPU

T LE

VEL

IND

ICAT

ORS

(e.g.solar,windan

dhydro-electricity)in

totale

nergyuse;

Percen

tageofKe

nyaelectricitygene

ratedby

rene

wab

lesou

rces(solar,wind,biomass,and

minih

ydrosou

rces);

Thepe

rcen

tageofKe

nya’selectricity

gene

ratedby

non

-ren

ewab

lesou

rces(e.g.

diesel);

Percen

tageofurba

nan

druralh

ouseho

lds

conn

ectedtoelectricity;

Percen

tofhou

seho

ldsusingen

ergysaving

stov

es

info

rmAt

ion

An

d c

om

mu

nic

Atio

n

tech

no

log

ies

Internetusersper100pop

ulation;

Fixedteleph

onelin

esper100pop

ulation;

Mob

ilecellularteleph

onesubscriberspe

r100

popu

lation

rese

Arch

An

d d

evel

oPm

ent

Grossdom

esticexpe

nditureon

R&Dasa

percen

tofGDP

con

sum

Ptio

n A

nd

Pro

du

ctio

n P

Atte

rns

Materialinten

sityoftheecon

omy;

Dom

esticmaterialc

onsumption;

Waterusein

tensityby

econo

micactivity;

Perc

ent

of h

ouse

hold

s an

d in

dust

ries

usi

ng

fuel-w

oodasasou

rceofene

rgyforcooking;

Gen

erationofwaste;

Gen

erationofhazardo

uswaste;

Mod

alsplitofpa

ssen

gertran

sportation

;Mod

alsplitoffreighttran

sport;

Energyin

tensityoftranspo

rt

44


VISI

ON

203

0 PI

LLA

R/SE

CTO

RM

AJO

R D

EVEL

OPM

ENT

ISSU

ESN

ATIO

NA

L-LE

VEL

OU

TCO

ME

IND

ICAT

ORS

SUB-

NAT

ION

AL

OU

TPU

T LE

VEL

IND

ICAT

ORS

tou

rism

VISION:Tobecom

eatop-tenlonghau

lto

uris

t de

stin

atio

n in

the

wor

ld t

hat

offe

rs a

hig

h va

lue,

div

erse

and

di

stin

ctiv

e vi

sito

r expe

rien

ce

ISSU

ESFOR2030:

prod

uctqu

ality

anddiversity,

infr

astr

uctu

re,

marke

tingKen

ya,

security,strategic

lead

ershipand

co

ordi

nati

on

Improvem

entofsecurity;

Inad

equa

tein

frastructuresup

porte.g.road

ne

twork;

Narrowprodu

ctqua

lityan

ddiversity

Inad

equa

tehotel/b

edcap

acity;

Strategiclead

ershipand

coo

rdinatione.g.

unne

cessarycompe

tition

and

dup

licationof

marke

tingefforts;

Marke

tingKen

yaasatouristde

stination;

Untap

peddo

mestictourism;

Environm

entalissue

se.g.lo

ssofha

bitatdu

eto

chan

ge in

land

use

, hu

man

enc

roac

hmen

t in

to

protectedarea

s,lo

ssofwild

lifemigratorycorrido

rs,

andinad

equa

tepolicyan

dgovernan

cetocurb

poaching;

Inad

equa

teskille

dhu

man

resou

rce;

Researchand

develop

men

t

Tourismcon

tributiontoGDP;

rati

o of

loca

l res

iden

ts t

o to

uris

ts in

maj

or

tour

ist

regi

ons

and

dest

inat

ions

Agri

cult

ure

VISION:Tobe

inno

vati

ve,

commercially

orie

nted

and

m

oder

n fa

rm a

nd

lives

tock

sec

tor

ISSU

ESFOR2030:

prod

uctivity,land

us

e, m

arke

ts a

nd

valu

e ad

diti

on

Highcostofinpu

ts;

Land

usein

agriculture(subd

ivisionintoune

cono

mic

units);

Limited

app

reciationofagriculturaltechn

ologyan

dinno

vation

e.g.inad

equa

tecap

italtoad

opttonew

/recentin

novation

s;w

eak

farm

er in

stit

utio

ns e

.g.

mis

man

agem

ent

in

coop

erativesocieties;

Poorlivestockhu

sban

drypractices;

Limited

exten

sion

services;

Overdep

ende

nceon

rain-fedagriculture;

Inad

equa

teexp

loitationofvalue

add

ition;

Inad

equa

tecreditfacilities;

Lowm

arinefishexpo

rts

foo

d s

ecu

rity

Annu

alpercap

itafood

produ

ction;

Perc

ent

of h

ouse

hold

inco

me

from

agr

icul

ture

an

dliv

estock(by

incomequ

intileperann

um);

Tren

dsin

foo

dprices(forselected

staples);

Percen

toftotalpop

ulationwho

arefoo

dinsecure;

Land

produ

ctivity(ton

esoffood

/ha/

an

num);

Sustaina

bleuseofwaterforprodu

ction;

Area

of

rain

wat

er h

arve

stin

g/ w

ater

conservation

techn

ologies,disaggregated

by

type

(i.e.terraces,m

icro-catchmen

ts,etc);

Prop

ortion

offood

produ

cedthatissoldto

themarke

t(bywea

lthqu

intile);

foo

d s

ecu

rity

Num

berofpeo

plead

opting

drou

ghttolerantcrops;

Num

beroflivestockke

epers

adop

tingdroughtabe

tting

strategies;

lAn

d u

se A

nd

stA

tus

Thenu

mbe

rofla

nduseplans

prep

ared

and

implem

ented

atdistrictlevel;

Existenceofope

ration

al

land

reg

istr

atio

n se

rvic

es a

t districtand

sectorlevel;

Effectiven

essofope

ration

al

dist

rict

and

sec

tora

l lev

els


45

VISI

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203

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LLA

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AJO

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OPM

ENT

ISSU

ESN

ATIO

NA

L-LE

VEL

OU

TCO

ME

IND

ICAT

ORS

SUB-

NAT

ION

AL

OU

TPU

T LE

VEL

IND

ICAT

ORS

Percen

tofpeo

plewith<ha

ofland

who

have

regularan

dsustaine

doff-farm

employmen

t

lAn

d u

se A

nd

stA

tus

Perc

ent

of r

ural

hou

seho

lds

wit

h se

cure

land

tenu

re;

Increa

sednu

mbe

rofbee

keep

ers(on-oroff-

farm

);Land

usecha

nge;

Land

affectedby

desertific

ation;

Arab

leand

perman

entcrop

land

area;

Area

und

er o

rgan

ic f

arm

ing

lAn

d d

egrA

dAt

ion

Prop

ortion

ofarab

lela

ndtha

tisprotected

from

erosion

;Pe

rcen

toffarmerspracticingsoil

conservation

techn

ologies;

Perc

ent

of ir

riga

tion

and

oth

er w

ater

-intensiveprojectstha

tha

vebee

nsubjected

toenviron

men

talimpa

ctassessm

ent

Agri

cult

urA

l in

Puts

Fertilizeruseeffic

iency;

Useofagriculturalpesticide

s;Pe

rcen

t of

far

mer

s w

ith

acce

ss t

o an

d us

ing

inorganican

dorganicfertilizers;

Perc

ent

of f

arm

ers

wit

h ac

cess

to

and

usin

g im

proved

see

d;Num

berofapp

rovedagriculturechem

icalsin

use;

Num

berofban

nedagriculturalche

micalson

themarke

t;Q

uant

itie

s of

unu

sed

indu

stri

al a

nd

agrochem

icalsprop

erlydispo

sedoff;

land

registrationservices;

Increa

sednu

mbe

rofvillages

withland

titledee

dsby

2012;

Sensitizationmee

tingshe

ld

onla

ndten

ure(ann

ually

);lo

cal l

eade

rs t

rain

ed in

land

disputeresolution

;Pe

rcen

t of

far

mer

s w

ho h

ave

plan

tedmed

icinalplant

species;

Compreh

ensivela

nd

evalua

tion

/suitability

assessmen

trepo

rt;

Redu

ctionindisap

pearan

ce

ofcertaingrassspe

cies

crucialtograzingland

prod

uctivity;

Num

berofcon

tingen

cyplans

andstrategiesprepa

redto

dealwithdrou

ghtan

dflo

ods;

Decreased

useoffirein

harvestingbee

produ

cts

and

an in

crea

sed

use

of

approp

riatetechno

logyfor

harv

esti

ng

lAn

d d

egrA

dAt

ion

Prop

ortion

oftheagriculture

budg

etspe

ntoned

ucating

farm

ers

and

lives

tock

ke

epersinbestpracticesfor

conservingthe

environ

men

t;Pe

rcen

t of

agr

icul

tura

l sec

tor

budg

etspe

ntonsoil

46


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AJO

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OPM

ENT

ISSU

ESN

ATIO

NA

L-LE

VEL

OU

TCO

ME

IND

ICAT

ORS

SUB-

NAT

ION

AL

OU

TPU

T LE

VEL

IND

ICAT

ORS

Num

berofpun

itiveagriculturalle

gislation

hurtingfood

produ

ctionby

smallfarmers

e.g.gen

eticallym

odified

organ

ismswith

term

inatorgen

es(on

eexam

pleism

aize

cons

erva

tion

, fo

rest

an

daq

uaticecosystems

conservation

activities;

Area

of

land

und

er

operationa

lsoila

ndwater

conservation

program

mes

wh

ole

sAle

An

d

retA

il t

rAd

eVISION:Tom

ove

tow

ards

a f

orm

al

sect

or t

hat

is

effic

ient,multi-

tiered

,diversified

inprodu

ctran

ge

and

inno

vati

ve

ISSU

ESFOR2030:

improvem

ent

inthe

sup

ply

chain,promotion

ofprodu

cer-

basedgrou

ps

or a

ssoc

iati

ons,

im

proving

thebu

sine

ss

envi

ronm

ent

Wea

kbu

sine

ssregulatoryfram

ework;

Infrastructure;

Marke

taccess;

Busine

ssskillsdevelop

men

t;Lowutiliz

ationofin

form

ationan

dcommun

ication

techno

logies;

Lowcap

acityinm

arke

tde

velopm

ent;

Limited

accesstofina

ncean

dcred

it;

hiv

/Aid

s

mAn

ufA

ctu

rin

g

VISION:Th

ede

velopm

entof

robu

st,diversified

an

dcompe

titive

man

ufac

turi

ng

Lowvalue

add

itionan

dna

rrow

exp

ortba

se;

Und

erde

velope

dan

d/ordila

pida

tedtran

sport

netw

ork;

Inad

equa

te,costlyand

unstablesupp

lyofen

ergy;

Lowado

ptionofin

form

ationan

dcommun

ication

techno

logy;

Overlap

san

dam

biguitiesinm

anda

tesan

dfunction

s;

Num

berofcom

paniestha

tad

heretoISO

14000stan

dards;

Perc

ent

of in

dust

ries

whi

ch h

ave

unde

rgon

e en

vironm

entala

udit;

Num

berofin

dustriesand

enterprisesadh

ering

toenviron

men

talstand

ards;

Num

berofin

dustrialunitstha

tha

vein

stalled

techno

logiestha

tredu

cele

velsofpo

llutants

reachingthe

environ

men

t(i.e.usingclea

ner

Num

berofpollution

permits

issued

peryea

rby

indu

stries

and

othe

r la

rge

scal

e en

terprises;

Num

berofenviron

men

tal

audi

ts u

nder

take

n fo

r in

dust

ries

tha

t ha

ve n

ot h

ad

EIAsdon

eon

the

m;


47

VISI

ON

203

0 PI

LLA

R/SE

CTO

RM

AJO

R D

EVEL

OPM

ENT

ISSU

ESN

ATIO

NA

L-LE

VEL

OU

TCO

ME

IND

ICAT

ORS

SUB-

NAT

ION

AL

OU

TPU

T LE

VEL

IND

ICAT

ORS

Lowtechn

ology,in

novation

and

R&Duptake;

Wea

klegal,regulatoryan

dinstitutiona

lframew

orks;

Influ

xofsub

stan

dard,coun

terfeitan

dcontraba

nd

good

s;Inad

equa

tecap

acitytom

eetqu

alityan

dstan

dard

requ

irem

ents;

Limited

accesstofina

ncialservices;

Limited

produ

ctionan

dman

agerialskills

prod

uction

techn

ologies)

Perc

ent

of in

dust

ries

and

ot

her

com

mer

cial

ent

itie

s w

ith

was

tew

ater

tre

atm

ent

faci

litie

s

busi

nes

s Pr

oce

ss

ou

tso

urc

ing

/off

-sh

ori

ng

VISION:Tobethe

topoff-shoring

dest

inat

ion

in A

fric

a

issu

es f

or

2030:ba

sic

infr

astr

uctu

re,

talentpoo

l,

localsup

plier

base,incentive

fram

ewor

k

Poortelecom

mun

icationinfrastructure;

Highcostand

unreliabilityofene

rgysupp

ly;

Lackofde

dicatedBP

Ofacilities;

Inad

equa

tesup

plyofnecessaryskills;

Poorlo

calsup

plierba

seofthene

cessaryha

rdware

andsoftware;

no

targ

eted

ince

ntiv

es f

or b

Po

fin

Anci

Al s

ervi

ces

VISION:Amore

effic

ientand

compe

titive

finan

cialsystem

to d

rive

sav

ings

an

d in

vest

men

t fo

r sustaina

blebroa

d-ba

sedecon

omic

grow

th

Mob

ilization

and

accesstofina

ncialservices;

Legala

ndregulatoryfram

ework;

Retiremen

tbe

nefits;

Capa

citycon

straintse.g.inactua

rialstudies

Sensitizationon

accessto

cred

itservices;

Perc

enta

ge o

f ru

ral

popu

lation

accessingm

icro-

finan

ceforsustainab

le

inco

me

gene

rati

ng a

ctiv

itie

s no

tba

sedon

NRprod

ucts

48


VISI

ON

203

0 PI

LLA

R/SE

CTO

RM

AJO

R D

EVEL

OPM

ENT

ISSU

ESN

ATIO

NA

L-LE

VEL

OU

TCO

ME

IND

ICAT

ORS

SUB-

NAT

ION

AL

OU

TPU

T LE

VEL

ind

icAt

ors

ISSU

ESFOR2030:

bank

ing,in

surance,

pensionfund

s,

capitalm

arke

ts,

quasi-ba

nking

inst

itut

ions

, establishingKen

ya

as a

reg

iona

l bu

sine

sshub

soci

Al P

illA

r

edu

cAti

on

An

d

trAi

nin

g

VISION:To

havegloba

lly

compe

titivequa

lity

educ

atio

n, t

rain

ing

and

rese

arch

forsustaina

ble

developm

ent

ISSU

ESFOR2030:

qualityatprimary

scho

ol le

vel,

ra

isin

g tr

ansi

tion

rates,exp

anding

accessand

equ

ity,

relevance,building

askillsinventory

forKe

nya

Qua

lityan

drelevanceofedu

cation

;Lowtransitionrates;

Accessand

equ

ity;

Gen

derdisparity;

Theim

pactofHIV/A

IDS;

Specialn

eedsedu

cation

;te

ache

r m

anag

emen

tTeache

rtraining;

Universitystud

entslo

ansan

dbu

rsarysche

me;

Curriculum

develop

men

t,reviewand

delivery;

Exam

inationsand

certific

ation;

Adultba

siced

ucation

edu

cAti

on

lev

elGrossin

take

ratiotolastgrade

ofprim

ary

education;

Netenrolmen

tratein

primary;

Adultsecond

ary(tertiary)schoo

ling

atta

inm

ent

leve

l

lite

rAcy

Lifelo

ngle

arning;

Adultliteracyrate

sAn

itAt

ion

An

d h

ygie

ne

Pupil/la

trinestan

zarationin

prim

aryscho

ols;

Perc

enta

ge o

f sc

hool

s in

a

districthavingim

proved

sanitation

facilities(as

perMinistryofEdu

cation

stan

dards)disaggregated

by

gend

erand

typ

eofschoo

ls;

Perc

enta

ge o

f hi

gher

lear

ning

institutionshavingXnu

mbe

roffun

ctioningsan

itary

facilitiesdisaggregatedby

gend

er,districtand

typ

eof

institution;

Perc

enta

ge o

f sc

hool

s teachinghygiene

edu

cation

aspartofthe

ircurriculum

(disaggregated

bytype

,i.e.

nation

al,provincial,local,

etc)

heA

lth

VISION:Eq

uitable

andaffordab

le

Hea

thcarefin

ancing;

Hea

lthfacilitiesconstructedthroughconstituen

cy

developm

entfund

;

heA

lth

cAre

del

iver

yPe

rcen

tofpop

ulationwithaccesstoprim

ary

healthcarefacilities;


49

VISI

ON

203

0 PI

LLA

R/SE

CTO

RM

AJO

R D

EVEL

OPM

ENT

ISSU

ESN

ATIO

NA

L-LE

VEL

OU

TCO

ME

IND

ICAT

ORS

SUB-

NAT

ION

AL

OU

TPU

T LE

VEL

IND

ICAT

ORS

healthcaresystem

of t

he h

ighe

st

possiblequa

lity

issu

es f

or

2030:he

alth

infr

astr

uctu

re,

heal

th s

ervi

ce

deliv

ery,develop

ing

equitablefin

ancing

mec

hani

sms

Hum

anresou

rceinhea

lth;

Wea

khe

althin

form

ationman

agem

entsystem

sIm

mun

izationagainstinfectiouschildho

od

dise

ases

heA

lth

stA

tus

And

ris

ksMorbidityofmajordisea

sessuchasHIV/A

IDS,

malaria,tube

rculosis;

Prevalen

ceofdiarrhea

amon

gun

der5-year

olds;

Percen

tofpeo

pleslee

pingund

ertreated

mosqu

itone

ts;

inci

denc

es o

f m

alar

ia a

mon

g w

omen

and

youn

gchild

ren;

Annu

al d

eath

rat

e fr

om m

alar

ia a

mon

g un

der-

fiv

esand

pregnan

twom

en;

Percen

tofm

alariacasesrep

orted(severean

dun

complicated

);Prop

ortion

ofho

useh

oldexpe

nditurespen

ton

malariatreatmen

t;Incide

nceofcho

lerain

rural/u

rban

areas;

Prevalen

ceoftoba

ccouse(smoking)

wAt

er A

nd

sA

nit

Atio

n

VISION:To

ensu

re w

ater

an

d sa

nita

tion

availabilityforall

issu

es f

or

2030:ad

dressing

waterscarcity,

watersecurity,

catc

hmen

ts

man

agem

ent,

in

crea

sed

Waterscarcity;

Watersecurity;

Watercatchmen

tsm

anagem

ent;

Waterqua

lity

Infrastructuredevelop

men

te.g.poo

rph

ysical

plan

ningin

urban

areas;

Poor

mon

itor

ing

of w

ater

res

ourc

es

wAt

er Q

uAn

tity

Existenceofaninventoryofwaterresou

rces

inKen

ya(waterresou

rcesm

asterplan

);Prop

ortion

ofwatershed

sprotected;

Prop

ortion

oftotalw

aterresou

rcesused,i.e.

totalw

aterwithd

rawalaspe

rcen

toftotal

rene

wab

lewaterresou

rces;

Adop

tion

ofpa

ymen

tsforenviron

men

tal

services,espe

ciallytha

tsupp

ortsustaina

ble

man

agem

ent

of w

ater

cat

chm

ents

are

as e

.g.

byNairobiwatercon

sumers

Acce

ss t

o w

Ater

Thepe

rcen

tageofruralh

ouseho

ldsab

leto

fetchclea

nan

dsafewaterin

und

er30mins

wAt

er Q

uAn

tity

Incide

ncesofwaterstress;

inci

denc

es o

f w

ater

-use

confl

icts;

Num

beroffun

ctiona

lsafe

wat

er s

ourc

es

Acce

ss t

o w

Ater

Num

berofim

proved

water

sources;

Acce

ss t

o w

Ater

Num

berofim

proved

water

sources;

Num

berofnew

urban

poo

r

50


VISI

ON

203

0 PI

LLA

R/SE

CTO

RM

AJO

R D

EVEL

OPM

ENT

ISSU

ESN

ATIO

NA

L-LE

VEL

OU

TCO

ME

IND

ICAT

ORS

SUB-

NAT

ION

AL

OU

TPU

T LE

VEL

IND

ICAT

ORS

(go,collect,return)from

aprotected

sou

rce;

Averagetimespen

tby

wom

enand

children

colle

ctingwater;

Prop

ortion

ofruralp

opulationusingan

im

proved

watersou

rce;

Thepe

rcen

tageofurba

nho

useh

oldswith

accesstopipe

dorprotected

waterastheir

maindrinkingwatersou

rce;

Percapitawateruseamon

gpo

orhou

seho

lds;

Prop

ortion

ofho

useh

oldincomespen

ton

w

ater

wAt

er Q

uAl

ity

Area

ofclea

nwaterbod

ies–ba

sedon

the

Ke

nyawaterstand

ardsof(yea

r);

Num

berofwatersam

plestested,m

eetingthe

Ke

nyaWaterQua

lityStan

dards;

Thenu

mbe

rofwaterbod

ieswithturbidity

valuesabo

vethe

Ken

yastand

ards;

Thenu

mbe

rofwaterbod

ieswithflu

oride

levelsabo

vethe

Ken

yastand

ards;

Thenu

mbe

rofwaterbod

ieswithba

cterial

contam

inationlevelsabo

vethe

Ken

ya

stan

dards;

Presen

ceoffaecalcoliformsinfreshwater;

Bioche

micaloxygende

man

dinwaterbod

ies

Percen

tofhea

lthspen

dingontrea

tmen

tof

water-borne

disea

ses;

Incide

nceofcho

lerain

ruralareas;

Incide

nceofcho

lerain

urban

areas

sAn

itAt

ion

Thepe

rcen

tageofho

useh

oldslo

catedin

unplan

nedsettlemen

tsand

slumsthatla

ck

adeq

uatebasicessen

tialutilities(w

ater,

househ

olds(orareas)

conn

ectedtopiped

water;

Num

berofschoo

lswitha

safewaterfacilitywithin100

met

er r

adiu

s

Rural:

Recurren

texpe

nditureon

ruralw

atersup

plyasa

percen

tageoftotalw

ater

expe

nditures;

Thenu

mbe

rofruraldistricts

thatarebelow

the

nationa

laverageofruralwatersup

ply

coverage;

Averagepe

rpe

rson

,da

ily

provisionofwaterthrou

gh

ruralw

aterpoints;

Thepe

rcen

tageofrural

waterschem

esm

anaged

by

bene

ficiarycom

mun

ities;

Thenu

mbe

rofwaterbasin

man

agem

entplan

sprep

ared

an

dim

plem

ented

Urban

:Re

curren

texpe

nditureon

urba

nwatersup

plyasa

percen

tageoftotalw

ater

expe

nditures;

Thenu

mbe

roftotal

hous

ehol

d co

nnec

tion

s inUrban

WaterSup

ply

Authorities(UWSA

s);


51

VISI

ON

203

0 PI

LLA

R/SE

CTO

RM

AJO

R D

EVEL

OPM

ENT

ISSU

ESN

ATIO

NA

L-LE

VEL

OU

TCO

ME

IND

ICAT

ORS

SUB-

NAT

ION

AL

OU

TPU

T LE

VEL

IND

ICAT

ORS

sanitation

,an

dwastedispo

sal);

Percen

tslum

areaswithim

proved

drainage

system

s;Pe

rcen

tofurban

pop

ulationthatare

conn

ectedtosew

eragesystem

s

Perc

ent

of h

ouse

hold

s w

ith

acce

ss t

o ad

equa

te a

nd f

unct

iona

l san

itat

ion

faci

litie

s,

urba

nan

drural;

Prop

ortion

ofpo

pulation

usingim

proved

sa

nita

tion

fac

iliti

es

Perc

ent

of r

ural

hou

seho

lds

wit

h so

lid w

aste

disposalfacilitywithin200metres;

Freq

uencyofsolidwastetranspo

rtationin

area

soccupied

bythepo

or;

Percen

tageofscho

olsha

vingXnum

ber

ofsan

itationfacilities(latrine

s)per200

stud

ents;

Incide

ncesofwater-borne

disea

sesam

ong

unde

r-fiv

eyearolds

Thenu

mbe

rofpub

lic

stan

dpipesin

UWSA

s;Averagepe

rpe

rson

,da

ily

provisionofwaterin

urban

area

s;Num

berofope

ratinghou

rsof

watersou

rce;

Thepe

rcen

tageof

househ

oldsin

urban

areas

conn

ecte

d to

a s

ewer

age

facility(sep

tictank

s,etc)

wAt

er Q

uAl

ity

E.coli/

00mlo

fwater

consum

edbyreside

ntsby

so

urce

sAn

itAt

ion

Ope

ration

aldrainagesystem

sinurban

areas;

Thepe

rcen

tageof

hous

ehol

ds in

slu

m a

reas

/ in

form

al s

ettl

emen

ts w

ith

accesstohygien

icgarba

ge

disposalfacilities

Num

berofpub

licsan

itation

facilities(atmarke

ts/b

us

stan

ds)pe

rcapita,pe

rdistrict;

Num

berofdistricts

implem

entingprogram

mesto

prom

otehygien

e

52


VISI

ON

203

0 PI

LLA

R/SE

CTO

RM

AJO

R D

EVEL

OPM

ENT

ISSU

ESN

ATIO

NA

L-LE

VEL

OU

tco

me

ind

icAt

ors

sub-

nAt

ion

Al o

utP

ut

leve

l in

dic

Ato

rs

sanitation

,an

dwastedispo

sal);

Percen

tslum

areaswithim

proved

drainage

system

s;Pe

rcen

tofurban

pop

ulationthatare

conn

ectedtosew

eragesystem

s

Perc

ent

of h

ouse

hold

s w

ith

acce

ss t

o ad

equa

te a

nd f

unct

iona

l san

itat

ion

faci

litie

s,

urba

nan

drural;

Prop

ortion

ofpo

pulation

usingim

proved

sa

nita

tion

fac

iliti

es

Perc

ent

of r

ural

hou

seho

lds

wit

h so

lid w

aste

disposalfacilitywithin200metres;

Freq

uencyofsolidwastetranspo

rtationin

area

soccupied

bythepo

or;

Percen

tageofscho

olsha

vingXnum

ber

ofsan

itationfacilities(latrine

s)per200

stud

ents;

Incide

ncesofwater-borne

disea

sesam

ong

unde

r-fiv

eyearolds

Thepe

rcen

tageof

hous

ehol

ds w

ith

hand

washingfacilities;

Perc

ent

of h

ouse

hold

s practicingbasichygiene

;Pe

rcen

tofpoo

rho

useh

olds

withap

prop

riateprovisions

fordisposalofchild

ren’s

faeces;

Percen

tofpeo

plewith

know

ledg

eofbasicsan

itation

andhygien

ebe

havior;

Percen

tofpeo

plewith

know

ledg

e an

d/ o

r aw

aren

essab

outtran

smission

ofdiarrhe

adiseases;

Perc

ent

of h

ouse

hold

s maintainingprope

rhygien

e(clearingstagna

ntwaterand

bu

shesaroun

dho

mestead

s)

wAt

er u

ser

com

mit

tees

Num

berofW

aterUser

Committees(WUCs)form

ed

perdistrict/division

;Pe

rcen

tofW

UCswithO&M

budg

et;

Percen

tofW

UCshea

dedby

wom

en;

Theprop

ortion

ofwom

en

participatingindecision

makingbo

dies(water

committees,bo

ards,region

al

consultation

units,ministry

ofwater)


53

VISION2030

Pill

Ar/s

ecto

rm

AJo

r d

evel

oPm

ent

issu

esn

Atio

nAl

-lev

el o

utc

om

e in

dic

Ato

rssu

b-n

Atio

nAl

ou

tPu

t le

vel

ind

icAt

ors

envi

ron

men

tAl

mAn

Agem

ent

VISION:Ana

tion

liv

ing

in c

lean

, se

cure

and

sustaina

ble

envi

ronm

ent

ISSU

ESFOR2030:

cons

erva

tion

, po

llution

and

waste

man

agem

ent,

As

Als

and

high

ris

k disasterzon

es,

envi

ronm

enta

l plan

ningand

go

vern

ance

Environm

entald

egrada

tion

;Fo

restry;

Pollu

tion

and

wastem

anagem

ent;

Clim

atechan

ge;

Biotechn

ology;

Integrated

environ

men

talp

lann

ing;

Environm

entale

ducation

and

awaren

ess;

inst

itut

iona

l and

lega

l fra

mew

ork

vuln

erAb

ilit

y to

nAt

urA

l h

AZAr

ds

Function

ingea

rlywarningsystemsinplace;

Percen

toftotalpop

ulationwho

are

suscep

tibleorexp

osed

totheriskofflo

ods,

land

slidesordrou

ght(hazardpron

earea

s);

Percen

tageofpo

pulation

livingin

areas

of h

igh

risk

of

envi

ronm

enta

l dis

aste

r (disaggregateby

typ

e,i.e.floo

d,la

ndslides,

drou

ghts,food

sho

rtages)

dis

Aste

r Pr

ePAr

edn

ess

And

res

Pon

seArea

(ha

orsqkm)ofsteep

hillsan

dmou

ntainsand

ran

geland

sprotectedfrom

hu

man

activities;

Percen

tofdegrade

dwetland

sreha

bilitated

;Hum

anand

econo

miclo

ss(loss/d

estruction

of

prop

erty)du

etonaturaldisastersin

clud

ing

numbe

rofhum

andea

ths,in

juriesorillne

sses

duetofloo

ds,land

slidesordrou

ght;

Percen

tofpeo

pleresettledfrom

wetland

s,

stee

phillsorextrem

elydryrangelan

ds;

Percen

tofdryla

ndsan

dstee

pslop

esund

er

cultivationorlivestockgrazing;

Area

(inha)ofba

rehillsplan

tedwithtree

san

dsoilstab

ilizinggrasses;

Percen

tofhillyarea

swhichhavebe

en

terr

aced

or

unde

r so

il co

nser

vati

on

Atm

osP

her

eCa

rbon

dioxide

emission

s;Em

ission

sofgreen

housegases;

Consum

ptionofozone

dep

letingsub

stan

ces;

Ambien

tconcen

trationofairpollutantsin

urba

narea

s

dis

Aste

r Pr

ePAr

edn

ess

And

re

sPo

nse

Rainfallrelia

bilityan

dvariab

ilityle

adingto

inci

dent

s of

dro

ught

, an

d flo

ods;

Perc

enta

ge o

f la

nd a

rea

affected

byrefugee-related

disasters;

Num

berofdistrictsado

pting

flood

man

agem

entsystem

s;Num

berofslumim

provem

ent

projectsim

plem

ented;

Existenceofrob

ustea

rly

warningsystem;

exis

tenc

e of

dis

aste

r prep

ared

nessplan;

Inventory/datab

aseof

sett

lem

ents

in w

etla

nds

and

stee

phills;

exis

tenc

e of

res

ettl

emen

t plan

and

app

rovedbu

dget;

Num

berofsen

sitization

m

eeti

ngs

held

on

environm

entald

isasters;

Num

berofgroup

ed

sett

lem

ents

sit

es e

valu

ated

foren

vironm

entalsuitability;

Num

berofhou

seho

ldswho

ha

vebee

nrend

ered

hom

eless

orlo

stprope

rtydu

etofloo

ds

andland

slides;

Totalv

alue

ofprop

ertylo

st

ordestroyed

byflo

odsan

dland

slides;

54


VISION2030

Pill

Ar/s

ecto

rm

AJo

r d

evel

oPm

ent

issu

esn

Atio

nAl

-lev

el o

utc

om

e in

dic

Ato

rssu

b-n

Atio

nAl

ou

tPu

t le

vel

ind

icAt

ors

wet

lAn

ds

Prop

ortion

ofwetland

sthatisprotected

from

intensivehu

man

activities;

Prop

ortion

ofcriticalwetland

sun

der

intensiveagriculturaluse;

Existencean

dim

plem

entation

ofpro-po

or

polic

yan

dlawonwetland

s;Pe

rcen

t of

loca

l com

mun

itie

s liv

ing

arou

nd

crit

ical

wet

land

s in

volv

ed in

eco

tour

ism

or

recr

eati

onal

act

ivit

ies

fore

sts

Prop

ortion

oftotallan

darea

und

erforestan

dtree

cover;

Prop

ortion

ofland

areacoveredby

forests;

Prop

ortion

ofpu

blicla

ndsetaside

forforestry

activities;

Percen

tofforesttree

sda

maged

by

defolia

tion

;Area

offorestund

ersustainab

leforest

man

agem

entasapercentofforestarea;

Perc

ent

of f

ores

ts m

anag

ed t

hrou

gh

participatoryarrangem

entswithlocal

commun

ities;

Percen

tofbarehillsplanted

withtree

s

mAr

ine

envi

ron

men

tPe

rcen

tageoftotalp

opulationliv

ingin

coastala

reas;

Bathingwaterqua

lity;

Prop

ortion

offishstockswithinsafebiological

limits;

Prop

ortion

ofmarinearea

protected

;Marinetrop

hicinde

x(w

heretroph

icm

eans

“pertainingtoorfunction

inginnutrition

”);

Percen

tofnationa

l(or

district)bu

dgetspe

nton

disa

ster

mit

igat

ion

Atm

osP

her

eNum

berofope

ration

al

programmestomon

itor

noise,autom

obile

and

indo

or

pollu

tion

;

wet

lAn

ds

Wetland

masterplan

;Pe

rcen

t of

wet

land

s in

vent

orie

d

fore

sts

Num

berofparticipa

tory

fore

st m

anag

emen

t ag

reem

ents

sig

ned

and

implem

entedatdistrict

levels;

Num

ber(and

areainha)

ofope

ration

alforestry

conservation

program

mes;

Num

beroftreenu

rseries

establishe

d(atvilla

geand

location

/divisionlevel);

Num

beroftreeseed

lings

plan

ted(i.e.on

state,

privateland

,etc);

redu

ctio

n in

def

ores

tati

on in

area

spron

etosoile

rosion


55

VISION2030

Pill

Ar/s

ecto

rm

AJo

r d

evel

oPm

ent

issu

esn

Atio

nAl

-lev

el o

utc

om

e in

dic

Ato

rssu

b-n

Atio

nAl

ou

tPu

t le

vel

ind

icAt

ors

Area

ofcoralree

fecosystemsan

dpe

rcen

tage

live

cove

r

eco

syst

ems

Prop

ortion

ofterrestriala

reaprotected,total

andby

ecologicalregion;

Man

agem

enteffectiven

essofprotected

area

s;Area

ofselected

keyecosystem

sFragmen

tation

ofha

bitats

sPec

ies

Chan

gein

threa

tstatusofspecies;

Abun

danceofselectedke

yspecies;

Abun

danceofin

vasivealie

nspecies

wAs

te g

ener

Atio

n A

nd

mAn

Agem

ent

Wastetreatmen

tan

ddisposal;

Wastewatertreatmen

t;Man

agem

entofrad

ioactivewaste;

Percen

tofpeo

plewithaccesstowaste

man

agem

entservicesin

urban

and

ruralareas

envi

ron

men

tAl

mAn

Agem

ent

Improved

legislationon

land

and

natural

resourceutiliz

ation;

land

are

a us

ed f

or n

r m

anag

emen

t th

at is

subjecttoten

uresecurity;

Establishm

entoffun

ctioningcon

stitue

ncies

and

dist

rict

env

iron

men

t co

mm

itte

es

mAr

ine

envi

ron

men

tAr

ea o

f m

arin

e/aq

uati

c re

serv

es c

reat

ed a

nd

prop

erlym

anaged

tosustain

prod

uction

;Area

offishingm

oratoriums

operationa

l

eco

syst

ems

Area

ofecosystemsad

dressed

byarea-ba

sedconservation

programmes,disaggregated

byecosystem

typ

e(i.e.

drylan

d,highforests,

man

groves,wetland

s)

wAs

te g

ener

Atio

n A

nd

m

AnAg

emen

tPr

esen

ce o

f st

anda

rds

and

guid

elin

es f

or in

dust

rial

waste;

Mun

icipaland

solidwaste

man

agem

entplan

s;Existenceofdatab

ase

andmon

itoringplan

for

hazardou

swastes;

Num

berofope

ration

al

programmestomon

itor

indu

strialefflue

ntsan

dagriculturalche

micals;

LocalG

overnm

entbu

dgets

set

asid

e fo

r w

aste

man

agem

ent;

56


VISION2030

Pill

Ar/s

ecto

rm

AJo

r d

evel

oPm

ent

issu

esn

Atio

nAl

-lev

el o

utc

om

e in

dic

Ato

rssu

b-n

Atio

nAl

ou

tPu

t le

vel

ind

icAt

ors

mAi

nst

reAm

ing

en

viro

nm

ent

Acro

ss P

er

ANDBUDGET

S:Num

berofdistrictstha

tusemainstrea

ming

guidelines;

Num

berofMinistriesan

dDistrictsestab

lishing

effectiveen

vironm

entalu

nits;

Percen

tofdistrictswithlegala

ndregulatory

fram

eworkforpo

llution

con

trol;

Prop

ortion

ofEIAs/SEA

swhichNEM

Ajudg

es

tohavesuccessfullyresultedinavoided

or

mitigated

negativeim

pacts;

Prop

ortion

ofen

vironm

entala

udits

resultinginsuccessfully

implem

ented

recommen

dation

s;Pe

rcen

t of

dis

tric

ts w

hich

hav

e fo

rmul

ated

an

dareim

plem

entinganti-erosionregulation

san

dby

elaw

s

Perc

ent

of lo

cal g

over

nmen

ts

withby

elaw

sorordinan

ces

onsolidwastem

anagem

ent;

Num

berofpub

licwaste

man

agem

entsensitization

mee

tingshe

ldin

urban

areas;

Num

berofpub

lic-private

partne

rshipsin

solidwaste

man

agem

ent

init

iate

d an

d op

erationa

l;Pr

esen

ce o

f a

func

tion

al

Clea

nerProd

uction

Cen

tre;

trai

ning

s he

ld o

n cl

eane

r prod

uction

red

uct

ion

of

bio

div

ersi

ty

LOSS:

redu

ctio

n in

loss

of,

or

disapp

earanceof,pa

rticular

tree

spe

cies;

redu

ced

rate

of

loss

of

indicatorspecies(plants,

anim

als,fish);

incr

ease

d ar

ea o

f fo

rest

biod

iversityund

ereffective

man

agem

ent;

Num

berofin

dicatoran

imal

speciesinparticularha

bitats;

Distributionofin

dicator

species

sPec

ies

Num

berofbiodiversity

inventorieshe

ld;


57

VISION2030

Pill

Ar/s

ecto

rm

AJo

r d

evel

oPm

ent

issu

esn

Atio

nAl

-lev

el o

utc

om

e in

dic

Ato

rssu

b-n

Atio

nAl

ou

tPu

t le

vel

ind

icAt

ors

Num

berofbiodiversity

awar

enes

s an

d co

nser

vati

on

trainingshe

ld;

Prop

ortion

oftree

nurseries

stoc

ked

wit

h th

reat

ened

tre

e speciespe

rdistrict

AwAr

enes

s o

n

envi

ron

men

tAl

MAN

AGEM

ENT:

Num

berofcam

paigns/

publications/

adve

rtis

emen

ts/

mee

ting

s re

late

d to

env

iron

men

tal

Man

agem

entAu

thority

(NEM

A)peryea

r;Num

beroftrainingsin

commun

ityba

sedna

tural

resourcesman

agem

ent;

Num

beroffarmersan

dliv

estockkee

perstrained

on

envi

ronm

enta

l con

serv

atio

n (includingaccessto

approp

riateextension

packages);

Prop

ortion

ofbu

dgetusedfor

publicawaren

esson

poverty-

envi

ronm

ent

issu

es a

t di

stri

ct

leve

l

envi

ron

men

tAl

mAn

Agem

ent

Num

berofenviron

men

tal

man

agem

entsystem

s

58


VISION2030

Pill

Ar/s

ecto

rm

AJo

r d

evel

oPm

ent

issu

esn

Atio

nAl

-lev

el o

utc

om

e in

dic

Ato

rssu

b-n

Atio

nAl

ou

tPu

t le

vel

ind

icAt

ors

establishe

dan

dim

plem

ented

atsectoran

ddistrictle

vels;

Num

berofenviron

men

tal

heal

th e

duca

tion

act

ivit

ies

held

Thepe

rcen

tofpolicies/

strategies/programmesand

projectssub

jecttoan

EIA/

SEA;

Thenu

mbe

rofprope

rty

tran

sfers(e.g.privatizations)

subjecttoenviron

men

tal

audi

ts

PoPu

lAti

on

, u

rbAn

iZAt

ion

An

d

ho

usi

ng

VISION:An

ad

equa

te a

nd

decentlyhou

sed

nati

on

ISSU

ESFOR2030:

inad

equa

tecap

acity

forurba

nan

dregion

alplann

ing,

insufficien

tserviced

la

nd,

conc

entr

atio

n ofprope

rty

developm

entin

the

high

inco

me

category,legal

and

adm

inis

trat

ive

reform

s,sup

plyof

affordab

lefina

nce

Hou

sing(stockan

dqu

ality)

PoPu

lAti

on

Popu

lation

growthrate;

Dep

ende

ncyratio;

Contraceptiveprevalen

cerate;

Unm

etnee

dforfamily

plann

ing

ho

usi

ng

Percen

tofpeo

pleliv

inginsub

stan

dard

hous

ing


59

VISION2030

Pill

Ar/s

ecto

rm

AJo

r d

evel

oPm

ent

issu

esn

Atio

nAl

-lev

el o

utc

om

e in

dic

Ato

rssu

b-n

Atio

nAl

ou

tPu

t le

vel

ind

icAt

ors

for

mor

tgag

es

andprop

erty

developm

ent,

lack

of

adeq

uate

co

nstr

ucti

on

capa

city

gen

der

, vu

lner

Able

g

rou

Ps A

nd

yo

uth

VISION:Men

and

wom

enenjoying

ahighqua

lityof

life

and

equa

l op

portun

ities;

improved

liv

elih

oods

of

vulnerab

lepersons

at h

ouse

hold

, commun

ityan

dna

tion

alle

vels;

arespon

sible,

glob

ally

compe

titiveand

prospe

rousyou

th

ISSU

ESFOR2030:

Addr

ess

gend

er

disparities

Sexualand

gen

der-ba

sedviolen

ce;

Gen

dereq

uityin

participa

tion

,po

wer,resource

distribu

tion

and

socioecon

omicopp

ortunities

live

lihoo

ds a

nd a

cces

s to

ess

enti

al s

ervi

ces

of a

ll vulnerab

legroup

se.g.in

ternallydisplaced

persons,

disabled

;Ch

ildprotection;

Fully

develop

the

you

thpoten

tialtoen

gagein

socioe

cono

micdevelop

men

t

Shareofwom

enin

wageem

ploymen

tinthe

no

n-agriculturalsector;

Vulnerab

leemploymen

t,bysex

Perc

ent

of r

ural

land

tha

t is

reg

iste

red/

titled

;Pe

rcen

t of

fem

ale

and

child

-hea

ded

househ

oldswho

sela

ndistitled;

Percen

tofla

nd-related

dispu

tessuccessfully

resolved

;Pe

rcen

t of

rur

al h

ouse

hold

s ac

cess

ing

cred

it

from

fina

ncialinstitution

susingland

as

colla

tera

l

Securela

ndtitle:

Num

berofla

ndtitlesan

dlic

ensesissued

byMinistryof

Land

s;Pe

rcen

tage

of

land

tit

les

issued

tothepo

orand

vulnerab

le;

Perc

enta

ge o

f la

nd t

itle

s giventofarmers;

Percen

tageoftitlesprovide

dtowom

enfarmers;

Utiliz

ationan

drecognition

ofsuchtitlesassecurityfor

loan

san

dothe

rde

velopm

ent

init

iati

ves

soci

Al e

Qu

ity

And

Po

vert

y re

du

ctio

n

Equa

lsocioecon

omicopp

ortunitiesand

poverty

redu

ctio

nPo

vert

yProp

ortion

ofpo

pulation

livingbelow

nationa

lpo

verty

Prop

ortion

ofpo

pulation

below

$1ada

y;

Pove

rty

Mea

nda

ilycaloricavaila

bility

athou

seho

ldle

vel;

60


VISION2030

Pill

Ar/s

ecto

rm

AJo

r d

evel

oPm

ent

issu

esn

Atio

nAl

-lev

el o

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e in

dic

Ato

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b-n

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nAl

ou

tPu

t le

vel

ind

icAt

ors

Percen

tmea

nda

ilycaloricavaila

bility/in

take

pe

rpe

rson

;

ineQ

uAl

ity

rati

o of

sha

re in

nat

iona

l inc

ome

or

consum

ptionofhighe

sttolowestqu

intile

dri

nki

ng

wAt

erProp

ortion

ofpo

pulation

usinganim

proved

w

ater

sou

rce

Acce

ss t

o e

ner

gy

Shareofhou

seho

ldswitho

utelectricityor

othe

rmod

ernen

ergyservices;

Percen

tageofpo

pulation

usingsolidfue

lsfor

cook

ing

livi

ng

co

nd

itio

ns

Prop

ortion

ofurba

npo

pulation

livingin

slums;

Thepe

rcen

tageofho

useh

oldincomeinrural

area

sde

rivedfrom

the

sustainab

leprocessing

andmarke

tingofna

turalresou

rceprod

ucts;

Thepe

rcen

tageofho

useh

oldincomeinrural

area

sde

rivedfrom

non

-NRba

sedactivities;

Thepe

rcen

tageofruralincom

ede

rivedfrom

activitiesrelated

towild

life(con

servation,

tourism),forestry(harvestingforestryprodu

cts

forconsum

ptionan

dtrad

e)and

fisheries;

Num

berofbiodiversity-ba

seden

terprises

man

aged

byoremployingthepo

or

nu

trit

ion

Al s

tAtu

s o

f ch

ild

ren

Percen

tofund

er-fiv

eswho

areund

erweight;

Percen

tofruralchildrenun

der5yearswho

ar

e st

unte

d

Percen

tofpoo

rho

useh

olds

consum

ing<80%ofcaloric

requ

irem

ent(or<2mea

lsa

day);

Perc

ent

of h

ealt

hcar

e fa

cilit

ies

wit

h fe

edin

g programforsickan

dm

alno

uris

hed

child

ren

at

healthcen

ters;

Num

berofschoo

lswitha

regularfeed

ingprogram

livi

ng

co

nd

itio

ns

Num

berofestab

lishe

dne

w

marke

tsforlo

cally

produ

ced

woo

dan

dno

n-woo

dprod

ucts

(i.e.ho

ney,gum

s,resins,

etc)withinan

dou

tsidethe

coun

try;

Theprop

ortion

ofincome

from

rel

evan

t se

ctor

-ba

sedactivitytha

tisset

asidean

drealized

byrural

commun

ities;

reve

nue

gene

rate

d fr

om

sustaina

blean

dpa

rticipatory

utilization

bylocal

com

mun

itie

s of

nat

ural

re

sour

ces


61

VISION2030

Pill

Ar/s

ecto

rm

AJo

r d

evel

oPm

ent

issu

esn

Atio

nAl

-lev

el o

utc

om

e in

dic

Ato

rssu

b-n

Atio

nAl

ou

tPu

t le

vel

ind

icAt

ors

Poli

ticA

l Pi

llAr

rule

of

lAw

VISION:Ad

herence

to t

he r

ule

of la

w

applicab

letoa

mod

ern,

mar

ket-

basedecon

omy

in a

hum

an-r

ight

s respectingstate

Inad

equa

cyofthecurren

tconstitution

;Inad

equa

teand

outda

tedpo

licies,la

wsan

dre

gula

tion

s in

reg

ards

to

gove

rnan

ce,

hum

an r

ight

s,

justicean

dwiderruleofla

w;

Inad

equa

tecom

mitmen

tofpatriotism,na

tion

al

valuesand

normsthatuph

oldgood

governa

nce;

Ineffectivejusticean

ddisputeresolution

mecha

nism

s;Lowpub

liccon

fiden

cein

governa

ncean

druleoflaw

institutions;

inad

equa

te r

egar

d fo

r th

e so

cial

and

hum

an

dimen

sion

sofgoverna

nce,justice,lawand

order;

Highlyun

der-capa

citatedorund

er-m

otivated

institutions;

Wea

kinteragencycoop

erationan

dcross-agen

cy

colla

boration

amon

ggovernan

ceand

ruleofla

w

inst

itut

ions

Percen

tageofpo

pulation

havingpa

idbribe

s;Num

berofin

tentiona

lhom

icidesper100,000

popu

lation

Securela

ndtitle:

Num

berofla

ndtitlesan

dlic

ensesissued

byMinistryof

Land

s;Pe

rcen

tage

of

land

tit

les

issued

tothepo

orand

vulnerab

le;

Perc

enta

ge o

f la

nd t

itle

s giventofarmers;

Percen

tageoftitlesprovide

dtowom

enfarmers;

Utiliz

ationan

drecognition

ofsuchtitlesassecurityfor

loan

san

dothe

rde

velopm

ent

init

iati

ves

dec

entr

AliZ

Atio

n

VISION:A

democraticprocess

ofdecen

tralization

of d

ecis

ion-

mak

ing

and

reso

urce

m

anag

emen

t

Theba

siclegala

ndpolicyfram

ework;

Thepo

liticaland

adm

inistrativefram

ework;

Locala

utho

rityfina

ncing;

Locala

utho

rityhum

anresou

rce;

Coordina

tingthe

decen

tralizationprocess

Pove

rty

Prop

ortion

ofpo

pulation

livingbelow

nationa

lpo

verty

Prop

ortion

ofpo

pulation

below

$1ada

y;

Qu

Alit

y o

f Pu

blic

EX

PENDITURE

:Num

berofdistrictswith

clea

nau

ditcertificates;

Num

beroflo

calg

overnm

ent

authoritiesthatpub

lishtheir

incomean

dexpe

nditure

repo

rts;

Rateofpu

blicparticipa

tion

inthe

develop

men

tplan

ning

processes

ROUTINEDATACO

LLEC

TION:

Num

berofm

onitoring

sche

mes

whi

ch c

olle

ct

poverty/en

vironm

entald

ata;

62


VISION2030

Pill

Ar/s

ecto

rm

AJo

r d

evel

oPm

ent

issu

esn

Atio

nAl

-lev

el o

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e in

dic

Ato

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b-n

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nAl

ou

tPu

t le

vel

ind

icAt

ors

Percen

tageoffunction

ingM&E

inthe

Ministry,Dep

artm

ent,

Agen

cy(MDAs)an

ddistricts;

Perc

enta

ge o

f se

ctor

s th

at

have

incl

uded

env

iron

men

t in

M&Esystem

s;Num

berofpoverty-

envi

ronm

ent

rela

ted

case

s involvingthepo

orand

the

vulnerab

lecon

clud

edin

thecourtsystem

and

inthe

commun

ityreconciliation

committees;

Num

berofawaren

essraising

worksho

pon

EMAforjudg

es

andmagistrates;

Num

beroftitledee

ds

allocatedtothe

poo

ran

dvulnerab

le;

func

tion

ing

mec

hani

sms

to

empo

werthe

poo

ran

dthe

vulnerab

letoun

derstand

an

d ex

erci

se t

heir

rig

hts

over

la

nd a

nd o

ther

res

ourc

es

establishe

d;fu

ncti

onin

g m

echa

nism

for

inclusionofvulne

rablegrou

ps

establishe

datdistrictlevel;

Affirmativeaction

program

mes

forvulnerab

legroup

sestablishe

datalllevels;

Num

berofawaren

essraising

campa

ignsonsocialtoleran

ce

cond

uctedpe

ryear;

Num

berofenviron

men

tal

bye-lawspa

ssed

bylocal

gove

rnm

ent

auth

orit

ies


63

VISION2030

Pill

Ar/s

ecto

rm

AJo

r d

evel

oPm

ent

issu

esn

Atio

nAl

-lev

el o

utc

om

e in

dic

Ato

rssu

b-n

Atio

nAl

ou

tPu

t le

vel

ind

icAt

ors

elec

torA

l An

d P

oli

ticA

l Pr

oce

sses

VISION:Gen

uine

ly

compe

titiveand

issue-ba

sedpo

litics

Lawsan

dregulation

sforpo

liticalparties;

Enha

ncingthelegala

ndregulatoryfram

ework

coveringthe

electoralprocess;

Civiced

ucation;

Prom

otio

n of

incl

usio

n of

wom

en a

nd d

isad

vant

aged

grou

psin

electoraland

politicalprocesses;

Enrichingthequ

alityofparlia

men

tarydeb

atesby

providingrelevantin

form

ationon

propo

sedlaws

andpo

licies

dem

ocr

Acy

And

Pu

blic

PA

rtic

iPAt

ion

VISION:Ape

ople-

cent

ered

and

po

liticallyengaged

op

ensociety

Constitution

aland

legalreformsne

cessaryto

devolvepo

werand

sup

portlo

calg

overna

nce;

enco

urag

ing

form

al a

nd in

form

al c

ivic

edu

cati

on

andaction

program

s;Prom

otingop

enengagem

entbe

twee

ngovernmen

tan

dcivilsociety,aswella

sthefree

flow

of

info

rmat

ion

EquitableaccesstoNR:

Thepo

orhaveeq

uitablestatusin

decision-

makingab

outuseofNRatcon

stitue

ncyan

ddistrictle

vel;

Num

berofope

ration

alworke

r’sun

ionsat

workp

laces;

Mecha

nism

sforpa

rticipatoryde

cision

-making

establishe

dan

dfunction

ingatalllevels;

func

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l mec

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sms

deal

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h po

verty-en

vironm

entissuesestab

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line

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CA;

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rights;

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ortion

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ciallywom

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64


VISION2030

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blicaccesstoin

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ta;

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ucingcivilia

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ndthe

keyle

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stitutions;

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rliamen

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policy

cycle;

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omicgoverna

nceforbe

tter

macroecon

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ent;

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rforman

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pub

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VISION:Security

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peration

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civilian

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proved

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wand

order;

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otingpe

acebu

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dreconciliationto

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agem

entan

den

suresustained

pe

acewithinthecoun

try;

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ctforthe

san

ctity

ofhum

anlifetha

trestrainspe

oplefromresorting

toviolenceasam

eanstoresolvingpe

rson

aland

commun

itydisputes


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For more information contact,The Project Manager

Poverty and Environment Initiative - KenyaMinistry of State for Planning , National Development and Vision 2030

Bruce House, 8th Floor, Standard Street,P.O. Box 30005-00100, Nairobi, Kenya

Tel: +254-20-342399/342406, Cell: +254-714-606038Email: [email protected]

About PEI:

PEI is a global UN-led programme to support country level efforts to mainstream poverty-environment linkages into national planning and implementation processes . PEI does this by providing technical and financial assistance as well as delivering capacity development programmes to governments and other stakeholders at the country level. The ultimate objective is to integrate the valuable contribution of good environmental management to improved livelihoods, increased economic security and income opportunities for the poor. PEI Kenya started in 2005 and has since worked with the Government of Kenya to improve the understanding of stakeholders of P-E linkages, has conducted a preliminary economic assessment of the contribution of environment and natural resources to Kenya’s economic growth, has build the capacity of the government in delivering pro-poor environment policy and has strengthened the participation of key environment stakeholders in policy-making and planning processes through relevant trainings. PEI has also facilitated the development of tools for integration of environment into development plans and budget processes. The current phase of PEI-Kenya runs from 2011 through 2013 covering the remaining period of the Country Programme Action Plan between the Government of Kenya and UNDP.

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