power and politics

Power And Politics Unit 11

Sikkim Manipal University 147

Unit 11 Power And Politics

Structure

11.1 Introduction

Objectives

11.2 Bases of Power

Self Assessment Questions 1

11.3 Power Tactics


11.4 Empowerment


11.5 Power in Groups: Coalitions


11.6 Politics: Power in Action


11. 7 Summary

Terminal Questions

Answer to SAQ’s and TQ’s

11.1 Introduction

Power is the ability to make things happen in the way an individual wants, either by self or by the

subordinates. The essence of power is control over the behavior of others (French & Raven, 1962).

Managers derive power from both organizational and individual sources. These sources are called

position power and personal power, respectively. Power also refers to a capacity that A has to

influence the behavior of B, so that B acts in accordance with A’s wishes. The greater B’s

dependence on A, the greater is A’s power in the relationship. Therefore, power is a function of

dependency (Robbins, 2003).

Contrasting Leadership and Power



In an organizational context leadership and power are related to each others. Power is used by

leaders as a means to attain group goals. In other words, power is a means of facilitating their

achievement of goals and objectives that they have set for themselves in view of organizational

requirements. What are differences between leadership and power? The first is in the area of goal

compatibility which is as follows:

• Power does not require goal compatibility, merely dependence whereas leadership, requires

some congruence between the goals of the leader and the followers.

• The second factor is related to the direction of influence:

Whereas leadership focuses on the downward influence on one’s followers, power does not minimize

the importance of lateral and upward influence patterns. Evidence of the same is gained from

insights into research on power that has tended to encompass a broader area and focus on tactics

for gaining compliance.

Learning objectives:

The learning objectives of this unit are as follows:

1. Bases of Power 2. Power in Groups: Coalitions 3. Politics: Power in Action

11.2 Bases Of Power

Power can be categorized into two types: Formal and informal

A. Formal Power:

It is based on the position of an individual in an organization. Formal power is derived from either

one’s ability to coerce or reward others or is derived from the formal authority vested in the individual

due to his/ her strategic position in the organizational hierarchy. For example, a manager may

threaten to withhold a pay raise, or to transfer, demote, or even recommend the firing of a

subordinate who does not act as desired. Such coercive power is the extent to which a manager can

deny desired rewards or administer punishments to control other people. The availability of coercive

power also varies across organizations. The presence of unions and organizational policies on



employee treatment can weaken this power base significantly. Formal power may be categorized

into four types which are as follows:

1. Coercive Power:

The coercive power base is being dependent on fear. It is based on the application, or the threat of

application, of physical sanctions such as the infliction of pain, the generation of frustration through

restriction of movement, or the controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs. In an

organization one can exercise power over another if they have the power to dismiss, suspend,

demote another assuming that the job is valuable to the person on whom power is being unleashed.

2. Reward Power:

The opposite of coercive power is reward power. Reward power is the extent to which a manager

can use extrinsic and intrinsic rewards to control other people. Examples of such rewards include

money, promotions, compliments, or enriched jobs. Although all managers have some access to

rewards, success in accessing and utilizing rewards to achieve influence varies according to the

skills of the manager.

3. Legitimate Power:

The third base of “position” power is legitimate power, or formal authority .It stems from the extent to

which a manager can use subordinates’ internalized values or beliefs that the “boss” has a “right of

command” to control their behavior. For example, the boss may have the formal authority to approve

or deny such employee requests as job transfers, equipment purchases, personal time off, or

overtime work. Legitimate power represents a special kind of power a manager has because

subordinates believe it is legitimate for a person occupying the managerial position to have the right

to command. The lack of this is legitimacy will result in authority not being accepted by subordinates.

Thus this type of power has the following elements:

• It represents the power a person receives as a result of his/her position in the formal hierarchy.

• Positions of authority include coercive and reward powers.

• Legitimate power, however, is not limited to the power to coerce and reward. It encompasses the

acceptance of the authority of a position by members of an organization.



4. Information Power:

This type of power is derived from access to and control over information. When people have

needed information, others become dependant on them. (For example, managers have access to

data that subordinates do not have). Normally the higher the level, the more information would be

accessed by managers.

B. Personal Power

Personal power resides in the individual and is independent of that individual’s position. . Three

bases of personal power are expertise, rational persuasion, and reference.

Expert power is the ability to control another person’s behavior by virtue of possessing knowledge,

experience, or judgment that the other person lacks, but needs. A subordinate obeys a supervisor

possessing expert power because the boss ordinarily knows more about what is to be done or how it

is to be done than does the subordinate. Expert power is relative, not absolute. However the table

may turn in case the subordinate has superior knowledge or skills than his/ her boss. In this age of

technology driven environments, the second proposition holds true in many occasions where the

boss is dependent heavily on the juniors for technologically oriented support.

Rational persuasion is the ability to control another’s behavior, since, through the individual’s efforts,

the person accepts the desirability of an offered goal and a viable way of achieving it. Rational

persuasion involves both explaining the desirability of expected outcomes and showing how specific

actions will achieve these outcomes.

Referent power is the ability to control another’s behavior because the person wants to identify with

the power source. In this case, a subordinate obeys the boss because he or she wants to behave,

perceive, or believe as the boss does. This obedience may occur, for example, because the

subordinate likes the boss personally and therefore tries to do things the way the boss wants them

done. In a sense, the subordinate attempts to avoid doing anything that would interfere with the

pleasing boss–subordinate relationship. Followership is not based on what the subordinate will get

for specific actions or specific levels of performance, but on what the individual represents—a path

toward lucrative future prospects.



Charismatic Power is an extension of referent power stemming from an individual’s personality and

interpersonal style. Others follow because they can articulate attractive visions, take personal risks,

demonstrate follower sensitivity, etc.

Dependency: The Key to Power

The General Dependency Equation is as follows:

• The greater B’s dependency on A, the greater the power A has over B. When an individual

possess anything that others require but that which alone the individual controls, he / she can make

others dependent and, therefore, gain power over them.

• Dependency, then, is inversely proportional to the alternative sources of supply.

This is one of the reasons why most organizations develop multiple suppliers rather using just one.

It also explains why individuals in general aspire to financial independence.

Three factors are responsible for dependency. They are as follows:

• Importance

To create dependency, the thing(s) you control must be perceived as being important.

Organizations actively seek to avoid uncertainty and hence, those individuals or groups who can

absorb an organization’s uncertainty will be perceived as controlling an important resource.

• Scarcity

A resource needs to be perceived as scarce to create dependency. For example, lowranking

members in an organization who have important knowledge unavailable to highranking members

gain power over the highranking members. The scarcitydependency relationship is also important in

the power of occupational categories. Individuals in occupations in which the supply of personnel is

low relative to demand can negotiate compensation and benefit packages, which are far more

attractive than can those in occupations where there is an abundance of candidates. Thus scarcity in

supply of certain types of skilled people can give them power to bargain over compensations and

other benefits.



• Nonsubstitutability

The more that a resource has no viable substitutes, the more power that control over that resource

provides.


1. Formal power may be categorized into___________ types.

2. The opposite of coercive power is __________ power

3. Expert power is relative, not ______________.

11.3 Power Tactics

Using position and personal power well to achieve the desired influence over other people is a

challenge for most managers. There are many useful ways of exercising relational influence. The

most common strategies involve the following (Kipinis et. Al, 1984):

• Reason—Use of facts and data to make a logical or rational presentation of ideas

• Friendliness—Use of flattery, creation of goodwill, acting humble, and being friendly

• Coalition—Getting the support of other people in the organization to back up the request

• Bargaining—Use of negotiation through the exchange of benefits or favors

• Assertiveness—Use of a direct and forceful approach such as demanding compliance

• Higher authority—Gaining the support of higher levels in the organization to back up requests

• Sanctions—Use of organizationally derived rewards and punishments

Employees rely on the seven tactics variably. Depending on the situational factors, individuals tend

to use the above strategies accordingly to the suitability and the likelihood of the success to be

achieved by employing the same. The manager’s relative power impacts the selection of tactics in

two ways.



• First, managers who control resources that are valued by others, or who are perceived to be in

positions of dominance, use a greater variety of tactics than do those with less power.

• Second, managers with power use assertiveness with greater frequency than do those with less

power.

• Resistance leads to managers using more directive strategies.

The manager’s objectives for wanting to influence causes them to vary their power tactics. The

objectives may be as follows:

• When seeking benefits from a superior, they use friendliness.

• When they are in need to make superiors accept new ideas, they usually rely on reason.

• Managers use reason to sell ideas to employees and friendliness to obtain favors.

Research evidence also supports the following with regard to use of tactics and the choice used by

managers with regard to power:

The manager’s expectation of the target person’s willingness to comply is an important factor. When

past experience indicates a high probability of success, managers use simple requests to gain

compliance. Where success is less predictable, managers are more likely to use assertiveness and

sanctions to achieve their objectives. The organization’s culture also plays an important role in

deciding the use of power tactics. The organizational culture in which a manager works, will have a

significant bearing on defining which tactics are considered appropriate. The organization itself will

influence which subset of power tactics is viewed as acceptable for use by managers. People in

different countries tend to prefer different power tactics. For example in US people prefer use of

reason in contrast to China where coalition as a tactic is preferred. Differences are consistent with

values among countries—reason is consistent with American’s preference for direct confrontation

and coalition is consistent with the Chinese preference for using indirect approaches.


1. Where success is less predictable, managers are more likely to use __________ and sanctions

to achieve their objectives



2. US people prefer use of reason in contrast to China where _____________ as a tactic is

preferred

11.4 Empowerment

Empowerment is the process by which managers help others to acquire and use the power required

to make decisions affecting both themselves and their work. Moreover, today, managers in

progressive organizations are expected to be competent at empowering the people with whom they

work. Rather than concentrating power only at higher levels as found in the traditional “pyramid” of

organizations, this concept views power to be shared by all working in flatter and more collegial

structures.

The concept of empowerment is part of the decentralized structures which are found in today’s

corporations. Corporate staff is being cut back; layers of management are being eliminated; the

number of employees is being reduced as the volume of work increases. The trend clearly is towards

creating leaner and more responsive organizations which are flexible and capable of taking faster

decisions with minimum bottlenecks created out of power struggles, typical of bureaucratic tall

structures. The need clearly is towards having fewer managers who must share more power as they

go about their daily tasks. Hence, empowerment is a key foundation of the increasingly popular self

managing work teams and other creative worker involvement groups.

For the empowerment process to set in and become institutionalized, power in the organization will

be changed. The following are important in this context:

Changing Position Power: When an organization attempts to move power down the hierarchy, it must

also alter the existing pattern of position power. Changing this pattern raises some important issues

• Can “empowered” individuals give rewards and sanctions based on task accomplishment?

• Has their new right to act been legitimized with formal authority?

Expanding the Zone of Indifference: When embarking on an empowerment program, management

needs to recognize the current zone of indifference and systematically move to expand it. All too

often, management assumes that its directive for empowerment will be followed; management may

fail to show precisely how empowerment will benefit the individuals involved, however.



Thus in empowerment the basic issues which should be addressed are:

Training people in lower ranks how to function in the new empowered position. Using or unleashing

power correctly is also an issue and most importantly the authority, responsibility and the

accountability process should be clearly outlined so as not to upset organizational power equations.

Just apportioning power at lower levels without giving the knowledge of how to use it can actually

create havoc in the organizations.


1. _____________ is the process by which managers help others to acquire and use the power

required to make decisions affecting both themselves and their work.

2. When an organization attempts to move power down the ________, it must also alter the existing

pattern of position power

11.5 Power In Groups: Coalitions

Individuals who lose power or are out of power seek to increase their power individually. If they fail to

do so, then the alternative is to form a coalition—an informal group bound together by the active

pursuit of a single issue. The natural way to gain influence is to become a power holder but this may

be difficult, risky, costly, or impossible.

• In such an event, efforts are directed towards forming a coalition of two or more “outs” who, by

coming together, can combine their resources to increase rewards for themselves. Successful

coalitions have been found to contain fluid membership and are able to form swiftly, achieve their

target issue, and quickly disappear disintegrate.

There are a couple of predictions about coalition formation. They are as follows:

• First, coalitions in organizations often seek to maximize their size. Decisionmaking in

organizations does not end just with selection from among a set of alternatives, but require to be

implemented. The implementation of an commitment to the decision is as important as the



decision. It is essential for coalitions within organizations to seek a broad constituency and there

may be expansion in coalition to help in consensus building

• Another prediction relates to the degree of interdependence within the organization. More

coalitions are likely be created where there is a great deal of task and resource interdependence.

In contrast, there will be less interdependence among subunits and less coalition formation

activity where subunits are largely selfcontained or resources are in plenty.

• Finally, coalition formation will be influenced by the actual tasks that workers perform. In general,

the more routine the task of a group, the greater the likelihood that coalitions will form.


1. Successful coalitions have been found to contain ___________ membership.

2. More coalitions are likely be created where there is a great deal of task and resource __________________.

3. Coalition formation will be influenced by the __________ tasks that workers perform.

11.6 Politics: Power In Action

Politics is defined as those activities that are not required as part of one’s formal role in the

organization, but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and

disadvantages within the organization.

Organizational politics is the management of influence to obtain ends not sanctioned by the

organization or to obtain sanctioned ends through nonsanctioned means and the art of creative

compromise among competing interests. The above definition clearly points out the following:

a. Political behavior fall outside the ambit of one’s specified job requirements.

b. It includes efforts to influence the goals, criteria, or processes employed for decisionmaking.

c. It includes a variety of political behaviors such as, withholding vital information from decision

makers, whistleblowing, spreading rumors, leaking confidential information, etc.



In this context, it is necessary to make a distinction between legitimate and illegitimate power

dimensions within organizational contexts.

The “LegitimateIllegitimate” Dimension may be explained in terms of the following (Farrell &

Peterson, 1988):

• Legitimate political behavior refers to normal everyday politics—complaining to your supervisor,

bypassing the chain of command, forming coalitions, etc.

• Illegitimate political behaviors that violate the implied rules of the game, such as sabotage,

whistle blowing, and symbolic protests, etc.

• The vast majority of all organizational political actions are legitimate. The extreme illegitimate

forms of political behavior pose a very real risk of loss of organizational membership or extreme

sanction.

There are two quite different schools of thought found existing in the analysis of literature on

organizational politics.

The first tradition builds on Machiavelli’s philosophy and defines politics in terms of selfinterest and

the use of nonsanctioned means. In this tradition, organizational politics may be formally defined as

the management of influence to obtain ends not sanctioned by the organization or to obtain

sanctioned ends through nonsanctioned influence means. Managers are often considered political

when they seek their own goals or use means that are not currently authorized by the organization or

that push legal limits. Where there is uncertainty or ambiguity, it is often extremely difficult to tell

whether a manager is being political in this selfserving sense (Pfeffer, 1981).

The second tradition treats politics as a necessary function resulting from differences in the self

interests of individuals. Here, organizational politics is viewed as the art of creative compromise

among competing interests. In a heterogeneous society, individuals will disagree as to whose self

interests are most valuable and whose concerns should, therefore, be bounded by collective

interests. Politics come into play as individuals need to develop compromises, avoid confrontation,

and coexist together. The same holds true in organizations, where individuals join, work, and stay

together because of their selfinterests being served. It is equally important to remember that the



goals of the organization and the acceptable means are established by organizationally powerful

individuals in negotiation with others. Thus, organizational politics is also the use of power to develop

socially acceptable ends and means that balance individual and collective interests.

Factors Contributing to Political Behavior

1. Individual factors:

Researchers have identified certain personality traits, needs, and other factors that are likely to be

related to political behavior. They are as follows:

a. Employees who are high selfmonitors, possess an internal locus of control, and have a high

need for power are more likely to engage in political behavior.

b. The high selfmonitor is more sensitive to social cues and in all probability be more likely to be

skilled in political behavior than the low selfmonitor.

c. Individuals with an internal locus of control are more prone to take a proactive stance and attempt

to manipulate situations in their favor.

d. The Machiavellian personality is comfortable using politics as a means to further his/her self

interest and does not see it as an unethical action..

A person’s investment in the organization, perceived alternatives, and expectations of success will

influence the tendency to pursue illegitimate means of political action. The following alternatives are

possible in this context:

a. The more that a person has invested and the more a person has to lose, the less likely he/she is

to use illegitimate means.

b. The more alternative job opportunities an individual has, a prominent reputation, or influential

contacts outside the organization, the more likely he/she will risk illegitimate political actions.

c. A low expectation of success in using illegitimate means reduces the probability of its use.



1. Organizational factors:

Political activity has got to do more with the organization’s characteristics than of individual difference

variables. When an organization’s resources are declining, and the existing pattern of resources is

changing, as also when there is opportunity for promotions, politics is more likely to come into play

and surface. Certain important findings in this regard are:

• Cultures characterized by low trust, role ambiguity, unclear performance evaluation systems,

zerosum reward allocation practices, democratic decisionmaking, high pressures for

performance, and selfserving senior managers will create fertile grounds for politicking.

• When organizations downsize to improve efficiency, people may engage in political actions to

safeguard their existing statusquo.

• Promotion decisions have consistently been found to be one of the most political in organizations.

• The less trust there is within the organization, the higher the level of political behavior and the

more likely it will be illegitimate.

• Role ambiguity means that the prescribed behaviors of the employee are not clear. The greater

the role ambiguity, the more one may engage in political activity since there is little chance of it

being visible..

• Making organizations less autocratic by asking managers to behave more democratically is not

necessarily embraced by all individual managers. Internally if the managers believe in autocracy

they would use the required committees, conferences, and group meetings in a superficial way as

arenas for maneuvering and manipulating.

• Top management may set the climate for politicking by engaging in certain behaviors, thereby

giving a signal to people below in the order that is alright to engage in such behavior. When

employees see top management successfully engaging in political behavior, a climate is created

that supports politicking.

To counter the effects of politicking and protect oneself in organizational contexts, individuals may

use three strategies :



(1) Avoid action and risk taking

(2) Redirect accountability and responsibility

(3) Defend their turf.

Avoidance: Avoidance is quite common in controversial areas where the employee must risk being

wrong or where actions may yield a sanction. The most common reaction is to “work to the rules.”

That is, employees are protected when they adhere strictly to all the rules, policies, and procedures

or do not allow deviations or exceptions.

Redirecting Responsibility: Politically sensitive individuals will always protect themselves from

accepting blame for the negative consequences of their actions. Again, a variety of wellworn

techniques may be used for redirecting responsibility. “Passing the buck” is a common method

employees and managers use. The trick here is to define the task in such a way that it becomes

someone else’s formal responsibility.

Defending Turf : Defending turf is a timehonored tradition in most large organizations. This results

form the coalitional nature of organizations. That is, the organization may be seen as a collection of

competing interests held by various departments and groups. As each group tries to increase its

influence, it starts to encroach on the activities of other groups.

There are certain other interesting findings regarding people’s responses to organizational politics

Research evidence indicates strong points out that perception of organizational politics are

negatively related to job satisfaction. The perception of politics results in anxiety or stress. And when

it gets too much to handle, employees leave the organizations. It may thus be a demotivating force

and performance may suffer as a result. The effect of politics is moderated by the knowledge the

individual has of the decision making system and his/her political skills. In this regard the following

observations have been made:

• High political skills individuals often have improved performance.



• Low political skills individuals often respond with defensive behaviors—reactive and protective

behaviors to avoid action, change, or blame.

Reaction to organizational politics is also influenced by culture. In countries that are more unstable

politically, workers will tolerate higher levels of politicking than more politically stable counties


1. Organizational politics is viewed as the art of creative _____________ among competing

interests

2. Employees who are ___________ selfmonitors, possess an internal locus of control

3. The ______________ personality is comfortable using politics as a means to further his/her self

interest and does not see it as an unethical action..

11.7 Summary Power is the ability to make things happen in the way an individual wants, either by self or by the

subordinates. The essence of power is control over the behavior of others (French & Raven, 1962).

Managers derive power from both organizational and individual sources. These sources are called

position power and personal power, respectively. In an organizational context leadership and power

are related to each others. Power is used by leaders as a means to attain group goals. In other

words, power is a means of facilitating their achievement of goals and objectives that they have set

for themselves in view of organizational requirements. Power can be categorized into two types:

Formal and informal. Formal Power: is based on the position of an individual in an organization.

Formal power is derived from either one’s ability to coerce or reward others or is derived from the

formal authority vested in the individual due to his/ her strategic position in the organizational

hierarchy. Formal power may be categorized into four types: Coercive Power, Reward Power,

Legitimate Power, Information Power. Personal power resides in the individual and is independent of

that individual’s position. . Three bases of personal power are expertise, rational persuasion, and

reference. Using position and personal power well to achieve the desired influence over other people

is a challenge for most managers. There are many useful ways of exercising relational influence. The

most common strategies involve: Reason, Friendliness, Coalition, Bargaining, Assertiveness, Higher

authority, and Sanctions. Empowerment is the process by which managers help others to acquire



and use the power required to make decisions affecting both themselves and their work. Moreover,

today, managers in progressive organizations are expected to be competent at empowering the

people with whom they work. Rather than concentrating power only at higher levels as found in the

traditional “pyramid” of organizations, this concept views power to be shared by all working in flatter

and more collegial structures. Individuals who lose power or are out of power seek to increase their

power individually. If they fail to do so then the alternative is to form a coalition—an informal group

bound together by the active pursuit of a single issue. The natural way to gain influence is to

become a power holder but this may be difficult, risky, costly, or impossible. Politics is defined as

those activities that are not required as part of one’s formal role in the organization, but that

influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the

organization. Organizational politics is the management of influence to obtain ends not sanctioned by

the organization or to obtain sanctioned ends through nonsanctioned means and the art of creative

compromise among competing interests.

Terminal questions

1. Contrast leadership and power.

2. Describe various types of formal and informal power.

3. What do you mean by organizational politics? Explain the “LegitimateIllegitimate” dimension in

organizational politics.

Answers to Self Assessment Questions Self Assessment Questions 1

1. Four

2. Reward

3. Absolute


1.Assertiveness

2. Coalition




1. Empowerment

2. Hierarchy


1. Fluid

2. Interdependence

3. Actual


1. Compromise

2. High

3. Machiavellian

Answers to Terminal Questions

1. Refer section 11.1



power and politics

Documents

attain group goals

obtain ends

organizational requirements

organizational hierarchy

formal role

make thingshappen

french

strategic position