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NMDS111

www.endeavour.edu.au

Week 1

Introduction to Food,

Culture, Society and the

Individual & The Social

Determinants of Health

© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 2

Session Overview

The Social Determinants of Health

What is Sociology?

Where did Sociology come from?

Sociology and nutritional medicine management

Overview of factors which impact on food choices

Using social science perspectives and social theory to

understand food and nutrition issues

The value of qualitative research in nutrition

Burden of Disease


External and internal causes of disease and ill health

(Australia’s Health, 2012)


Global Burden of Disease

o This term relates to the overall burden of disease

created in a population. It measures both the mortality

and the disability rates caused by common health

problems.

o For example, the World Health Organisation (WHO) has

ranked ischaemic heart disease as the number one

cause of death in the world, while The Lancet (2015)

reported both major depression and lower back pain as

leading causes of disability globally.

(WHO, 2017; Vos et al., 2015)

5


Global Burden of Disease

(WHO, 2017)

World: 2015. Both Sexes and all ages

1. Ischaemic Heart Disease

2. Stroke

3. Lower Respiratory Infections

4. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

5. Trachea, Bronchus Lung

Cancers

6. Diabetes mellitus

7. Alzheimer Disease and other dementias

8. Diarrhoreal diseases

9. Tuberculosis

10. Road Injury


National burden of disease, by disease group and sex, 2011

(AIHW, 2016)


Only 5–10% of all cancer cases can be attributed to genetic defects, the

remaining 90–95% have their roots in the environment and lifestyle

(Anand et al., 2008)

Social Determinants of Health



o The Social Determinants of Health are the conditions in

which people are born, grow, live, work and age,

including the health system. These circumstances are

shaped by the distribution of money, power and

resources at global, national and local levels, which are

themselves influenced by policy choices.

o The Social Determinants of Health are mostly

responsible for health inequities - the unfair and

avoidable differences in health status seen within and

between countries (WHO, 2017)

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• Sociologists examine social distribution of health

between very large population groups based on certain

factors.

• General aim is to describe the differences in health

between each pair of groups, and to explain ‘why’ and

‘how’ they occur.

(Germov & Poole, 2015)


Class & SES: The Difference?

• Class refers to a system of social inequality based on an

unequal distribution of wealth, status and power.

• Classes, such as working, middle and upper classes,

refer to real groups of people who share common class-

based values, interests and lifestyles.

• SES statistics group people into groups of high, medium

and low according to certain criteria (income, occupation

and education).

(Germov & Williams, 2017)


Low, middle & high income countries

(World Bank, 2017)

14

2015 Gross National Income per capita US$


Differences between health inequality

and health inequity

INEQUALITY is:

o Distributional, descriptive

o Cause may not be

preventable

o Describes health

differentials

INEQUITY IS:

o Unfairness in distribution

o Linked to social justice in

health

o Opportunity for

amelioration

o Reducing health

differentials


Socioeconomic Status (SES)

• Social and economic disadvantage impacts upon people

throughout the life cycle – risk of serious illness and

premature death is doubled in those further down the

social gradient.

• Disadvantage has many forms and may be absolute or

relative.

• Having few family assets, having a poor education,

insecure employment, living in poor housing, trying to

bring up a family in difficult circumstances etc.

(SACOSS, 2008; Darmon & Drewnowski, 2008)


Ten Tips for Better Health – Donaldson 1999

1. Don’t smoke. If you can, stop. If you can’t, cut down.

2. Follow a balanced diet with plenty of fruit and vegetables.

3. Keep physically active.

4. Manage stress by, for example, talking things through and making time to relax.

5. If you drink alcohol, do so in moderation.

6. Cover up in the sun, and protect children from sunburn.

7. Practice safer sex.

8. Take up cancer screening opportunities.

9. Be safe on the roads: follow the Highway Code.

10. Learn the First Aid ABC : airways, breathing, circulation.

(Donaldson, 1999)

17


Ten Tips for Better Health – Gordon 1999

1. Don’t be poor. If you can, stop. If you can’t, try not to be poor for long.

2. Don’t have poor parents.

3. Own a car.

4. Don’t work in a stressful, low paid manual job.

5. Don’t live in damp, low quality housing.

6. Be able to afford to go on a foreign holiday and sunbathe.

7. Practice not losing your job and don’t become unemployed.

8. Take up all benefits you are entitled to, if you are unemployed, retired or sick or disabled.

9. Don’t live next to a busy major road or near a polluting factory.

10. Learn how to fill in the complex housing benefit/ asylum application forms before you become homeless and destitute.

(Gordon, 1999)

18


SES and Health

• SES does not intrinsically cause disease or illness.

• Rather there are exposures, behaviours and other

circumstances associated with a given socioeconomic

position that lead to health or illness.

• Material factors

• Behavioural (or ‘lifestyle) factors

• Psychosocial factors

(Lynch & Kaplan, 2000)


SES and Health

• More disadvantaged groups suffer from higher rates of:

• Obesity

• Diabetes

• Cardiovascular disease

• Osteoporosis

• Dental caries

• Some forms of cancer.

• Direct link to nutrition and diet.

(Darmon & Drewnowski, 2008)


SES as a measurable risk factor

• 1/6 of the burden of all disease is caused by SES

disadvantage

• “...the job you work in, as a measure of SES, is a better

predictor of CVD death than cholesterol levels, blood

pressure and smoking status combined”

• “...biological factors are less of a risk in developing

severe chronic diseases than dropping out of high

school”.

(Prof Adrian Bauman, Uni Syd, 2010)


Pathways between lower SES and ill-health

o Physiological stress – cortisol levels + chronic stress

generates free radicals which can damage DNA

o Inflammatory responses – higher CRP levels—linked to

CVD and diabetes

o Changes in early brain development


Equity in health

o Equity of access to health care, health promoting

environments and services

o Equity in the provision of care according to need

o Equal health care use for equal need

o Equal quality of care


Social and economic (and sometimes

environmental) conditions that affect

people’s health

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Carl's_Jr._bacon_swiss_burger_&_fries.JPG

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Carl's_Jr._bacon_swiss_burger_&_fries.JPG

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Auckland_CBD_Residential_Highrise.jpg

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Auckland_CBD_Residential_Highrise.jpg


Addressing the Social

Determinants of Health

o Collaborative efforts and multi-strategy solutions

including government agencies (policy), private sector

(not for profits etc), community initiatives, grass roots

organisation (advocacy bodies).

o What role do complementary medicine practitioners play

in addressing the social determinants of health?

(Jones, 2014)

What is sociology and

where did it come from?


What is Sociology?

Max Weber, one of the three main "fathers of sociology,"

stated :

"Sociology.….is a science which attempts the

interpretive understanding of social action in

order thereby to arrive at a causal

explanation of its course and effects.“

(Weber, 2009)


Sociologists cartoons and comics:

http://www.cartoonstock.com/directory/s/sociologist.asp



What is Sociology?• Sociology examines

• How society is organised

• How it influences our lives

• How social change occurs

• It is the systematic study of human behaviour in social

context.

• Sociology is motivated by a desire to improve the social

world by charting a better course for society.

• By studying social patterns, links between social

organisation and behaviour are realised.



How is sociology done?o Asking how a particular discipline investigates its topics

of interest is another way of asking about its

methodology and methods.

o Sociological investigations make use of different

research methods depending on their theoretical

orientations.

o While numerous theories inform how sociologists

approach and conceptualise their topics of interest, the

two orienting frameworks of positivism and

constructionism have been especially influential in

shaping how social research is done.


Positivism versus Constructionism

o For sociologists, understanding and reporting how or

why people behave as they do involves analysing and

presenting reality.

o In practice, this means sharing with an audience a

convincing account of what was observed and its

meaning.


Positivism versus Constructionism

o Both positivism and constructionism have to do with the

nature of reality or assumptions about what is real and

how it should be studied.

o Naturally, the average person takes reality for granted. In

the everyday world, we know what is real and do not

doubt its existence. This view of reality is based on

common sense or what everyone intuitively knows and

can agree on.

o It has been suggested that positivistic sociology is

grounded in common sense or a vision of social reality

that is based on self-evident truths that resemble

physical laws of nature.


Positivistic sociologists

• View the methodological techniques of the physical

sciences, physics in particular, as the ideal model for

exploring the social world

• Aim to uncover universal laws that provide probable

causal explanations for human behavior, laws that

presumably hold true across time and place

• Are exclusively interested in empirical observations that

are described in the neutral or value-free language of

science


Constructionists

• Constructionists are concerned with ‘how’ human

interaction helps to create social reality

• Constructionists believe that as human beings ‘we do

not find or discover knowledge, so much as we construct

or make it’.

• Constructionism can also be termed Symbolic

interactionism or interpretivism


Constructionists

• Constructionism, is an alternative and a reaction to

positivism, and is predicated on the assumptions that our

knowledge of social reality is:

1. subjective

2. situationally and culturally variable; and

3. ideologically conscious.

• Constructionists are more interested in the work or

practices that go into creating the social world and less

in its causes.


Points of emphasis and commonality of

positivism and constructionism

(Marvasti, 2004)


Social Change and Sociology

During the 17th and 18th century, four key factors are identified

as reshaping society which include:

1. A New Industrial Economy

2. The Growth of Cities

3. Political Change

4. A New Awareness of Society

(Macionis & Gerber, 2010)


Origins of Sociology

• The 18th and 19th centuries saw an advance in science

and technology, which encouraged people to believe that

there could be a rational explanation for everything and

that scientific study could help solve all problems faced

by humans.

• Post-Newtonian physical sciences

• Post-Darwinian natural sciences

(BSA, 2017)


Key contributors to sociology

o Auguste Comte (France 1798-1857)

• Key concepts: Positivism

o Harriet Martineau (England 1802-1876)

• First acknowledged female sociologist

• Social change theory

Picture from Public Domain:

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Auguste_Comte

Picture from Public Domain:

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Harriet_Marti

neau


Origins of Sociology

• The great expansion of the discipline took place in the

USA during the mid-twentieth century.

• Moving from its original purpose as the ‘science of

society’, sociology has moved on to more reflexive

attempts to understand how society works and seeks to

provide insights into many forms of relationships, both

formal and informal.

(BSA, 2017)


Three Classical Sociological

Perspectives

• Contemporary sociologists acknowledge three general

theoretical perspectives, or ways of looking at how

various social phenomena are related to one another-

developed from the three classical sociological

perspectives.

• These are the functionalist, the conflict and the

symbolic interactionist perspectives.

(Hughes et al., 2002)



Perspectives• Karl Marx

He had an immense influence on

sociology.

He concentrated on the differences

between the class of people who

owned the factories of production,

the middle-class conformists, and

the class of people who had only

their labour to sell in return for

survival - the proletariat.

(Bartle, 2007)Picture taken from public domain:

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Karl_Marx.jpg

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Karl_Marx.jpg

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Karl_Marx.jpg


The Conflict Perspective

• The conflict approach draws much of its inspiration from the

work of Karl Marx and argues that the structure of society

and the nature of social relationships are the result of past

and ongoing conflicts.

• Conflict theory typically leads to the suggestion that

eliminating privilege will lower the level of conflict and

increase total human welfare




Perspectives• Emile Durkheim

• Argued that we can look at rates

of behaviour and find explanations

outside the individuals who are

doing the acting.

• In contrast to Marx, Durkheim

stated that various characteristics

of social elements contribute to

the living and growing of society

and its institutions

(Bartle, 2007) Picture taken from public domain:

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Emile_

Durkheim.jpg

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Emile_Durkheim.jpg

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Emile_Durkheim.jpg


The Functionalist Perspective

• The structural-functional or more simply functionalist

perspective views society as a system.

• They identify the structural characteristics and functions

and dysfunctions of institutions, and distinguish

between manifest functions and latent functions.

• Also typically assume that most members of a society

share a consensus regarding their core beliefs and

values. (Hughes et al., 2002)



Perspectives

• Max Weber

• Also disagreed with

Marx and went in a

different direction

again.

• Helped understand

the meanings that

people put on their

actions and beliefs.

(Bartle, 2007) Picture taken from public domain:

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Veber.jpg

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Veber.jpg

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Veber.jpg


The Symbolic Interactionist

Perspective

• Max Weber

• Rather than deny the importance of material factors, as

with Marx, and rather than deny the notion of social facts

external to individuals, as with Durkheim, he added that we

should look at ideas, especially the meanings we put onto

things, and the role of changes of ideas that contribute to

society and to social changes.

• From his analysis is derived the third main sociological

perspective; “symbolic interaction."

(Bartle, 2007)


The Symbolic Interactionist

Perspective• Symbolic Interactionists contend that society is possible

because human beings have the ability to communicate

with one another by means of symbols.

• They say that we act toward people, objects, and events

on the basis of the meanings we impart to them.

• Consequently, we experience the world as constructed

reality.



The Sociological Perspective

• We can not see a society, a community or a family, and we

can not touch a society, a community or a family. It is far

too complex. It does not consist of people (that we can

see), but of beliefs and actions, and is a system; there is

no physical position from which we can see a society.

• An atomistic perspective implies that people are separate

individuals and that there is nothing beyond the individual.

(Bartle, 2007)


The Sociological Perspective

• New levels of reality:

• The Sociological Imagination:

• Microsociology and Macrosociology:

• 3 Classical Sociological Perspectives

Conflict, Functionalist & Symbolic Interactionist

Perspective(Hughes et al., 2002)


‘Sociological Imagination’

• Charles Wright Mills coined the term to describe the way

that sociological analysis is performed.

• He defined the Sociological Imagination as “a quality of

mind that seems most dramatically to promise an

understanding of the intimate realities of ourselves in

connection with the larger social realities”.



‘Sociological Imagination’

Four part model



Microsociology

• Microstructures are

the pattern of relatively

intimate social

relations formed during

face-to-face

interaction.

• Families, friendship

circles and work

associations are all

examples of micro-

sociological structures(Furze et. al., 2009)

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/RPC_of_Australia_family_conf

erence.jpg

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/RPC_of_Australia_family_conference.jpg


Macrosociology

• Macrostructures are

overarching patterns of

social relations that lie

outside one’s circle of

intimates and

acquaintances.

• Macrosociology includes

classes, bureaucracies and

power systems such as

patriarchy

(Furze et al., 2009)http://t2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSKPuY1rC0bXyXsZD2LeRH2

7rw7PYYTbj169O3AgW8N8952K2kf

http://t2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSKPuY1rC0bXyXsZD2LeRH27rw7PYYTbj169O3AgW8N8952K2kf

Sociology of nutritional management


Evolution of Diet

o Food and food supplements,

previously restricted to

geographical regions, are

now widely available

worldwide and the dietary

habits of individuals and

populations are now

determined by more than

food availability, technology

and science.

(Public domain, open source. Beans & bread)


Evolution of Diet

(National Geographic, public domain, open source)


Sociology of Food

o What determines what we choose to eat?

o Instinct, culture, religion, or science?

o How important is food for human health and what is

the role of culture and religion in health choices?


Sociology of Food

The expanding sociological interest in food stems from, and

is a reflection of, the growing social and cultural

significance in affluent industrial societies.

This interest also arises from the attention to the details of

everyday life and the exclusions and inclusions relating to

food, providing useful insight into cultural differences.

(Scott & Marshall, 2009)


Sociology of Food

• A sociological explanation of food habits examines the

role played by the underlying social environment in

which food is produced, distributed and consumed.


http://www.stopcorporateabuse.org/targeting-low-income-communities



Sociology and Nutritional

Medicine Management

During the latter half of the 20th century, how, what, where,

when and with whom we eat has changed dramatically.

Diet is now identified as a key health-related behaviour and

studies on the many aspects of food and diet continue to

increase

Our eating habits and diets are influenced by broader

social, economic, technological and cultural shifts

(Food Matters, 2010)



Medicine Management

• The analysis of food allocation and consumption has been

used very effectively to illustrate the ways in which the

underlying dimensions of social differentiation (i.e. gender,

age and class) manifest themselves in the experiences of

everyday life.

• Also the analysis of the process of food production and

distribution has been used to highlight the workings of

capital-intensive, highly rationalised economic systems.



Medicine Management


Factors Impacting on Food Choices

• Biological determinants

• Economic determinants

• Physical determinants

• Social determinants

• Psychological factors

(EUFIC, 2006)


Factors Impacting on Food Choices

A critical review of the psychosocial basis of food

choice and identification of tools to effect positive

food choice

Whilst dietary advice to the general public is well established,

it is well documented that simply providing knowledge is not

enough to promote behavioural change; people have to be

motivated and supported to change their diets.

The challenge for health professionals, therefore, lies in

encouraging people to change their dietary behaviour to

encompass healthy eating messages and in supporting them

to maintain these changes.

(BNF, 2004)


Introduction to theories

surrounding food

• The way we eat reflects an interplay between social

structure and human agency.

• Despite the similar physiological needs in humans, food

habits are not universal, natural or inevitable; they are

social constructions and significant variations exist.

• Among all the different ideas attached to foods at various

times and in various cultures, certain ideas recur

consistently. (Cussler & DeGive, 1970)



surrounding food

• In Australia, Indigenous Aboriginal Australians consume

traditional food such as ‘bush foods’ which are not

consumed by white Australians such as witchetty grubs,

honey ants, galahs and turtles.

• Other cultures do not permit the consumption of alcohol

whereas others drink alcohol to excess.



surrounding food

• Food is a basic concern for all human societies.

• “Tell me what you eat and I’ll tell you who you are” (from

the French) and “You are what you eat” (from the

German), point also to issues such as the relationships

of human populations or social groups to their

environment, the symbolic construction of cultures, and

the social relations and social structures of societies.


Sociology and Research

1. Formulate question

2. Review existing literature

3. Select method

4. Collect data

5. Analyse data

6. Report results

(Furze et al., 2009)



o Sociological evidence falls into two main groups:

quantitative and qualitative.

o As theoretical orientations positivism and

constructionism have considerable methodological

implications for sociological research.

o Quantitative research involves the use of

methodological techniques that represent the human

experience in numerical categories, statistics.

o Qualitative research provides detailed description and

analysis of the quality, or the substance, of the human

experience.

o However, there is much overlap between the two, both in

practice and theory. (Gregory, 1995)


Qualitative and Quantitative Methods

o “We are not faced, then, with a stark choice between

words and numbers, or even between precise and

imprecise data; but rather with a range from more to less

precise data.… [O]ur decisions … should depend on the

nature of what we are trying to describe, on the likely

accuracy of our descriptions, on our purposes, and on

the resources available to us; not on ideological

commitment to one methodological paradigm or

another.”

(Hammersley 1992: 163, as cited in Silverman 2000: 12)



o Quantitative research provides precise, quantitative,

numerical data and research findings can be generalised

to the wider population when the data are based on

random samples of sufficient size.

o Qualitative research provides context and meaning, the

how’s and why’s.

o Each method has its strengths and limitations. Mixed

method approach is often used.


Summary

Following this lecture you should be able to:

• Describe the societal influences on health

• Define Sociology

• Discuss the origins of sociology

• List the societal factors that influence nutritional

management of a client.

• Explain the factors which impact on food choices.

• Discuss social science perspectives and social theory

in relation to food and nutrition issues.

• Identify settings where qualitative research is valuable


References• Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2016). Australia’s health series 15. Canberra: AIHW

49-61

• Bartle, P. (2007). Dr Phil’s Home Page for Sociology. Retrieved from

http://www.scn.org/cmp/modules/index.htm

• Bauman, A. (2010). University of Sydney - School of Public Health.

• BNF. (2004). A critical review of the psychosocial basis of food choice and identification of tools to

effect positive food choice’, British Nutrition Foundation. Retrieved from

http://www.foodbase.org.uk/results.php?f_report_id=167

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Retrieved from https://www.britsoc.co.uk/what-is-sociology/origins-of-sociology/

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http://www.scn.org/cmp/modules/index.htm

http://www.foodbase.org.uk/results.php?f_report_id=167

https://www.britsoc.co.uk/what-is-sociology/origins-of-sociology/


http://art-gallery.haifa.ac.il/raw-cooked/pdf/elyada-e.pdf

http://www.eufic.org/article/fr/page/RARCHIVE/expid/review-food-choice/


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http://www.eufic.org/en/healthy-living/article/the-determinants-of-food-choice

http://blogs.cim.warwick.ac.uk/foodmatters/


http://www.scribd.com/doc/185288/The-Sociological-Perspective


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New York: Oxford University Press.

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• McClelland, K. (2000). Sociology 101: Other Theories. Grinnell College, Retrieved from

http://web.grinnell.edu/courses/soc/s00/soc11101/IntroTheories/Other.html#Feminism

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Ipswitch, Qld.

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• Vos, T., Barber, R. M., Bell, B., Bertozzi-Villa, A., Biryukov, S., Bolliger, I., ... & Duan, L. (2015).

Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301

acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis

for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. The Lancet, 386(9995), 743.

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Publishing.

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http://www.cdc.gov/socialdeterminants/

http://web.grinnell.edu/courses/soc/s00/soc11101/IntroTheories/Other.html#Feminism


References

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http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs310/en/

http://www.who.int/topics/social_determinants/en/


Image References Australia’s Health (2012). The 13th biennial health report of the AIHW pp 115

http://www.aihw.gov.au/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=10737422169

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http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.PCAP.CD?view=map

Sometimes students do the most teaching (2012). Retrieved from

http://www.benrosencomics.com/?tag=sociology

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http://kristinewarren.wordpress.com/2011/01/30/what-is-sociology/

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Reading up on Social Determinants of health

http://www.fly4change.com/http:/www.fly4change/category/social-innovation-2

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communities

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http://www.vedicodyssey.com/adventures/1204_south_india/india_cooking_cultural_tour_c

uisine.shtml

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http://www.fly4change.com/http:/www.fly4change/category/social-innovation-2


http://omitlu.blogspot.com.au/2012/02/industrial-revolution.html

http://freebooks.uvu.edu/SOC1010/index.php/02.html

http://www.vedicodyssey.com/adventures/1204_south_india/india_cooking_cultural_tour_cuisine.shtml

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