Ag. Extn. 5.4
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Skill exercise on preparing of power point for effective presentation
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Practical: 1 Acquaint with University Extension System
State Agricultural Universities
The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) are important arms for promoting extension activities in the States. While their main mandate is formal degree programmes in major agricultural disciplines, they provide extension and training support through the directorate of extension education. The information flow is mainly from the universities to the KVKs which are responsible for training farmers. The information flow is largely linear, with little scope for feedback from farmers. Another criticism is that the information flow largely reflects centralized agendas rather than catering to local needs, with the major focus being on transfer of technology.
( Vice-chancellor )
( Directorate of Extension Education )
( Other Extension Centres (T & V, TWTC, School of Baking etc.) ) ( Agricultural Technology Information Centre ) ( Sardar Smruti Kendra ) ( Krishi Vigyan Kendra )
( In charge ) ( Assistant Extension Educationist ) ( Scientists (Six Discipline) )
Fig. 1. University Extension System
Why to teach extension subject to B.Sc. agricultural students?
1. Students can learn the democratic methods to educate farmers.
2. Communication abilities of students can be improved through extension teaching methods
3. Students can learn how to communicate with farmers properly and in an effective way for improving the adoption of innovations.
4. Students can helps in studying and solving the rural problems.
5. Students can learn how to increase the standard of living of farmers
6. Development of youth through extension workers.
7. Students can learn to identify the leadership qualities and motivate the leaders for the development of village.
Extension through research
Along with the teaching, SAUs important working wing is research and extension. Under the extension wing SAUs works on the following activities.
1. Promotion of newer varieties and technologies to increase the agricultural production and productivity
2. Increasing efficiency in marketing, distribution and utilization of agricultural inputs and outputs
3. To encourage the farmers to adopt the newly refined location based technologies. It helps to increase farmer’s efficiency.
4. Conservation, development and use of natural resources for the better output.
5. Proper farm and home management to manage the natural resources.
The Directorate of Extension Education
The Directorate of Extension Education (DOEE) is the nodal agency of SAUs for promoting agricultural development in the state through quick transfer of technology by providing training, consultancy and farm information to line departments’ professional extension personnel and farmers. The three principal, functional areas of the DOEE are training, consultancy and communication. The directorate has a team of multi-disciplinary scientists who work in participatory mode in close coordination with the Department of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Horticulture, Forestry, Cooperatives, Panchayat samities and other agencies engaged in the betterment of rural people.
Mandates of the Directorate of Extension Education
1) To formulate and impart in-service training to different categories of officers and functionaries from line departments of state and non- government organizations.
2) To conduct short and long-term vocational trainings for farmers, farm women, youth and school dropouts.
3) To assess and refine the latest agricultural technology through front-line demonstrations for their wider adoption.
4) To provide farm information services through various extension activities, including literature, for the quick dissemination of technology.
5) Through the DOEE, the university extension service maintains live and intimate links with the research departments’ on one hand and with the field-level functionaries of different state departments, development agencies and farmers on the other hand.
The Directorate of Extension Education (DOEE) conducts its extension activities through its headquarters, KVKs, SSK, ATIC, etc. The directorate disseminates the latest technological innovations through farm advisory, training, information and communication services by involving scientists from different departments of the university and research institutions. It aims to serve as a link between research, extension and farmers and provide critical feedback for university research as well as to the main extension system. A well-defined mechanism is followed involving the Directorate of Research, the line departments and extension education units while formulating technical programs for different units of the DOEE.
As per mandate, a Scientific Advisory Committee is constituted at each KVK for assessing, reviewing and guiding their programs and progress. The members of this committee comprise a cross-section of scientific and farming communities representatives of both government and non-government organizations who are directly or indirectly involved in the process of agricultural training, production and development. The ATIC is a constituent unit of the directorate which serves as a single window delivery system to help farmers and other stake holders by providing solutions to location-specific problems and making all technological information, along with technology inputs available. The organizational set up and extension mechanism of the DOEE is presented in following figure.
Fig: 2. Typical Organizational Set-Up of the Directorate of Extension Education at the State Agricultural University Level.
Transfer of technology through Information Communication Technology (ICT)
ICT has a major role to play in all facets of Indian agriculture. The extensive use of ICT and its infrastructure would therefore be a critical component of the strategy to revitalize the national extension system. The directorate usually arranges radio talk discussion by university experts on All India Radio. The scientists from headquarters, KVK also deliver radio and TV talks regularly for the benefit of the farming community. Integrated use of both the conventional as well as upcoming electronic media like Intra and Internet, information kiosks, cable TV, mobile telephones, vernacular press and other print media is the way forward by pooling and effective use of ICTs. The radio and Doordarshan cover special activities carried out by the university such as kisanmela, agricultural workshops, training, field days, kisangoshti, etc.
The usual mechanism of technology dissemination is from research to extension; and extension, in turn, passes on the messages to the end-users (research-extension-farmers).
How the DOEE utilizes ICTs in transfer of technology
1. Mass media is not usually considered in technology transfer programs. It acts in interface between DOEE and farmers. The DOEE uses ICTs in dissemination process where the research-extension linkage is weak between the farmers and the researcher.
2. The technology transfer process, being primarily dependent on the physical presence of the extension worker, is limited in scale and is often slow. The involvement of mass media in technology transfer can seemingly help overcome these constraints.
3. Print media such as newspapers, magazines, leaflets, booklets, posters and handbills are widely used in technology transfer by the DOEE.
4. Agricultural technology supplements are published along with daily or weekly newspapers by most of the SAUs or the DOEE. Agricultural periodicals/magazines or technical bulletins are often published and used for disseminating agricultural technology information among farmers by most of these institutions.
Activities under DOEE
1. Organizing farmers’ fairs and field days
The directorate is engaged in refining and disseminating agricultural knowledge to farming communities through a network of KVKs in various agro-climatic zones. The directorate organizes farmers’ fairs and field days for the active participation of farmers and farm women. These activities give farmers and the public the opportunity to witness the latest, proven technologies. Exhibitions on the latest technologies are organized for face-to-face interactions between farmers and scientists. The sale of the latest varieties of plants and vegetable saplings creates a large amount of publicity. On-the-spot technical solutions are demonstrated at visits of experimental sites.
2. Capacity building of extension staff and farmers
Human resource development is an important mandatory activity of the university’s extension education system. The DOEE is organizing various national-level, state-level and in-house personnel trainings, model training courses, faculty development courses, winter and summer schools, etc. The directorate is also organizing vocational trainings for economic empowerment and livelihood security for farm families. Short-term trainings for farmers, farm women and rural youth on new production technologies are organized regularly at the directorate.
3. Training Courses:
The DOEE organizes national-level training programs, workshops and seminars for promoting the professional competency of the officials and extension personnel working in different line departments of government. Major training areas include oilseeds and pulses, cropping system approach, seed production technology, post-harvest technology, integrated pest management, arid horticulture, micro-irrigation systems, etc.
4. State-Level Training Courses: The directorate organizes short-term training courses for subject matter specialists of line departments on subjects like integrated pest management, organic farming, vermi-compost, women in agriculture, aromatic and medicinal plants, etc. In these courses, the officials are exposed to emerging problems and their possible solutions as well as recent technological advances. Winter/Summer Schools: To update scientists of SAUs on recent advances in science and technology, the ICAR-sponsored winter/summer schools are being organized by the DOEE. Courses on communication technologies and extension methodology; innovative breeding methodology for sustainable, higher production in coarse cereals; and advanced media communications, extension techniques and vocational entrepreneurship forsustainable livelihood by agriculture practitioners are being organized.
5. Faculty Development Training under Technical Backstopping: Scientists of the DOEE are provided trainings with the purpose of updating skills required for work effectiveness and efficiency. In recent years, scientists have been trained in the areas of on-farm testing, post-harvest management, tally accounting, impact studies, etc.
6. Agri-Clinics and Agri-Business Training: The DOEE is one of the recognized centers for agri-clinics and agri-business trainings in the country. These trainings are sponsored by the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation, (Government of India, New Delhi). With these trainings, the DOEE is providing 60-day training those not yet employed in the agriculture sector. The purpose of such training is to teach entrepreneurial and managerial skills to agricultural graduates so as to enable them to establish their own enterprises and provide jobs to others as well. Major areas where participants established their own business are bio-fertilizers and bio-pesticide production, rural storage structures (“godown”), agricultural input marketing, custom hiring, fruit and ornamental plant nurseries, agri-clinics, retail shops, etc.
7. Training Programs for Farmers and Farm Women: The directorate is organizing inter-state and state-level short-term courses for practicing farmers and farm women on crop production, horticulture, plant protection, animal production, home science and other related disciplines. These training programs are sponsored by line departments of agriculture, horticulture, soil water conservation and NGOs. These trainings not only provide the participants practical exposure but also give an opportunity for participants to raise their incomes by adopting new technologies. These trainings are organized on the principles of "Learning by Doing" and “Seeing is Believing.”
Centres under DOEE :
1) Krishi Vigyan Kendras
Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVK) are the field research units of the national agricultural research system (the Indian Council for Agricultural Research-ICAR) and are meant to test new seed varieties, agronomic practices, machinery etc. in field conditions across different agro-climatic zones before these are cleared for adoption by farmers. The KVK initiative was launched in 1974 and has grown into 717 centers by the end of September, 2019, ensuring at least one KVK in each district of the country. Besides research, these institutions also conduct farmer outreach programmes through on farm demonstration plots, training etc.
KVKs play a vital role through mandatory works on
1. On farm testing.
2. Frontline demonstrations.
3. Need based training programmes for the benefit of farmers and farm women, rural youths and extension personnel.
4. Creating awareness through extension programmes.
5. Production of Critical and quality inputs.
6. Agricultural Knowledge and Resource Centers.
2) Sardar Smruti Kendra
Way back in 1975, Gujart Agricultural University setup this institution in memory of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel who dared the Indian farmers to dream of being a part of the county’s prosperity. Considering the objectives of this institution, it is named as SARDAR SMRUTI KENDRA.The Motto of SSK is To empower the rural communities, particularly the under privileged farmers and farm women to have control over their own livelihood and manage their occupation to create better economic condition.The objectives are:
· Promoting of Agriculture Sciences and practices.
· Diffusion of technical know-how to help the farmers to adopt the innovations.
· Development in activities relating to production of Agriculture and its allied fields.
· Improvement of Agro-Economic status of rural people.
· Established a direct contact of farmers and farmwomen with the agricultural scientists.
· Impart the knowledge of the means of value adoption to their agricultural products.
3) Agricultural Technology Information Centre
ATIC is the ICARs project functioning from the year 1998.  This centre was sanctioned to ICAR institutes and State Agricultural Universities.  In the country there are 44 ATIC centres functioning at present. The ATIC is a “single window” support system. The main objective of the ATIC is to link the various levels of intermediates in technology dissemination process. It links farmers and other stake holders such as Farmer-Entrepreneurs, Extension workers, Development agencies, Non-Government Agencies (NGOs) and private sector organizations to provide solutions to their location - specific problems in agriculture. It helps to make available all the technological information along with technology inputs and products for testing and use by them.
Objectives:
1. To empower farmers through direct access for information & knowledge.
2. To create strong linkage between different research divisions/ units and users of technology.
3. To develop, published and supply latest technology by developing publication for the farmers, through folders, CD’s, Video films etc.
4. To help farmers in problem solving and decision making.
5. Supply of Seeds, Planting materials, Bio- fertilizers, Bio-pesticides, Earth worms and Vermicompost etc.
6. To provide various analytical services of plants, soil and water for the nutrient contents etc.
7. To popularise the new technologies developed by the University and allied institutes in the Agricultural sciences.
8. To facilitate a dynamic feed forward and feedback mechanism
4) Training & Visit Scheme: The Training and Visit Scheme was introduced in Gujarat in 1978-79. Under this scheme, Bimonthly workshops, pre seasonal training and Zonal Research Extension Action Committee (ZREAC) meetings are conducted by involving line departments personnel and scientists of SAU.
5) Extension Education Institute: The Extension Education Institute (EEI), is one of the premier institutes for training of extension personnel in India. The main mandate of EEI, is to train middle level extension functionaries of various line departments to improve upon their job performance wherever they are working in different capacities.
6) Tribal Farm Women Training Centre:The Tribal Women Training Centre was established at KVK, Dediapada in the year of 2012-13 with objective over all development of tribal farm women through training on Agriculture, Horticulture, Animal- Husbandry, Poultry etc.
7) School of Baking: It imparts training in modern techniques of baking technology. It provides opportunity to impart knowledge and improve skill of trainee for preparing different bakery products through theory and practical classes. It covers the knowledge regarding quality of raw material, improved process for the preparation of products and scientific principles involved in it, economics of food preparation, handling of various equipment and machinery, establishment and management of bakery unit etc. Duration of the course is 20 weeks.
Activities:
1. Draw the flow chart of the university extension system under Directorate of extension education
2. Draw the flow chart of the organizational set up of SAU
Practical -2 Organizing the Group Discussion
A group discussion refers to exchange of ideas and thoughts by two or more people on a selected topic. The purpose of discussion may be related to clarification of ideas or help in understanding and application of ideas to practical situation. Sometimes the purpose of the group is to arrive at a consensus about a debatable subject.
The lecture method may be made more participative, if at the end the audience are allowed to discuss the topic in presence of the speaker and elicit the latter’s comments and clarification on the points raised. This shall lead to a better understanding of the topic, as the participants are more actively involved, have the opportunity to express their views and get their doubts clarified. Learning is reinforced through the interaction of the audience with the speaker. Limitations of traditional group discussion are that group members may pursue an idea to the exclusion of other alternatives and pressures to confirm can discourage the expression of deviant opinions.
Discussion usually occurs in a face-to-face or co-acting situation, with the exchange being spoken. And when more than two people are involved, it usually occurs under the direction of a leader/chairman.
Purposes of group discussion:
3. To plan a programme of action
4. To elect or select a person for a position etc
5. To hear and discuss a report
6. To motivate individuals
8. To train individuals
9. To release tensions
Procedure of group discussion:
1. Understand and adopt the proper technique. The technique of a problem solving group discussion consists of the following six steps based on the "reflective thinking" pattern.
a) Recognition of the problem as such by the group.
b) Definition of the problem, its situation and diagnosis.
c) Listing of as many solutions as possible.
d) Critical thinking and testing of these hypotheses to find the most appropriate and feasible solution or solutions.
e) Acceptance or rejection of the solution or solutions by the group.
f) Lastly, considering how to put the accepted solution into practice.
2. See that one of the group members take up the role of the discussion leader (or chairman). Extension worker should avoid this role as far as possible, because in such a case, a situation is likely to develop where the group listens and the chairman does all the talking.
3. The size of group should never exceed 30 persons.
4. The chairman/leader of group should play the following roles.
A group of two or three generally doesn’t need a chairman/leader to have a good discussion, but once the number reaches five or six, a leader or facilitator can often be helpful.  When the group numbers eight or more, a leader or facilitator, whether formal or informal, is almost always helpful in ensuring an effective discussion.
The role of the chairman/leader:
a) Make physical arrangement for the meeting, so that all members feel comfortable. Seating arrangement should be such that everyone can see the faces of all other members. Circular seating is preferable. (Square, rectangle, U or V shape also used sometimes.)
b) Introduce members, if they are new to one another.
c) Announce the topic and purpose of discussion.
d) Follow a plan.
e) Hear all the contributions made, and from time to time give short summary of the discussion up to that particular moment, especially when the group moves from one step to another (of the reflective thinking pattern).
f) Build a permissive climate.
g) Keep the group moving at the rate at which their thinking progresses.
h) Give or get clarification of vague statement.
i) Promote evaluation of all generalizations.
j) Protect minority opinion.
l) Promote group cohesion.
m) Remain personally neutral.
Some Don'ts for chairman /leader:
a) Never ask questions that suggest answers or can be answered with yes or No. (Put only thought-provoking questions)
b) Don't favor one view against another when there is a conflict or difference of opinion among members.
c) Never become emotional about the discussion.
d) Don't become impatient with the group.
e) Don't dominate the discussion or answer all the questions raised by the members.
5. The members of group should play the following roles.
The roles of members:
a) Talk one at a time. No private conversation with neighbours. No speech making.
b) Supply as much pertinent information as possible.
c) Contribute one point at a time.
d) Answer questions directly, specifically and briefly.
e) Test all thinking by critical analysis.
f) Listen attentively.
g) Stay on the subject.
h) Exhibit willingness to change his opinion when change is justified (i.e., open minded). A person may hold opinions, but opinions should not hold a person.
i) Support the needed leadership.
j) Promote group harmony even while criticizing or disagreeing.
6. Invite expert i.e., extension worker or specialist whenever needed.
The role of the expert (Extension worker or specialist):
There may be occasions when a group confronted with a problem does not have sufficient information to enable them to discuss intelligently. In such cases, group requires help of expert/s. The role of the expert is not to dominate the meeting, nor to suggest his own solution. He should only supply information, the group does not have; furnish technical information, present ways other groups have met similar situations, and present the immediate problem in its larger setting, with implications for integrating the solution of the problem with other group policies and action programmes.
Advantages of group discussion method:
1. It is a democratic method, giving equal opportunity to every participant to put his/her views.
2. Active participation of every member of group can be secure.
3. It appeals to the practical type of individuals.
4. It creates a high degree of interest.
5. The strength of group discussion lies in the fact that the participants approach the problem with an open mind and evolve the judgement in a spirit of enquiry.
6. It is a co-operative effort and not combative or persuasive in nature.
7. Combined and co-operative thinking (Pooling of wisdom) of several persons is likely to be superior to that of isolated individuals.
8. Develops group morale. Decision is taken collectively in group hence, group action is encouraged for implementation of the decision.
9. It is a scientific method employing the reflective thinking pattern.
10. Participants need not be good speakers or debaters.
11. Continued experience with such group discussions improves one's capacity for critical arid analytical thinking
Limitations of group discussion method:
1. actions in villages may hinder the successful use of this method.
2. The ideal discussants with self-discipline (open mind and suspended judgement) are difficult to find. It also is difficult to find an ideal chairman or leader for group discussion.
3. It is not suitable for dealing with topics to which discussants are new.
4. In large groups especially, and even in small groups to some extent, it is difficult to achieve group homogeneity or cohesion.
5. The size of the group has to be limited, because the success of the method is perhaps inversely proportional to the size of group.
6. It is not suitable for taking decisions in times of crisis or emergency, as it is a slow process.
7. Due to its informal conversational style, the scope for orderly or coherent arrangement of ideas is limited.
8. Effective group discussion demands time and organizational skill.
9. Improper group discussion may end up in unnecessary arguments and heart aches.
10. Care should be taken to ensure the participation of ‘shy members’ and to prevent the domination by a few.
Activity: Teacher has to conduct a group discussion on different topics related to agriculture
Practical -3 & 4 Handling and use of audio-visual equipment’s
1. Handling and use of Digital Camera
What is a Camera?
A camera is a hardware device that takes photographs and consists of a lightproof box with photosensitive film or plate within the box. When a picture is taken, the camera's shutter opens and closes, exposing the photosensitive film with light recording the image onto the film.
Types of Digital Cameras:
1. Compact Digital Cameras: Digital compact cameras, which are also known as Point and Shoot cameras, vary in features, price, and styles. Their smaller size and ease of use is the main appeal of these types of digital cameras. Most basic compact cameras will fit in a pocket or small purse. All of the current compact cameras have a minimum three time (3X) zoom lens and at least 12 megapixels. With that many megapixels, great looking, quality images can be enlarged to 16 X 20 inch print size. Today's digital compact cameras are equipped with a fully automatic mode which is great for beginners or those who just want to "point and shoot" when taking pictures. Manual adjustments to camera settings like the shutter speed or lens aperture setting can't be done on a basic digital compact camera. Those functions are set automatically when you take the picture. So once again, compact cameras are made for ease of use rather than giving the photographer full control over every camera setting.
2. Bridge Compact Digital Cameras/Super Zoom Cameras: Super zoom cameras combine the flexibility of a wide focal range with a small format body. Bridge cameras, also known as Advanced Compact cameras are a step up from the Basic Compact camera. The main difference between Bridge cameras and Basic Compact cameras is that they allow the photographer to have more control over the camera's exposure settings. Bridge cameras will have semi-automatic, Aperture Priority, Shutter priority, and Program modes. Most will also have a Manual mode that will allow the photographer to have full control over the camera exposure settings. Many Bridge cameras also have lenses with a much longer zoom range than other cameras. The lens on a Bridge camera is "fixed" and cannot be removed or replaced with a different one in the same manner that you can change the lens on a Digital Slr camera. Also, most Bridge cameras will have a smaller image sensor and a smaller lens than the ones found on a Digital Slr camera. Most bridge cameras are larger than basic point and shoot cameras but are smaller than Digital SLR cameras. Bridge cameras are great for photographers who want more control over the camera exposure settings and in some cases perhaps a longer zoom range.
3. Compact System Cameras/ Mirrorless Interchangeable Lens Cameras: These types of digital cameras are very similar to Digital Slr cameras. Mirror less Interchangeable Lens cameras allow the photographer to use the camera in full manual, automatic, or semi-automatic modes the same way Digital Slr cameras can be operated. Their camera body size is closer to the size of compact cameras. The reason the body size is so much smaller is because they do not have optical viewfinders like the Digital Slr cameras. They are equipped with an LCD screen and/or Electronic Viewfinder for previewing the scene that is about to be photographed. Mirrorless cameras also have larger image sensors than compact cameras which will result in image quality similar to that of the some of the Digital Slr cameras.
4. Digital Slr Cameras: (Digital Single Lens Reflex Cameras or DSLR cameras): Digital SLR cameras are the most versatile and advanced type cameras available on the consumer market. Digital Slr camera have the option of taking pictures in the full manual mode, Aperture Priority, Shutter Priority, or program modes. In DSLR camera you have more control over the way the picture will be taken as far as exposure settings. Another important feature of Digital Slr cameras is that you can change the camera lens to fit different situations. The lenses for Digital Slr cameras will generally be of a better quality than those found on compact cameras which will result in better image quality. A major difference between basic compact cameras and Digital Slr cameras is that Digital Slr cameras use a mirror and pentaprism system to reflect the light coming through the lens directly to the eye level viewfinder. When the shutter release button is pressed the mirror flips up so that the light can reach the image sensor. The mirror system found in Digital SLR cameras is a major reason for its larger size. It also contributes to the higher price of the camera.
Digital Camera and its Support Systems
1. Understanding camera menu and basic button and settings:
Basic parts of camera:
A digital camera contains hundreds of parts but it is important to understand the most essential parts of the camera that you will have to deal with as you explore its features.
Fig: 3. Digital camera and its parts
1. Body - Made of high grade plastic or metal, this holds all the other parts together as well as provide protection to the delicate internal parts of the camera.
2. Lens - A camera lens (also known as photographic lens or photographic objective) is an optical lens or assembly of lenses used in conjunction with a camera body and mechanism to make images of objects either on photographic film or on other media capable of storing an image chemically or electronically. A proper term for this part should be lens assembly; this consists of several layers of lenses of varying properties providing zoom, focusing, and distortion correction. These lenses are mechanically interconnected and adjustment is controlled either manually or electronically through the camera's body.
a. telephoto lens: means distant or far-off or away, tele- prefixed words are related to transmitting/receiving things from a farther distance or in simple words if you want to take photographs of birds, wild animals, or a cricketer/baseball player, or moon surface without going near to any of them, you need a telephoto lens, usually they have a larger focal length value around 200-800 mm.
b. Wide-angle lens: wide-angle lens refers to a lens whose focal length is substantially smaller than the focal length of a normal lens. This type of lens allows more of the scene to be included in the photograph, which is useful in architectural, interior and landscape photography where the photographer may not be able to move farther from the scene to photograph it.
3. Shutter Release Button - This is the "trigger" of the camera. In most cameras, a half-press activates and locks the auto-focus, and a full press initiates the image capturing process.
4. Mode Dial - Contains several symbols (slightly different on various camera models), this dial allows you to select a shooting mode, automatic or manual or a choice between one of the predefined settings.
5. Viewfinder - A small viewing window that shows the image that the camera's imaging sensor sees. This can either be an optical view finder, which shows the actual image in front of the camera through a peep hole or through mirrors, or an electronic view finder which is simply a small LCD display.
6. Aperture Ring - Found around the old manual lens of SLR camera this is used to select an aperture opening. In modern lenses, the aperture is controlled electronically through the body.
7. Focusing Ring - This can also be found around the lens of a DSLR camera. This is turned to manually focus the lens.
8. LCD Display - In some compact cameras this acts as the viewfinder. This is a small screen (usually 1.8" diagonally or bigger) at the back of the camera which can be used for framing or for reviewing the recorded pictures.
9. Flash - Built-in on the body of most compact and some DSLR cameras this can either be fixed or flip type, it provides an instantaneous burst of bright light to illuminate a poorly lit scene.
10. Control Buttons - Usually includes a set of directional keys and a few other buttons to activate certain functions and menus, this is used to let users interact with the camera's computer system.
11. Power Switch - Turns On or Off the camera. This may also contain a Record / Play Mode selector on some cameras.
12. Zoom Control - Usually marked with W and T, which stands for "Wide" and "Tele" respectively, this is used to control the camera's lenses to zoom-in or zoom-out. For DSLR cameras, the zoom is usually controlled by a zoom ring in the lens.
13. Battery Compartment - Holds the batteries. Depending on the camera model, this varies in size and shape.
14. Memory Card Slot - This is where expansion memory cards are inserted. The proper position of the card are often indicated. A mechanical catch usually holds the card in place and a spring helps it eject.
15. Flash Mount (Hot-Shoe) - Standard holder with contact plates for optional Flash accessory.
16. Diopter Adjuster - Usually available in mid to high end sub-compact cameras and DSLRs located besides the viewfinder. This varies the focal length of the lens in the viewfinder to make even people wearing eyeglasses to see clearly through it even without the eyeglasses.
17. Tripod Mount - Here is where your standard Tripod or Monopod is attached for added stability.
Fig: 4. Different types of batters, storage and operating system of camera
Basic camera control and settings:
1. View finder: A small viewing window that shows the image that the camera's imaging sensor sees. Use the view finder to frame pictures when bright light makes it difficult to see the display on the monitor.
2. Monitor/LCD Display: To see the live view of photograph composition. . This is a small screen (usually 1.8" diagonally or bigger) at the back of the camera which can be used for framing or for reviewing the recorded pictures.
3. Play (and delete) buttons: For reviewing and deleting images or videos you've shot
4. Menu: Most shooting, playback, and set up options can be accessed from the camera menus.
5. Thumbnail help : For display images in contact sheet of four, nine or 72 images.
6. Playback zoom: For zoom the image displayed in full frame or on the image currently highlighted in thumbnail.
7. Information edit button: To make changes to settings.
8. Command dial: It is the dial where from you control three basic settings that make up the exposure triangle, i.e., aperture, shutter speed and ISO.
9. Movie-record button: Use to start recording both video and sound.
10. Multi selector and OK button: are used to navigate the camera menus.
11. Speaker
Different parts high resolution of camera
1. Camera lens.
2. AF-assist illuminator. This lamp enables the camera to focus on the subject even in poorly lit circumstances, given that the focusing mode is single-servo AF.
3. Accessory shoe cover. Used to cover the slot meant for external flash.
4. Eye let for camera strap
5. Flash mode button. Used to activate the flash and also to change between the various flash modes like rear flash, red eye.
6. Function button. Function button along with command dial is used to change ISO setting and white balance.
7. Lens release button. Used to remove the lens from the camera body.
8. Manual focus switch. Used to change from auto focus to manual focus and vice versa.
9. Vibration reduction switch. Used to turns on and off the image stability.
Zoom ring - Turning this ring will change the focal length of zoom lenses, letting you zoom in or out. Obviously prime lenses don't feature a zoom ring.
Enhancing the digital photography experience with accessories
The following are the list of external accessories use in digital camera
1. Rechargeable Batteries: Type of electrical battery which can be charged, discharged into a load, and recharged many times.
2. Battery charger: Device used to put energy into a secondary cell or rechargeable battery by forcing an electric current through it.
3. Power connector, AC adapter: Used to power the camera for extended periods.
4. USB cable: Connect the camera to a computer or printer
5. Lens Protector — UV/NC Filter: lens protector keep permanently on the lens of camera to avoid scratches and chips. An easy way to do this is to buy a UV or ultraviolet filter that costs less. This filter is clear and screws into the front of your lens to protect it from scratches.
6. Body cap: Keeps the mirror, viewfinder screen, and low pass filter free of dust when a lens is not a place.
7. Tripods: A tripod is a portable three-legged frame, used as a platform for supporting the camera to get a steadier shot and smoother video. You adjust the height of the tripod by loosening and then extending or retracting the three legs on the tripod.
8. Camera Carrying Case: You should purchase a carrying case to hold your camera and all the accessories you've accumulated, such as microphones, headphones and XLR cables.
9. SDHC (Secure Digital High Capacity) Cards: is a type of flesh memory card use for storing pictures. When you finish one shoot, pop that card back in its plastic storage case and snap in a fresh one for the next location.
10. Lens hood: In photography, a lens hood or lens shade is a device used on the front end of a lens to block the Sun or other light source(s) to prevent glare and lens flare.
2. Handling and use of LCD projector:
An LCD projector is a type of  video projector  for displaying video, images or computer data on a screen or other flat surface. It is a modern equivalent of the  slide projector  or  overhead projector . To display images, LCD ( liquid-crystal display ) projectors typically send light from a  metal-halide lamp  through a  prism  or series of  dichroic filters  that separates light to three  polysilicon  panels – one each for the red, green and blue components of the video signal. As polarized light passes through the panels (combination of polarizer, LCD panel and analyzer), individual pixels can be opened to allow light to pass or closed to block the light. The combination of open and closed pixels can produce a wide range of colors and shades in the projected image. There are two common types of projectors: DLP (digital light processing), and LCD (liquid crystal display). In the early days of projectors, CRT (cathode ray tube) projectors were commonly used. They utilized three tubes, one for each of the primary colors.
Functioning: The most ubiquitous use of a LCD projector is for presentations in business meetings or classrooms. Presentation software allows a user to create slide shows of photos, type written information and display graphs. Teachers in high school and college make extensive use of LCD projectors to give notes or lectures, as do business people making presentations to co-workers or clients.
Operating process:
LCD (liquid crystal display) projectors contain three separate LCD glass panels, one for red, green, and blue components of the image signal being transferred to the projector. As the light passes through the LCD panels, individual pixels can be opened to allow light to pass or closed to block the light. This activity modulates the light and produces the image that is projected onto the screen. The lamp provides white light that passes through a polarizing filter. Polarizing works by accepting light that is traveling on the same plane. All other light will be blocked.
From the polarizing filter the light is then passed through a series of dichroic mirrors. Dichroic mirrors work by only allowing certain colours in the light spectrum to be reflected, while others pass through. The dichroic mirrors in LCD projectors separate the light into the three primary colours: green, red and blue. These three colours are then sent to a separate LCD panel. From there the LCD panels send the light through the dichroic prism which recombines the light and sends it out through the main lens in the LCD projector to the surface against which it is projected. Each LCD is only capable of controlling one colour. So if you were to see a picture of a red plane against a blue sky, the green LCD would block the light from passing to the dichroic prism and out the lens.
LCD panels in LCD projectors work by allowing the polarized light to travel through a pane of glass into the liquid crystal inside the display. The liquid crystals bend the light, and it is travelling on a different plane when it enter through the polarizing filter. If you apply an electrical current to the liquid crystal they will align, allowing the light to pass through on the same plane as when it entered. If you add a second polarizing filter at the other end of the liquid crystal you can then effectively block all light from passing through. Each LCD panel has a separate system to control the electrical current that passes through the liquid crystal, allowing each to be controlled individually.
The resolution, or how sharp the image is, of each LCD is determined by the number of cells which are called pixels, higher the number of pixels means more clarity to the image. Each LCD panel also has the ability to control what colour each pixel will be in that particular panel so that when all the light is recombined at the dichroic prism, it will be the right colour.
Fig: 6: Different parts of the LCD projector
Activities:
1. Teacher has to explain practically regarding the digital camera in the class
2. Students have to make a short film regarding agricultural issues and display using LCD projector in practical class under the guidance of class teacher.
Practical 5 &7: Preparation and use of audio-visual aids
During various extension works, each extension worker Needs different types of audio-visual aids to present message in easy to understand from thus audio-visual aids are useful means to give treatment to the messages it is duty of each worker to know about planning, preparation presentation and evaluation processes of audio visual aids such knowledge makes them able to prepare and use instructional aids to transmit facts, skills attitudes, knowledge, understanding and positive reception to learners.
1. Audio aid :- An audio aid is any instructional device that can be heard but not seen
2. Visual aid :- It any instructional device that can be seen but not heard
3. Audio visual aid:- An audio- visual aid is any instructional device that can be heard and seen
Planning of audio visual aids
The planning is necessary for success and to reduce the chances of failure of audio visual materials during its uses Extension workers should try to use real object. If the real object cannot be used the succeeding point can be considered in choosing materials.
· “Why” or the objective of the teaching- it may be to improve skill, knowledge or attitude
· “Whom” or the audience – number, experience, education level ability.
· Availability of raw materials
· Cost of the materials.
· Variety to hold interest
· Convenience – portability.
It should be accurate
2. It should be understandable
3. It should convey up to date idea.
4. It should be attractive and stimulator but not Misleader to action.
5. It should please the senses of learners.
Preparation of audio visual aids:
After choosing the visual, following “ABC” style of preparing aids should be kept in mind.
1. Attractiveness: The aid should be prepared in such a way that it can attract” the attention of people while using. The ways used to make it attractive are:
· Colour
· Shape - Simple a symmetrical: irregular shapes are more
· Eye catching than routine, complicated ones.
· Illustrations - increase attention.
2. Briefness: The message covered in material should be brief to make it readable in a short time.
3. Clearness: Message, should be clear. With effective layout may be surrounded by white space and illustrations.
After considering the above ABC style, following action should be taken:
1. Decide on the accurate message to be delivered.
2.
Select the code for the message may be words, pictures, diagrams and other symbols...
3. Decide the most suitable design after trying out several rough drafts.
4. List and obtain necessary materials required.
5. Decide right sequence while using more than one visual.
Presentation of audio visual aids:
1. Subsequent to selecting the places for the presentation, arrange the surroundings.
2. Organize the area properly by checking seating arrangement, adequate ventilation” and lighting to reduce possible distractions.
3. Display the audio visual materials so as to make it visible and may be hearable.
4. Take prior trial of all equipments before use.
5. Make prior practice of the presentation till you are satisfied in getting confidence.
Get ready the audience:
1. Begin the topic to audience and point out what they can. Expect from the presentation.
2. Make clear’ if ready materials are to be given at the end of presentation.
Initiate the presentation:
1. Equipment should be outstanding with speaker to one side.
2. Maintain speed of talk based on understanding level of audience.
3. Try to narrate in a simple way and to the point.
Examine proper sequence:
2. Involve learners through discussion and continuous motivation.
3. Sum up by showing visuals and make announcement about any future work.
4. Express thanks to1he audience for any support and
5. If feasible, distribute materials or any handouts.
Evaluation of audio visual aids:
Evaluation is an essential part of any teaching and learning plan. This can be done by following ways.
1. Indirect: Make a note of the facial re4ponses of audience. Ask for voluntary participation based on request of audience for clarification and additional information.
2. Direct: Test the understanding of the audience through oral questing. Collect opinions or answers through questionnaire or other means in case of educated audience.
The Evaluation of audio-visual materials can be done by getting opinion of the audience about usefulness, appropriateness and suitability of material, style of presentation in terms of not satisfactory, partial satisfactory or fully satisfactory.
The effective use of extension teaching methods will make you a better teacher. The challenge for the extension teacher is to direct the attention of audience at strategic periods. Extension teaching methods provide one mechanism to direct and focus attention of audience. They make you more persuasive to” make your ideas clean, more concise. More professional and more interesting the farmers as learner have come to the, expectations to learn new things by modem methods of teaching. Today's farming world is very audio-visual compared to just a few decades ago. The average, person is audio-visually oriented and accustomed to novel presentations. Thus a strictly oral presentation is boring to the majority of the farmers. In this situation to establish overall organization for the effective extension teaching, each extension worker should use a variety of teaching methods to bring variety in teaching.
Activity:
A) The teacher has to instruct the students to prepare the following AV aids
1. Leaflet (Flyer): Leaflet is single sheet of paper used to present information on only one topic in a concise manner and simple language.
2. Folders: Folder is a single piece of paper folder once or twice, when it is opened the material presented are in sequence.
3. Posters: It is mass produced pictorial slogan used to create awareness among audience for single idea. A good poster creates awareness and curiosity among the people. It inspires and takes the people towards action.
4. Charts: they are diagrammatic representation of facts or ideas. They are graphic and pictorial representation used to tabulate large mass of information. They are visual symbols summarized information helpful to communicate difficult information in an effective way.
B) Students have to prepare the above AV aids on different agricultural topics and submit to course teacher.
Practical 8 & 9 : Preparation of extension literatures (News and Success stories)
Six ‘W's of Writing : The main purpose of writing is to communicate in such a manner that you attract the attention of your readers, interest them in what you are going to say, make them understand and remember, and finally help them take decision to act. Six Ws of writing also popularly known as 5Ws and 1H. Your writing has to serve the following purposes or fundaments or principles.
1. ‘WHY’ (The ‘Why’ of writing): It should make clear the purpose for which the writing has been made before starting the writing. Is it something new, which the audience must know? or is it to explain and give more information about something already known? Why do you want to teach this?
2. ‘WHO’ (The ‘Who’ of writing): It must answer the targeted audience who are to read. Writer should know more about them then just what he knows. Writers’ ideas must touch the readers and secure his interest. His problems and desires be known to know the ‘WHO’ is writing. Understanding the need of the audience is essential. Identify the reader, his problems, interests, needs, environments and capabilities.
3. ‘WHAT’ (The ‘What’ of writing): Select the subject in which the readers are vitally interested. Do not tell them all that is known about the subject like textbooks.
The message should:
· Be sound and useful meeting the needs of the farmers.
· Give one idea at a time with related logical thoughts.
· Contain all essential facts. Do not delete them for fear of length.
· Give new idea leaving aside what people already know.
1. ‘WHERE’ (The ‘Where’ of writing)
“Where” to get the message published that has been written containing different types of information’s written for different published media must be known.
· Results of research and demonstrations, stories of accomplishments and information of immediate use are published through circular – letters newspapers, radio and newsletters.
· If the information does not lose its value after a short time, the same with some more details a go as articles to weekly features of dailies, weeklies and monthly magazines.
· Where more details are desirable, the detailed information can be brought out through leaflets, folders and bulletins or pamphlets.
· By writing properly, you can give out detailed accounts through reports and resumes, which will be read avidly.
1. WHEN’ (The ‘When’ of writing): The information has to be timely to be useful. Therefore, it should be written far in advance of actual time or season of the use of message. “Time” the writing.
1. ‘WAY’ (The ‘How’ of writing): After the selection of the relevant facts, they have to be sifted and sort. Writing should be to the level of readers experience or understanding. Layman may be given an appreciation of subject matter rather than detailed explanation.
Effective Writing Techniques
a) Plan before writing: First of all collect the relevant material. Think before you write. Pre: writing makes it possible to avoid the duplication and elimination of the proper writing material together with logical arrangement of the text to the readers.
b) Live writing: Appreciation of the subject is given through ‘live’ writing. Appeal to all the sense of your readers. They not only like to ‘see’ your ideas, but get the feeling of ‘hearing’ them, ‘smelling’ them and ‘touching’ them too. It gives a sense of reality humanness, enjoyment and education.
c) Write simple and clear: Give no room to the readers to miss or misunderstand any of your ideas.
d) Be brief: People have little time and patience to through the long texts unless it is a fiction or story.
e) Be specific: Generalization is always vague and does not help the reader make decisions.
f) Do not be ‘Half hearted’: Avoid making, halting recommendations. Do not use words ‘May’, ‘Might’ etc.
g) Address the reader: A direct approach to the reader creates friendliness.
h) Illustrate: Use appropriate pictures. It possesses significant effect on readers.
i) Be accurate: Collect the accurate information and also state them correctly. Avoid partially correct information. Do not omit important ideas. Avoid partially correct placing emphasis.
j) Sound convincing: Quote sources and authorities for people believe them.
k) Do not ‘Talk Down’: Do not preach. No one likes a superior attitude. We are to only give information.
l) Be practical: People want the information, which they can put to practice. They do not have academic interests.
m) Avoid exaggeration: State the facts without being carried away by them. It makes the readers suspicious.
n) Personalize the message: Introduce the human element into the message write in first and second person only.
o) Check the draft: The text must be checked thoroughly for its completeness, conciseness, correctness, effectiveness and logical order.
p) Develop a good style: Style is the crux of all writing each has one’s own style of writing. It comes through reading the successful writers; you also need to know a good number of words, which comes only through good reading.
Examples of literature
1) News Story
The news items that appear in newspapers are also called news stories. A news story is always based on facts. A news story is an organized representation of facts in an interesting manner. It has found by observation and experience. Pictures, photographs and illustrations combined with make the best news story.
A news story is normally written in inverted pyramid style, that is, the most important facts come first followed by other facts in order of significance. The inverted pyramid style has developed in journalism over the years.
Inverted pyramid style: The most widely used approach in news writing is the inverted pyramid style. The information is given in the descending order of importance. Thus, it has three parts: Lead-Introduction paragraph, Body - support and supplement to the lead and Conclusion-closing paragraph.
1. Lead: The first paragraph of the story is called intro or lead. The first paragraph of the story which is the ‘show window’ should put the best of oneself. There are innumberable ways of writing intro or lead. Based on the writer’s judgment of the readers' needs and interests, he should design the lead in an attractive manner to answer who, what, when, where, how, and why of the event. The opening statement of the lead is called feature. This must be skillfully worded to work as a bait to catch readers. The strongest or the most appealing aspect of the presentable matter may be put forth in the feature. A good lead grabs your readers attention and refuses to let go. The lead establishes the direction of your writing will take.
2. Body: After the lead/ intro is written, the body of the story will follow the logical order of the inverted pyramid style. The story in order to be interesting should in the body contain the supporting facts. A good news story usually consists of 200-300 words. The story may have few or several paragraphs depending upon the matter available and the objective of the story writer. But it should follow the lead. This will facilitate the editor as well as the reader to decide where to stop.
3. Conclusion: Journalist should give digest of facts, conclude the story logically. The story should end with some encouraging and appealing words, phrases or sentences so as to sustain their interest in the future messages.
Reporters using the inverted pyramid style of writing normally summarize a story in the lead and present the facts in descending order of importance. Consequently they place the story’s most important details in the second paragraph. They continue to add details in decreasing order of importance. Each paragraph presents additional information: names, descriptions, quotations, conflicting viewpoints, explanations and background data.
The primary advantage of the inverted pyramid style is that if someone stops reading a story after only one or two paragraphs, that person will learn the story’s most important details. Moreover if a story is long editors can easily shorten it by deleting one or more paragraphs from the bottom. However, this style also has several disadvantages. Just because the lead summarizes facts that later paragraphs discuss in greater detail some of those facts may be repeated. Second a story that follows the inverted pyramid style rarely contains any surprises; the lead immediately reveals every major details. Third, the style makes some stories more complex and more difficult to write. Despite these problems, reporters use the inverted pyramid style for most news stories.
( Lead Body Conclusion )
2) Success story
A success story is a kind of news story of feature story narrating the success of
a. An individual or a group.
b. An event or a programme
c. An organization
Techniques of preparation of success stories:
It is essential that the story is marked by
a. Newness of the event.
b. Importance of the reader.
c. Proximity of the event to the reader.
d. Unusualness.
a. Good ideas
b. Appealing words and correct words so as to work on the psychology of the readers.
For success in such story writing, one needs:
a. Verbal facility.
c. Ability to assimilate information
d. Judgment in choosing and using the information
e. Creativity in practical application of ideas.
f. Open mind.
i. A sense of personal responsibility of what is written.
Accuracy, brevity and clarity are called the A, B, and C’s of news story writing.
The mass appeal and readability of the story improves with
a. Fact based presentation.
b. Use of short, correct, simple and catchy words.
c. Sentences using more nouns and verbs, few adverbs and adjectives, conjunctions etc.
d. Short sentences (about 16 to 20 words per sentence)
Writing the success story
1. The lead and the feature: The first paragraph of any news story is called the show window of the story in which one should put the best of oneself. It is called lead of the story. Based on the writer's judgment of the reader needs and interests, he should design the lead in an attractive manner to answer who, what, when, where, how and why of the event.
The opening statement of the LEAD is called features. This must be skillfully worded as a bait to catch the readers. The strongest or the most appealing aspect of the presentable matter may be put forth in the feature.
2. The body of the story: A good news story usually consists of 200-300 words. A feature story may be little longer. The opening sentence of the story the feature may answer one of the six questions raised above while the remaining five questions can get answered in due course of story writing.
The story can run into a few or several paragraphs depending upon the matter available and the objective of the story writer. But it should follow the lead. Let the details in the story be presented in the order of their importance. This will facilitate the editor as well as the reader to decide where to stop.
3. The end of the story: The story should end with some encouraging and appealing words/phrases/sentences so as to sustain their interest in your future messages.
Remembering that a success story is meant for
a. Disseminating information
c. Encouraging people to continue with adopted practices.
d. Encouraging people's satisfactions with the adopted practices.
Activity:
1. Teacher has to provide and explain the practical material for the news and success stories to the students.
2. Students have to prepare their own news stories and submit to the course teacher.
Practical -10 Skill exercise on preparing of power point for effective presentation
How to Plan a Technical Presentation
Technical experts – scientists and programmers – are being asked more and more frequently to give presentations. And not just to other technical experts. Often they are speaking to people with little or no technical expertise, to people from marketing, sales, and finance. 
Here's how to plan a technical presentation so it is clear and convincing.
1. Limit your Subject If you’re like most technical experts, you probably spend too much time doing research. Then, because you haven’t allowed yourself enough time to pull it all together, you end up ramming everything you know about your subject into your presentation. You produce any more slides than you can possibly do justice to in the allotted time. With most presentations, you won't have the time you need to say everything you want to say. So you have to prioritize. It’s your job to know what to say and, just as importantly, what not to say. While non-technical speakers are often “light” on content, technical presenters more commonly present — or try to present — too much material.
2. Understand your Audience Knowing who you’re talking to – your audience – is as important as knowing what you’re talking about – your subject. Your audience’s knowledge level, experience, learning style, and attitudes will – or should – affect how you shape and present your material. Find the answers to these questions: 
· What does you audience already know about your subject?
· Are they experts like yourself or neophytes? 
· How much knowledge can you take for granted? 
· How much background will you have to explain? 
· Will they understand basic jargon? 
· What is their learning style? 
· Are they accustomed to sitting through lectures and holding their questions to the end? Or will they expect to interact with you, asking questions throughout your presentation? 
· Do they like lots of PowerPoint™ slides and handouts? Or are they expecting you to be more interactive? 
· What are their opinions, prejudices, preconceived notions, agendas? 
· What is their stake in the subject? 
· How will your presentation affect their research or work?
3. Determine your Objective
What do you want to accomplish? What do you want your audience to do as a result of your presentation?
1. Challenge your assumptions or data or to confirm them?
2. Implement your procedure or technique? 
3. Renew your grant? 
4. Approve your proposal? 
5. Give you the go ahead for the next step of your research? 
 
4. Prepare your Outline If possible, break your presentation into three basic sections. (You can divide each section into more, smaller units.)  Here are some 3-section outlines you might find helpful: 
1. The problem, its causes, and the solution. 
2. The illness, the symptoms, and the treatment 
3. The current situation or standard operating procedure, the problems associated with it, and an alternative 
4. The state of your research, questions raised by your research, and the next steps 
5. A product, its composition, and its application 
Once you’ve “clumped” the various elements of your talk into their major sections – I strongly recommend three sections, but you could have as many as five – add an introduction and conclusion.
5. Create your Slides: Now you can turn on PowerPoint and begin creating your slides.
Designing PowerPoint Slides for an oral proposal
Power point slides are an essential component of most oral proposals. To avoid the most common mistakes too much information on one slide, poorly designed and hard-to-understand graphics, and endless pages of bullet points follow these rules:
· Review the Request for Proposal or speak with the contracting officer to find out what, if any, restrictions the customer has placed on the number and type of slides you can use during the presentation.
· Plan your presentation strategy and your central message before creating your visual aids.
· Have a professional designer create your slide templates. (The appearance of your presentation is too important to trust to amateurs or to generic templates.) Keep the template simple and uncluttered.
· Use the first slide to identify your organization, the customer, the proposal, and whatever disclaimers or restrictions your legal department deems necessary.
· Use the second slide to present an overview of your presentation — the topics you’re going to cover and who’s going to be addressing them. (Unless the customer has drastically limited the number of slides, always use an overview slide.)
· Use some visual devise to let people know where you are in the presentation. You can place a slide at the beginning of each new section or insert some type of identifying marker on each slide.
· Address only one major point per slide.
· Allow one slide, on average, for every minute to a minute and a half of speaking. (Some slides section markers, for example may take only a few seconds. Some slides may take as long as two to three minutes.) If you end up with more than one slide per minute of the time you have available, reconsider your strategy.
Each slide should address one or more of three questions: 
1. WHAT? What is the main point of the slide? What are you talking about? What issue are you addressing? The answer to this question is often reflected in the title of the slide. For example: “Transition Plan” or, even better, “Our Transition Plan Ensures Continuity of Service”
2. HOW? How are you proposing to accomplish what you say you’re going to do? The answer to this question typically makes up the bulk of the body of the slide. For example: You could show your proposed schedule for interviewing and hiring new staff during the transition phase.
3. WHY? Why are you doing what you’re doing the way you’re doing it? Why would the customer want what you’re proposing? How does it benefit the customer? The answer to this question is best placed in a highlighted box at the bottom of the slide. For example: “Our plan gives you uninterrupted access to the services you require from day one.”
· Make each slide so clear that you don’t need to use a pointer to explain it.
· Use the last slide as a summary of your main selling points — why your team and your proposal are best able to provide what the customer wants and needs.
Use the Q & A Session Effectively. Give people time to ask questions. For every twelve to fifteen minutes that you talk, set aside five minutes for Q&A. Your audience will become much more active in your presentation. And, because you've treated them like participants — not just passive listeners — they are much more likely to cooperate with you. This, in turn, will make you much more confident and at ease. check out how to handle questions.
How to Handle Questions and Answers (Q&A Made Simple).
1. Set the Rules at the Beginning Let the audience know when and how you'll handle questions. Unless you're giving a formal speech to a large audience, be prepared to take questions throughout your talk, not just at the end. You may, however, want to save Q&A for specific times during your presentation. (If you are making a controversial proposal, you may be wise to ask people to hold their questions until the end of your presentation.)
2. Field Questions Fairly
a) Listen to the entire question.
b) Understand what is being asked. You may want to rephrase the question and ask, “Did I understand you correctly?”
c) Repeat the question only if necessary. If someone asks a question in a large audience without using a microphone or if your presentation is being taped, you will need to repeat the question. 
d) Correct factual errors or misunderstandings immediately.
e) Don’t embarrass the questioner.
f) Defuse loaded questions. 
g) Give all audience members a chance to ask questions.
3. Answer Questions Tactfully
a) Talk to the audience, not just the questioner. (Begin by addressing the questioner, then turn to others in the audience. When you finish, look to some other part of the room and ask, “Who else has a question?”)
b) Be respectful of the questioner: avoid sarcasm, criticism, or arrogance.
c) Keep your sense of humour.
d) Answer the question as directly as possible without being abrupt.
e) Use your answers to reinforce your main points. Avoid making a presentation about a whole new subject.
f) Don’t be afraid to say, “I don’t know.” Ask for the person’s business card and promise to get back to him or her with the answer.
g) Postpone questions that require lengthy answers. Give a brief answer, admit that there’s more to be said, and offer to discuss it more fully later.
h) Turn certain questions back on your audience, asking for their input.
i) Retain control of the situation, deciding when to move on.
End the Q&A with a Summary
After you’ve answered the last question, wrap-up your presentation with a one or two sentence summary. Don’t simply say, “Thank you,” and sit down
Activity: 1. Teacher has to instruct the student to prepare a power point present presentation on any topic related to agriculture.
2. Students have to prepare a presentation on and agricultural topic and present it in front class under the guidance of course teacher.
Practical – 11 : Exposure visit to mass media station
Mass media written, spoken and visual carry information from its source to receiver’s readers, listeners, and viewers. The media may be used effectively in dealing with all sections of society everywhere, but they are especially important for taking science and technology to Indian agriculture. Mass media can be further divided into four types printed, spoken, visual, and a combination of those three. The term mass media implies a large andience. Mass media materials are needed whenever large number of people must be reached and motivated to action, which is an important advantage. One of the bestial example is rural areas is Community radio
Community radio:
This is radio owned and operated by a community or members of a community. It can be supported by the state, individuals or corporate or even international bodies. The central purpose for this radio is to offer the people a voice and help develop the community. A radio station is recognised as ‘community radio’ when the station is owned by a non-profit group or by a co-operative whose members are the listeners themselves. Community radio is a broadcasting organisation established to provide communication support for the social, economic and cultural development of a community within a geographical location and owned and operated by the community on a non-profit basis.
Selection of topics for programme production through Radio
1. Identification of Information Needs of the farmers: For any extension programme or extension activity to be successful it should be need based and location specific. All the efforts of programme production, time and cost involved will be futile if farmer needs are not considered and topic will be irrelevant and untimely. So as an extension officer/ volunteer before deciding the topic for production must identify needs of farming community.
2. Factors effecting the selection of topics/type of format (Segment): Any topic or subject may not be suitable in all situations. There are several factors that influence an extension officer/community radio volunteer in deciding topic for the programme. Some times as an expert or extension officer, you may be confused in selecting the topic. Hence, knowledge on factors influencing may be of great use in selecting right topic for right people in right time.
3. Target Audience: The target audiences are the community people, farmers who listen broadcast programmes. Hence, depending on the type of target audience i.e., the community topic should be selected. For this you should answer questions like what are needs/problems/ farming situation type of crops grown, etc., are to be considered. For this information/data collected using participatory tools/methods while identifying information needs is more important. Age, level of literacy of the target people what are their expectations, their knowledge, the stage of adoption, etc., are to be addressed in the topic.
4. Objective/Purpose: For any programme one must answer the questions why for and what for the topic is selected. Another important aspect is after listening the programme, what is that expected of the farmers/audience, i.e., whether you want them to get aware/convinced/or to adopt technology or to use information for decision making. Accordingly the type of topic and format changes.
5. Type of Learning Experience and Complementary Experience: One must able to decide what type of learning experience is needed. Such that farmer gets right message. Ex: is it just giving information, thorough understanding of demonstration, announcement, sensitize about any social issue, etc. Similarly, is there any access to the listeners the other media like print media, extension contact, etc., or not. Definitely this influence the intensity of focus needed on the theme, accordingly topic/format (segment) can be changed
Programme Production for Community radio:
Important Elements of Programme Production There are five important elements involved in programme production.
They are:
· Audience/ listeners,
· Extension officer/expert/volunteer,
· Infrastructure, studio/equipment and other facilities.
Target group or farmers the audience of the farm broadcast constitute basic element in any programme production meant for them. As we have already discussed how their information needs, agro ecological and farming situation, socio-economic status and their personal profile influences subject matter area/content to be covered in the programme. Representative farmers from the community may be involved not only in information identification, but also during programme production i.e., planning, script, preparation and especially while evaluating and modifying the programme. They should participate in giving realistic feedback. Extension officer/expert of the organization that intends to broadcast a programme for farmers plays a pivotal role in programme production .He is central and play a coordinating role in bringing out a good programme. They should consider all other elements and financial resources while deciding, planning, preparing, recording, editing, broadcasting and in reviewing the feedback of the programme. A meticulous systematic designing is required. This indicates how important your role in bringing out programme for farmers. Broadcast programme officer and the team of concerned AIR station or even the privately hired consultants form another important element in production. However meticulously the script is prepared, programme is designed, if it is not properly recorded by competent team and executed effectively by programme officer, and the programme will not give desired result. Competency and availability of technical people should also be considered.
Fig: 7 Importance elements in farm radio programme production
Subject matter/content/message/theme to be communicated is the heart to the entire programme production and broadcast. It should be precise, simple, and direct and must be relevant to the clientele needs. If subject matter is too long, it is better to break it in to different modules. All the other elements enable/facilitate in deciding the topic/content. With regard to infrastructure, without which nothing can be done, because programme production requires basically broad cast facility and other advanced digitized equipment availability. The access facility to farmers to listen the programme is also another important aspect as the purpose of programme is to communicate/educate or inform farmers. Thus these 5 elements play a major role in farm radio programme production
Assessment of Programme: Assessing the effectiveness of the programme and evaluating it as against predetermined objective or purpose for which it is meant is highly essential and important phase in the process of participatory community radio farm programme production. But, generally persons involved in production are not particular in taking up assessment and evaluation. Analysis of the data obtained in this regard provide proper base to future programmes, information needs that are not addressed and other lapses in the programme since farm broadcast programmes are meant for rural audience, who are basically illiterate and semiliterate, it is very difficult to get the assessment or evaluation through structured schedules, only interviews (semi structured, focused group type), participatory group approaches like ranking techniques, preferences, brainstorming, etc., can be applied for informal evaluation. The structured schedules can be used or given to community or group leaders, grass root level workers or the bare foot managers and obtain the feedback. Even the opinion of the experts in the particular field working in different organizations can be obtained through programme review committee meetings. The following is the proforma which can be used for evaluating farm broadcast programme.
Examples of community radio:
1. The initiative in Bhuj by Kutch Mahila Vikas Sangathan, is an attempt by a NGO to extend grass-root developmental work through participatory radio using the medium-wave broadcast channel of AIR. The, UNDP funded Kutch Mahila Vikas Sanghatan (KMVS) experience has highlighted the potential of radio for creating and keeping alive intangible communities in the overall socio-economic context of the erosion of communities defined by geographic boundaries. It uses the Kutchi language in its content, which mainstream All India Radio does not.
2. Junagadh Janvani :The community radio station, Junagadh Janvani started in the year 2015 and reaches out to masses on issues concerning health, environment, development, scientific awareness, women, social issues and others. It makes all efforts to inform, and educate, while entertaining the public. The Mission Statement of the Junagadh Janvani is “to utilize the power and reach of Radio to inform, educate and empower the diverse communities that make-up Junagadh and work in tandem with socially committed groups, educational institutions, NGOs and corporate bodies to educate communities and the public towards socially responsive behaviour; to share skills, knowledge, insights and promote initiative in individuals; to help preserve and popularize Indian heritage, art and culture; to act as a catalyst in meaningful social transformation and development; to sensitize and spread awareness on vital issues confronting the community.”
Activity:
1. Teacher has to guide students to develop a small community radio programme for a target community.
2. In groups the students has to work out the script for a community radio.
Practical-12 : Script writing for electronic media
Electronic Media
It is use  electronics  or  electromechanical  energy for the  end-user  ( audience ) to access the content. This is in contrast to static media (mainly  print media ), which today are most often  created electronically , but don't require electronics to be accessed by the end-user in the  printed  form. The primary electronic media sources familiar to the general public are better known as  video recordings ,  audio recordings ,  multimedia presentations ,  slide presentations ,  CD-ROM  and  online  content. Most  new media  are in the form of  digital media . However, electronic media may be in either  analog  or digital format.
Types of Electronic Media Available
1. Video News Releases are video news stories that are sent out by satellite to television stations around the country. TV stations have the option of using clips or entire stories.
2. Video conferences are often used as promotional tools to capture interest in a particular subject and reach wider targeted audiences.
3. National Teleconferences bring experts from around the country together to present information on a particular topic and engage in interactive discussions with the viewing audience. A mixed media format is often used.
4. Satellite MediaTours link a key person in the local metropolitan area with interviewers in targeted cities nationwide as part of a television story.
5. Radio Spots are short news announcements with a key idea presented in increments of 10-60 seconds.
6. PSAs (Public Service Announcements) are short spots on radio or television that a network runs free of charge.
7. Optical media
It is recommended that optical media such as CDs and DVDs are physically destroyed. Some shredders will shred CDs and DVDs but many will get stuck and the blades may get damaged, so you should check if your shreder is designed for this before attempting it. If no means of destruction is available, or for mass disposal of CDs and DVDs, contact facilities services on extension 37001.
Script writing for radio and TV
1. Script writing for Radio
Writing for the radio is quite different from the writing for the newspaper,. Remember, a newspaper story is read where as a radio broadcast is heard. Lengthy sentences, frowned upon in the newspaper writing are absolutely distracts in a radio speech or story. A long winded sentence will make the listener switch off. Writing for a newspaper permits the development of a style. Writing for the radio broadcast has no room for such pretensions. Sentences have to be terse and should carry the maximum information in any given minute.
For strong radio programme three components are essential:
· The speaker: He is responsible for organization and presentation of the information.
· The listener: He is responsible for assimilation of information.
· The programme: It is responsible for passing information.
The speaker needs to develop special traits like real and up-to-date knowledge, ability to appreciate the listeners presence of mind, ability to hold interest of the listeners, respecting the listeners, no influencing listeners with personal liking or disliking, giving frank views, leading the listeners towards action, considering listeners level of understanding, needs experience, knowledge, attitudes faith, belief, etc.
Listeners need to be the information seekers.
· Ever curious to hear so make your talk suspense.
· Getting bored easily so hold on interest through dialectic talks.
· Evaluating how they can be benefited, so give the most practical hints.
· Competitive so give plenty of successful stories or example of other farmers.
· impatient so come straight to the point and say what they need to know in a short but follow able and appealing manner
· Like to have suggestions within their means so only the most practical suggestion should given.
· Having practical and limited vocabulary so use the common and familiar words.
· Slow in listening and following, so control your speed of speech.
· Interested in local affairs so emphasize the local information favourably.
The programme needs to be desirable empathetic, making complex messages simple and understandable, not following text book approach, not stuffing whole knowledge into one topic but considers time limit, importance of topic and characteristics of the listeners.
Steps in writing a radio script:
1. First understand the topic, the listeners and the programme.
2. Find out main and supporting points related to the topic for information and discussion.
3. Collect necessary facts, figures and information pertaining to the topic.
4. Put them in logical order.
5. Check it from presentation point of view.
6. Ask expert opinion regarding coverage of information.
7. Modify according and rewriting it.
8. Rehearse it to adjust, time, speed of speech, voice, tone, etc.
Points to be keep in mind while writing and speaking for farmers:
1. Create traits for the broadcast like good voice, tone speech etc.
2. Keep yourself up to date with the most recent development.
3. Appreciate your listeners after knowing and understanding their-level of knowledge.
4. Create continuity and uniformity in writing and speaking.
5. Follow logical sequence in giving the ideas.
6. Gather information from the most reliable source and check and cross check it before putting it out.
7. Allow an amount of drama in the form of dialects of, conversation.
8. Give scientific explanation of the given points.
9. Come straight to the point and tell the most important matter only.
10. Give practical information through concrete example and case studies.