practical application of the tips theory from tea-bags to air-bags
TRANSCRIPT
DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 430 943 SP 038 526
AUTHOR Achilles, C. M.; Finn, J. D.
TITLE Some Connections between Class Size and Student Successes.
SPONS AGENCY Spencer Foundation, Chicago, IL.PUB DATE 1999-02-00NOTE 22p.; Paper presented at the Conference of the Center for
Developmental Learning (New Orleans, LA, February 8-10,1999) . Document contains small type throughout.
PUB TYPE Reports Research (143) Speeches/Meeting Papers (150)
EDRS PRICE MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Academic Achievement; *Class Size; Educational Policy;
Educational Research; Elementary Secondary Education;Federal Government; Politics of Education; *Small Classes
ABSTRACTThis paper summarizes class size research conducted
primarily since 1970. The paper discusses various relevant issues for use in
policy, in schools, and in additional research. Several studies over theyears have focused on: the issue of small being better and less being more
and emphasized the STAR (Student Teacher Achievement Ratio) educationexperiment; controversy over use of the STAR findings; harmful and beneficialeffects of small class size; costs of small class size; commonsense issuesrelated to class size (i.e., teachers know that they can teach better insmall classes, and parents get very involved in schools with small classes);teacher aide effects and class size research; class size and school safety;school-wide remedial projects and class size effects; and the federal policydebate about class size (which is shifting slightly toward smaller classes).(Contains 43 references.) (SM)
********************************************************************************Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
from the original document.********************************************************************************
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OD
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DU
CA
TIO
NA
L R
ES
OU
RC
ES
INF
OR
MA
TIO
N C
EN
TE
R (
ER
IC)
1
U.S
. DE
PA
RT
ME
NT
OF
ED
UC
AT
ION
Off
ice
of E
duca
tiona
l Res
earc
h an
d Im
prov
emen
tE
DU
CA
TIO
NA
L R
ES
OU
RC
ES
INF
OR
MA
TIO
NC
EN
TE
R (
ER
IC)
O T
his
docu
men
t has
bee
n re
prod
uced
as
rece
ived
from
the
pers
on o
r or
gani
zatio
nor
igin
atin
g it.
O M
inor
cha
nges
hav
e be
en m
ade
toim
prov
e re
prod
uctio
n qu
ality
.
Poi
nts
of v
iew
or
opin
ions
sta
ted
in th
isdo
cum
ent d
o no
t nec
essa
rily
repr
esen
tof
ficia
l OE
RI p
ositi
on o
r po
licy.
SOM
E C
ON
NE
CT
ION
S B
ET
WE
EN
CL
ASS
SIZ
E
AN
D S
TU
DE
NT
SU
CC
ESS
ES.
Prep
ared
for
the
Con
fere
nce
ofT
he C
ente
r fo
r D
evel
opm
enta
l Lea
rnin
g (C
DL
)
New
Orl
eans
, LA
Febr
uary
8-1
0, 1
999
By
C. M
. Ach
illes
, Pro
fess
orE
duca
tiona
l Lea
ders
hip
Eas
tern
Mic
higa
n U
nive
rsity
(E
MU
)Y
psila
nti,
MI
4819
7
and
I. D
. Fin
n, P
rofe
ssor
The
Gra
duat
e Sc
hool
SUN
Y, B
uffa
loB
uffa
lo, N
Y 1
4260
* So
me
mat
eria
ls h
ave
been
ada
pted
fro
m s
ever
al s
ourc
es, s
uch
as a
for
thco
min
g bo
ok, L
et's
Put
Kid
s Fi
rst F
mal
ly(1
999)
, by
Cor
win
Pre
ss. T
hous
and
Oak
s, C
A, f
mm
Ach
illes
, CIL
and
Pri
ce, W
. (19
99)
artic
le in
ach
oulli
gsig
ess
AQ
UI,
and
fro
m o
ther
sou
rces
pre
pare
d by
the
auth
ors
and
othe
rs. T
his
wor
k ha
s be
en p
artia
lly s
uppo
rted
by
a gr
ant
from
the
Spen
cer
Foun
datio
n, "
A S
tudy
of
Cla
ss S
ize
and
At-
Ris
k St
uden
ts."
BE
ST
CO
PY
AV
A1L
AB
LE
AA
SA
/Rea
dy2
[Dra
ft. I
n Pr
oces
s fo
r Pu
blic
atio
n. D
o N
ot Q
uote
. Com
men
ts W
elco
me.
]
The
stu
dy la
sted
for
fou
r ye
ars
and,
in m
y op
inio
n, is
the
mos
tsi
gnif
ican
t edu
catio
nal r
esea
rch
done
in th
e U
S du
ring
the
past
25 y
ears
.(O
rlic
h, 1
991,
p. 6
32).
Wis
dom
is n
ot c
omm
unic
able
... K
now
ledg
e ca
n be
com
mun
icat
ed, b
ut n
ot w
isdo
m. O
ne c
an f
ind
it, li
ve it
, be
fort
ifie
d by
it, d
o w
onde
rs th
roug
h it,
but
one
can
not
com
mun
icat
e an
d te
ach
it."
(Hes
se, 1
951
p. 1
44)
Intr
oduc
tion
Thi
s pa
per
sum
mar
izes
cla
ss-s
ize
rese
arch
con
duct
ed p
rim
arily
sin
ce19
70. P
oint
s ar
e pr
esen
ted
as th
ough
ts f
or p
olic
y, f
or u
se in
sch
ools
, and
for
adde
d re
sear
ch. M
odes
t spe
cula
tion
deri
ved
from
com
bini
ng th
e re
sults
of
vari
ous
stud
ies
is a
lso
adva
nced
. The
mat
eria
l com
mun
icat
esso
me
of th
ekn
owle
dge
deri
ved
abou
t cla
ss s
ize
in e
arly
pri
mar
y gr
ades
that
has
bee
nco
llect
ed o
ver
the
year
s. T
he w
isdo
m a
nd th
e w
ill to
beg
in to
red
irec
ted
ucat
ion
polic
y an
d pr
actic
e ca
nnot
be
com
mun
icat
ed. E
duca
tors
, lea
ders
,an
d pa
rent
s m
ust g
ener
ate
the
will
to u
se w
hat r
esea
rch
show
s w
ill im
prov
esc
hool
ing.
Col
lect
ive
wis
dom
man
date
s th
at in
vest
ing
in y
oung
peo
ple
is n
oton
ly lo
ng o
verd
ue, i
t is
the
duty
of
peop
le o
f in
tegr
ity. S
mal
l cla
sses
for
littl
eki
ds c
onst
itute
edu
catio
n's
IRA
.
Smal
l is
Bet
ter;
Les
s is
Mor
e
Ene
rgiz
ed b
y th
e G
lass
and
Sm
ith (
1978
) an
d Sm
ith a
nd G
lass
(19
79)
met
a-an
alys
es a
nd f
ollo
wed
by
som
e cl
ass-
size
inte
rest
and
res
earc
h in
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es a
nd C
anad
a fr
om a
bout
197
8-19
82, i
t's ta
ken
appr
oxim
atel
y 20
year
s fo
r cl
ass
size
to b
e ta
ken
seri
ousl
y as
a m
ajor
fac
tor
in e
duca
tion,
and
abou
t 10
year
s fo
r re
sults
of
the
STA
R (
Stud
ent T
each
er A
chie
vem
ent R
atio
)ed
ucat
ion
expe
rim
ent t
o ha
ve r
elat
ivel
y w
ide-
spre
ad c
onsi
dera
tion
in
C. M
. Ach
illes
, Pro
fess
or, E
duca
tiona
l Lea
ders
hip,
EM
U, Y
psila
nti,
MI,
481
97 a
nd J
. D.
Finn
, Pro
fess
or S
UN
Y, B
uffa
lo, N
Y. M
ater
ial i
s in
pro
cess
for
pub
licat
ion
as p
art o
f a
book
,L
et's
Put
lUds
Fir
st. F
inal
ly, t
o be
pub
lishe
d (1
999)
by
Cor
win
Pre
ss, T
hous
and
Oak
s, C
A..
Mat
eria
l rep
orte
d he
re w
as s
uppo
rted
in p
art b
y a
gran
t fro
m th
e Sp
ence
r Fo
unda
tion
entit
led
'A S
tudy
of
Cla
ss S
ize
and
At R
isk
Stud
ents
." T
his
mat
eria
l doe
s no
t nec
essa
rily
refl
ect t
he p
olic
y or
pos
ition
of
the
Spen
cer
Foun
datio
n, o
r of
any
oth
er s
ourc
e of
sup
port
.
2
4
AA
WR
eady
- 3
Am
eric
an e
duca
tion.
The
ST
AR
exp
erim
ent a
nd c
aref
ully
eva
luat
edim
plem
enta
tions
of
smal
l cla
sses
hav
e sh
own
a "c
lass
-siz
e ef
fect
" th
atin
clud
es a
wid
e ra
nge
of p
ositi
ve o
utco
mes
for
stu
dent
s, te
ache
rs, p
aren
ts,
and
even
tual
ly f
or s
ocie
ty. T
he c
lass
-siz
e ch
ange
cau
ses
the
new
out
com
es.
The
ST
AR
, Las
ting
Ben
efits
Stu
dy (
LB
S), C
halle
nge,
and
ST
AR
Fol
low
-up
res
ults
hav
e be
en m
ade
wid
ely
avai
labl
e in
art
icle
s, r
esea
rch
repo
rts,
conf
eren
ce p
aper
s, m
onog
raph
s, a
nd E
RIC
ent
ries
. Eve
ntua
lly, S
TA
R f
mdi
ngs
attr
acte
d so
me
atte
ntio
n an
d re
ceiv
ed p
ositi
ve c
ritic
al c
omm
ents
. ST
AR
was
atig
htly
con
trol
led,
long
itudi
nal e
xper
imen
t of
clas
s si
ze th
at c
orre
cted
for
man
y of
the
wea
knes
ses
iden
tifie
d in
pri
or c
lass
-siz
e st
udie
s. T
he L
BS,
Cha
lleng
e an
d ST
AR
Fol
low
-up
proj
ects
ext
ende
d th
e ST
AR
exp
erim
enta
lw
ork.
Aft
er h
is y
ear-
long
rev
iew
of
the
STA
R s
tudi
es, P
rofe
ssor
Em
eritu
sFr
eder
ick
Mos
telle
r at
Har
vard
com
men
ted
that
exp
erim
enta
l stu
dies
like
STA
R s
houl
d pr
ovid
e a
basi
s fo
r ed
ucat
ion
polic
y an
d fo
r ch
ange
s in
pra
ctic
e(1
995)
. ... th
e T
enne
ssee
cla
ss s
ize
proj
ect,
... il
lust
rate
s th
e ki
nd a
ndm
agni
tude
of
rese
arch
nee
ded
in th
e fi
eld
of e
duca
tion
tost
reng
then
sch
ools
(p.
113
). .
.. it
is im
port
ant t
hat b
oth
educ
ator
san
d po
licy
mak
ers
have
acc
ess
to it
s st
atis
tical
info
rmat
ion
and
unde
rsta
nd it
s im
plic
atio
ns. (
p. 1
28).
By
re-a
naly
zing
the
K-3
ST
AR
dat
a, P
rinc
eton
eco
nom
ist a
nd e
duca
tion
prod
uctio
n-fu
nctio
n re
sear
cher
Pro
fess
or A
lan
Kru
eger
(19
97, 1
998)
conf
irm
ed th
e or
igin
al S
TA
R K
-3 f
indi
ngs
and
exte
nded
then
in w
ays
to h
elp
lead
ers
mak
e po
licy
deci
sion
s. K
rueg
er's
ana
lysi
s sh
owed
that
pos
itive
outc
omes
cou
ld b
e ob
tain
ed w
ith o
nly
smal
l dif
fere
nces
in c
lass
siz
es, i
n th
era
nge
of 2
2-25
stu
dent
s, a
cla
ss-s
ize
rang
e of
inte
rest
to p
erso
ns c
onsi
deri
ngla
rge-
scal
e ch
ange
s su
ch a
s in
Cal
ifor
nia.
Kru
eger
add
ed h
is v
oice
toM
oste
ller's
that
ST
AR
was
a w
ell c
once
ived
and
impo
rtan
t stu
dy.
Prof
esso
r M
oste
ller
(199
5) a
nd M
oste
ller,
Lig
ht, a
nd S
achs
(19
96)
argu
ed th
at S
TA
R a
nd s
imila
r ex
peri
men
ts s
houl
d in
form
edu
catio
nal p
olic
yde
cisi
ons.
Kru
eger
(19
97)
expl
aine
d w
hy p
eopl
e sh
ould
rel
y he
avily
on
STA
Rre
sults
com
pare
d to
ear
lier
clas
s-si
ze s
tudi
es, [
or s
tudi
es o
f pu
pil-
teac
her
ratio
(PT
R)
mis
labe
led
as c
lass
siz
e st
udie
s]. M
ixed
res
ults
of
som
e ea
rlie
r st
udie
sca
n be
exp
lain
ed b
y re
view
ing
them
in li
ght o
f ST
AR
fin
ding
s .
IOne
wel
l des
igne
d ex
peri
men
t sho
uld
trum
p a
phal
anx
of p
oorl
yco
ntro
lled,
impr
ecis
e, o
bser
vatio
nal s
tudi
es b
ased
on
unce
rtai
nst
atis
tical
spe
cifi
catio
ns. (
Kru
eger
, 199
7, p
. 27)
.
3
AASA/Rea4-4
The
re h
as b
een
som
e fe
dera
l int
eres
t in
clas
s-si
ze a
djus
tmen
ts,
espe
cial
ly in
Am
eric
a's
poor
est s
choo
ls, b
ut th
e Pr
esid
ent's
199
8 pr
opos
edcl
ass-
size
initi
ativ
e ra
n in
to r
oadb
lock
s in
clud
ing:
pol
itica
l ide
olog
y; c
ritic
ism
from
som
e pe
rson
s w
ho m
ista
ke c
lass
siz
e an
d pu
pil-
teac
her
ratio
(PT
R),
or
who
adv
ocat
e ot
her
educ
atio
n ch
ange
s; a
nd th
e fa
cilit
ies
cris
is b
roug
ht a
bout
from
a)
long
-sta
ndin
g fa
cilit
ies
negl
ect,
b) in
crea
sing
enr
ollm
ents
, and
c)
the
mov
e to
sm
alle
r cl
asse
s w
ith th
e m
inds
et th
at o
nly
clas
sroo
ms
in tr
aditi
onal
scho
ol w
ill d
o fo
r sm
all g
roup
s of
ver
y yo
ung
stud
ents
.
"Now
we
mus
t mak
e ou
r pu
blic
ele
men
tary
and
sec
onda
rysc
hool
s th
e be
st in
the
wor
ld ..
. and
eve
ry p
aren
t alr
eady
kno
ws
the
key,
goo
d te
ache
rs a
nd s
mal
l cla
sses
. Ton
ight
I p
ropo
se th
efi
rst-
ever
nat
iona
l eff
ort t
o re
duce
cla
ss s
ize
in th
e ea
rly
grad
es. .
.. W
ith th
ese
teac
hers
, we
will
red
uce
clas
s si
ze in
the
firs
t,se
cond
, and
thir
d gr
ades
to a
n av
erag
e of
18
stud
ents
in a
cla
ss."
(W. C
linto
n, S
tate
of
the
Uni
on A
ddre
ss. 1
/27/
98; c
ited
in th
e N
YT
imes
, 1/2
8/98
, p. 1
9A.)
Som
e C
onte
ntio
usne
ss in
Usi
ng C
lass
-Siz
e R
esul
ts
Use
s an
d pr
opos
ed u
se o
f ST
AR
fin
ding
s ha
ve g
ener
ated
pre
dict
able
cont
rove
rsy
in th
e m
edia
and
pro
fess
iona
l lite
ratu
re, a
nd a
mon
g re
sear
cher
s,po
litic
ians
, and
pol
icy
peop
le. I
n tr
ucul
ent t
ones
rem
inis
cent
of
R C
alla
han'
s(1
967)
Edu
catio
n an
d th
e C
ult o
f E
ffic
ienc
y, s
ome
clai
m th
at th
ere
may
be
mor
e ef
fici
ent w
ays
to im
prov
e st
uden
t ach
ieve
men
t or
that
it is
exp
ensi
ve to
redu
ce c
lass
siz
e. T
his
assa
ult o
n lo
ngitu
dina
l, re
plic
able
res
earc
h is
bas
ed o
nlit
tle b
ut s
pecu
latio
n --
Sha
kesp
eare
mig
ht h
ave
said
"so
und
and
fury
"an
dqu
estio
nabl
e lo
gic.
How
can
we
tmde
rsta
nd th
e "e
ffic
ienc
y" o
f re
duci
ng c
lass
size
s un
til th
ere
are
enou
gh s
mal
l-cl
ass
activ
ities
for
the
seri
ous
stud
y of
them
? M
ost d
ire
cost
pre
dica
tions
abo
ut th
e bu
rden
of
smal
l cla
sses
do
not
fact
or in
cos
t sav
ings
, lon
g-te
rm b
enef
its, o
r sy
stem
ic c
hang
es th
at s
mal
lcl
asse
s pr
ecip
itate
. (Se
e T
able
1)
TA
BL
E 1
AB
OU
T H
ER
E
4
AASA/Reacly
-5
Cla
ss S
ize:
Per
vasi
ve a
nd P
ersu
asiv
e
Has
any
res
earc
h sh
own
harm
ful e
ffec
ts o
f sm
all c
lass
es, o
r th
at la
rger
clas
ses
are
bette
r fo
r ch
ildre
n? W
hat s
ucce
ssfu
l edu
catio
n pr
ojec
ts o
rin
terv
entio
ns d
o no
t rel
y on
a s
mal
l-cl
ass
effe
ct?
How
muc
h su
cces
s of
som
epo
pula
r pr
ojec
ts m
ight
be
attr
ibut
ed to
a s
mal
l-cl
ass
effe
ct if
the
eval
uatio
nsto
ok c
lass
siz
e in
to a
ccou
nt a
s a
sepa
rate
var
iabl
e? T
utor
ing
and
coop
erat
ive
lear
ning
are
cla
ss-s
ize
effo
rts.
Alte
rnat
ives
to r
egul
ar p
ublic
edu
catio
n th
rive
upon
a s
mal
l-cl
ass
effe
ct: H
ome
scho
olin
g, a
ltern
ativ
e sc
hool
s, c
hart
ersc
hool
s, e
xpen
sive
pri
vate
sch
ools
, app
rent
ices
hips
.
The
ant
i-cl
ass-
size
lite
ratu
re o
ffer
s hy
poth
etic
al d
iscu
ssio
ns o
f ho
wso
met
hing
els
e (w
e're
not
qui
te s
ure
wha
t tha
t is)
mig
ht b
e a
bette
r or
less
expe
nsiv
e w
ay th
an s
mal
l cla
sses
to g
et a
t the
sam
e ac
hiev
emen
t and
beha
vior
out
com
es. T
he c
ritic
s us
ually
neg
lect
stu
dent
beh
avio
rs o
r af
fect
.Fa
vori
te s
ugge
stio
ns in
clud
e sp
endi
ng th
e fu
nds
for
tech
nolo
gy, f
orin
cent
ives
, for
sta
ff d
evel
opm
ent,
or f
or m
ore
proj
ects
.
We'
re ju
st n
ow b
egin
ning
to u
nder
stan
d th
e ef
fect
s of
ear
ly s
mal
l-cl
ass
educ
atio
n on
late
r st
uden
t beh
avio
r (e
.g.,
Bai
n et
al.,
199
7). T
he S
TA
R F
ollo
w-
up S
tudi
es s
how
long
-ter
m e
duca
tion
and
soci
al b
enef
its, s
uch
as s
tude
ntdr
op-o
ut, d
isci
plin
e ac
tions
, ret
entio
n in
gra
de, h
igh
scho
ol c
ours
es o
f st
udy
and
grad
es a
chie
ved.
The
se r
esul
ts a
re s
imila
r to
the
long
-ran
ge o
utco
mes
of
the
Perr
y Pr
esch
ool P
roje
ct (
Bar
nett,
198
5, 1
995;
Wei
kert
, 198
9; 1
998,
etc
.).
New
pol
icy
anal
ysis
res
earc
h m
ight
rev
iew
-the
"tr
ade-
offs
" in
var
ious
clas
s-si
ze im
plem
enta
tions
, suc
h as
opt
ions
invo
lvin
g sp
ace
use;
soc
ial
cost
/ben
efit
ques
tions
ass
ocia
ted
with
the
high
cos
ts o
f re
tent
ion,
rem
edia
tion,
.sp
ecia
l edu
catio
n, s
tude
nt in
disc
iplin
e, e
tc. C
lass
-siz
e is
sues
mig
ht b
eco
nnec
ted
to s
pace
usa
ge (
prox
emic
s) a
nd th
e po
ssib
ility
that
cro
wdi
ng li
ttle
child
ren
may
con
trib
ute
to la
ter
diff
icul
t beh
avio
r, s
uch
as g
angs
in s
choo
ls, o
rth
at la
rge
clas
ses
prod
uce
stal
e ai
r th
at a
dds
to te
ache
r fa
tigue
and
stu
dent
inat
tent
iven
ess
late
in th
e sc
hool
day
. How
doe
s ea
rly
scho
olin
g in
sm
all
clas
ses
exte
nd r
ecen
t fin
ding
s of
bra
in r
esea
rch,
cog
nitiv
e ps
ycho
logy
,ne
uros
cien
ce, g
roup
dyn
amic
s an
d co
mm
unity
? Sm
all c
lass
es in
crea
sest
uden
t par
ticip
atio
n in
and
iden
tific
atio
n w
ith s
choo
l (Fi
nn, 1
989,
199
3, 1
998)
.If
this
lead
s to
a p
ositi
ve tr
ajec
tory
of
succ
ess
in s
choo
l and
the
prob
abili
tyth
at s
tude
nts
will
not
dro
p ou
t, do
es th
is s
uppo
rt L
inds
ay (
1982
, 198
4) th
atsc
hool
par
ticip
atio
n ca
rrie
s ov
er in
to y
oung
adu
lt pa
rtic
ipat
ion
in s
ocie
ty?
Cla
ss S
ize
and
Cos
ts/T
each
ers,
Spa
ce. a
nd "
Out
of
the
Box
"
Som
e pe
ople
exp
lain
that
usi
ng s
mal
l cla
sses
is e
xpen
sive
, tha
t the
re is
no s
pace
, and
that
ther
e ar
e no
teac
hers
ava
ilabl
e to
teac
h th
e ne
w s
mal
lcl
asse
s. T
hese
are
pro
blem
s, b
ut th
ey a
re n
ot in
surm
ount
able
. Con
side
rso
me
actu
al s
ituat
ions
.
5
7
AA
SA
/Rea
dy -
6
Ope
ratin
g at
the
sam
e pe
r-pu
pil e
xpen
ditu
re a
s th
e re
st o
f th
e di
stri
ct,
The
Dow
ntow
n Sc
hool
in W
mst
on-S
alem
, NC
has
cla
sses
of
abou
t 14:
1. I
nSu
cces
s St
arts
Sm
all (
SSS)
two
scho
ols
in th
e sa
me
syst
em h
ad 2
4:1
and
14:1
beca
use
of r
e-al
loca
tion
and
use
of T
itle
I fu
ndin
g. T
he u
se o
f sm
all c
lass
esdo
es n
ot h
ave
to b
e co
stly
, esp
ecia
lly if
one
fac
tors
in th
e be
nefi
ts o
f sm
all
clas
ses.
Exa
mpl
es o
f th
ese
bene
fits
are
in T
able
1.
Scho
ols
curr
ently
hav
e ed
ucat
ors
who
are
not
teac
hing
"re
gula
r"cl
asse
s, a
nd th
ese
teac
hers
are
par
t of
the
PTR
and
cla
ss-s
ize
diff
eren
ces.
Rea
lloca
tion
of p
erso
nnel
and
teac
hing
spa
ces
will
hel
p so
lve
the
spac
e an
dpe
rson
nel p
robl
ems.
Tab
le 2
incl
udes
an
exam
ple
of h
ow s
uch
re-a
lloca
tion
ofpe
rson
nel m
ay b
e de
cide
d in
site
-bas
ed d
ecis
ions
. (T
his
is a
n ad
apta
tion
ofth
e fo
rm a
nd p
roce
ss u
sed
in o
ne N
C s
choo
l.) C
lass
es in
Bur
ke C
ount
y, N
Cha
ve b
een
redu
ced
in g
rade
s 1-
3 at
littl
e ad
ded
expe
nses
per
pup
il.T
able
s 3
and
4 pr
ovid
e su
mm
arie
s of
act
ual s
choo
l-in
itiat
ed e
ffor
ts to
redu
ce c
lass
siz
es to
bel
ow 2
0:1
and
to s
o th
is w
ithou
t add
ing
muc
h fu
ndin
g to
the
scho
ols
over
that
am
ount
alr
eady
use
d th
ere.
If
thes
e sc
hool
s ca
n ge
tsm
all c
lass
es b
y ca
refu
l use
of
reso
urce
s, it
sho
uld
be p
ossi
ble
for
othe
r to
do
the
sam
e.
Fina
lly, b
ecau
se s
mal
l cla
sses
are
par
ticul
arly
use
ful w
hen
a st
uden
ten
ters
sch
ool i
n K
or
grad
e 1,
the
use
of s
mal
l cla
sses
sho
uld
begi
n in
gra
des
K a
nd/o
r 1,
and
be
adde
d on
e gr
ade
at a
tim
e. T
his
proc
ess
will
giv
e le
ader
stim
e to
pla
n, e
valu
ate
earl
y re
sults
, and
mak
e ad
just
men
ts a
s ne
eded
dur
ing
a3-
4 ye
ar im
plem
enta
tion
proc
ess.
TA
BL
ES
2, 3
, and
4 A
BO
UT
HE
RE
Wha
t are
the
impl
icat
ions
of
smal
l cla
sses
for
use
of
spac
e, ti
me,
and
tech
nolo
gy in
sch
oolin
g? F
or im
prov
ed s
choo
l-ho
me
rela
tions
hips
? Fo
rin
nova
tive
use
of p
erso
nnel
?
As
mor
e an
swer
s be
com
e av
aila
ble
abou
t sm
all c
lass
es in
edu
catio
n,in
form
atio
n ab
out t
he e
ffic
ienc
y of
sm
all c
lass
siz
e sh
ould
als
o be
com
eav
aila
ble.
The
ST
AR
-gen
erat
ed c
lass
-siz
e re
sear
ch h
as a
nsw
ered
the
ques
tion
abou
t the
eff
ectiv
enes
s of
ear
ly s
mal
l-cl
ass
inte
rven
tions
. How
eff
icie
nt is
it to
cont
inue
edu
catio
nal c
ondi
tions
(e.
g., l
arge
cla
sses
) th
at le
ad to
sch
ool
drop
out,
grad
e re
tent
ion,
or
"ach
ieve
men
t gap
s?"
Blo
om (
1984
a &
b)
aske
d ed
ucat
ors
to s
eek
answ
ers
to h
is "
2-si
gma
prob
lem
" an
d "s
earc
h fo
r m
etho
ds o
f gr
oup
inst
ruct
ion
as e
ffec
tive
as o
ne-t
o-on
e tu
tori
ng."
How
can
edu
cato
rs a
ppro
xim
ate
thos
e le
arni
ng o
utco
mes
in a
grou
p se
tting
? A
ppro
pria
te-s
ized
cla
sses
in K
-3 a
re a
sta
rt. T
hey
offe
r th
ree
AA
SA
/Rea
dy-
7
soci
ally
-des
irab
le b
enef
its th
at a
re e
xpre
ssed
Am
eric
an v
alue
s. T
hose
bene
fits
of
Qua
lity,
Equ
ality
, and
Equ
ity p
rovi
de m
easu
rabl
e po
sitiv
eou
tcom
es a
nd o
ne m
nem
onic
for
edu
catio
n im
prov
emen
t: B
ette
r E
duca
tion
=Q
E2. O
ualit
y. M
any
indi
cato
rs, i
nclu
ding
hig
her
achi
evem
ent i
n ac
adem
ics,
beha
vior
, citi
zens
hip,
and
dev
elop
men
t sho
w th
e qu
ality
of
smal
l cla
sses
.
Equ
ality
. All
part
icip
ants
get
the
sam
e tr
eatm
ent.
No
grou
p ge
ts m
ore
orle
ss th
an a
noth
er. E
ach
stud
ent g
ets
the
sam
e-si
zed
scoo
p of
ice
crea
m.
Equ
ity. M
inor
ity a
nd h
ard-
to-t
each
you
ngst
ers
bene
fit m
ore
from
sm
all
clas
ses
than
do
othe
r yo
ungs
ters
, but
all
who
ben
efit
in a
sm
all c
lass
bene
fit i
n po
sitiv
e w
ays.
(A
chill
es, F
inn,
& B
ain,
199
7-98
; Fin
n &
Ach
illes
,19
90; R
obin
son,
199
0; W
engl
insk
y, 1
997,
etc
.).
Impr
oved
Edu
catio
n =
QE
2: S
mal
l cla
sses
off
er Q
ualit
y, E
qual
ity, E
quity
Cla
ss-s
ize
Res
earc
h Sq
uare
s w
ith C
omm
on S
ense
One
bea
uty
of c
lass
-siz
e re
sear
ch is
that
for
onc
e ed
ucat
ion
rese
arch
resu
lts p
aral
lel c
omm
on s
ense
. Tea
cher
s kn
ow th
at th
ey c
an te
ach
bette
r in
smal
l cla
sses
. Par
ents
con
sist
ently
ask
that
thei
r yo
ungs
ters
be
put i
nto
smal
ler
clas
ses
and
the
pare
nts
get r
eally
invo
lved
at t
he s
choo
l whe
n th
ecl
asse
s ar
e sm
all.
(So
pare
nt-i
nvol
vem
ent p
robl
ems
are
amel
iora
ted)
. Mos
ted
ucat
ion
proj
ects
rel
y on
sm
all c
lass
es n
umbe
rs o
f yo
ungs
ters
with
a s
ingl
ete
ache
r, s
o sm
all c
lass
es f
or a
ll ch
ildre
n pr
ovid
e ov
eral
l sch
ool i
mpr
ovem
ent.
Oft
en-e
spou
sed
but s
eldo
m-e
mpl
oyed
"in
divi
dual
ized
" in
stru
ctio
n ac
tual
lybe
com
es p
ossi
ble
whe
n a
teac
her
has
a m
anag
eabl
e nu
mbe
r of
you
ngst
ers,
and
the
teac
her
can
real
istic
ally
be
held
acc
ount
able
for
stu
dent
ach
ieve
men
t.
The
cla
ss-s
ize
rese
arch
rai
ses
man
y qu
estio
ns a
bout
ear
ly s
choo
ling.
Bes
ides
the
PTR
-cla
ss s
ize
diff
eren
ce, e
duca
tors
may
nee
d to
con
side
r sp
ace
vs. c
lass
room
s, r
emot
e or
sat
ellit
e pr
imar
y-gr
ade
cent
ers
conn
ecte
d by
tech
nolo
gy to
a h
ome-
base
sch
ool,
or r
e-de
ploy
men
t of
som
e ed
ucat
ors.
Smal
l cla
sses
rai
se is
sues
of
spac
e an
d cr
owdi
ng, a
nd s
ubse
quen
t stu
dent
beha
vior
s. S
mal
l cla
sses
inte
rsec
t with
sch
ool s
ize
as a
n im
port
ant v
aria
ble.
[Sm
all c
lass
es m
itiga
te th
e ne
gativ
e ou
tcom
es o
f bi
g sc
hool
s. N
ye, K
. (19
91)]
.
In a
dditi
on to
the
stan
d-al
one
bene
fits
of
smal
l cla
sses
, cla
ss s
ize
and
the
Eff
ectiv
e Sc
hool
Cor
rela
tes
fit w
ell t
oget
her,
and
this
val
idat
ing
mut
ual
supp
ort i
s re
assu
ring
. If
the
Eff
ectiv
e Sc
hool
s C
orre
late
s m
ake
sens
e an
dha
ve h
elpe
d im
prov
e sc
hool
ing,
it s
houl
d no
t be
a su
rpri
se to
fin
d cl
ose
conn
ectio
ns b
etw
een
them
and
cla
ss-s
ize
elem
ents
.
AA
SA/R
eady
- 8
Tea
cher
Aid
es: A
Pol
icy
Con
undr
um
The
res
earc
h em
phas
is o
n cl
ass
size
has
ove
rsha
dow
ed th
e te
ache
r ai
dequ
estio
n th
at h
as n
ot y
et b
een
fully
exa
min
ed. S
TA
R's
in-s
choo
l exp
erim
enta
lde
sign
cou
ld a
s ea
sily
mak
e ST
AR
an
expe
rim
enta
l stu
dy o
f te
ache
r-ai
deef
fect
s as
a s
tudy
of
clas
s-si
ze e
ffec
ts. Z
ahar
ias
and
Bai
n, tw
o ST
AR
rese
arch
ers,
com
pile
d T
each
er A
ides
and
Stu
dent
Lea
rnin
g, L
esso
ns f
rom
Proi
ect S
TA
R (
1998
) fo
r E
duca
tiona
l Res
earc
h Se
rvic
e. O
f th
e th
ree
STA
Rco
nditi
ons,
the
Smal
l cla
ss (
S) w
as b
est,
gene
rally
fol
low
ed b
y th
e R
egul
arcl
ass
(R)
and
then
by
the
Reg
ular
cla
ss w
ith a
ful
l-tim
e in
stru
ctio
nal a
ide.
(RA
). T
his
expe
rim
enta
l fin
ding
may
hel
p ex
plai
n m
ixed
res
ults
obt
aine
d in
Prim
e T
ime
whe
re a
teac
her
aide
cou
ld b
e us
ed to
cha
nge
the
stud
ent-
to-a
dult
ratio
in li
eu o
f es
tabl
ishi
ng a
sec
ond
clas
s. (
Cha
se, M
uelle
r, &
Wal
den,
198
6;T
illits
ki e
t aL
, 198
8). S
TA
R w
as n
ot th
e fi
rst s
tudy
to s
how
that
aid
es d
id n
othe
lp s
tude
nt o
utco
mes
(e.
g., D
avid
son,
Bec
kett
& P
eddi
cord
, 199
4). A
chill
eset
al.
(199
3) q
uest
ione
d th
e su
b-pa
r pe
rfor
man
ce o
f th
e te
ache
r-ai
de c
lass
es in
STA
R. M
acro
-lev
el e
vide
nce
on te
ache
r-ai
de e
ffec
ts is
con
tain
ed in
the
gene
rally
poo
r re
sults
obt
aine
d by
Titl
e I
over
the
year
s (L
eTen
dre,
199
1;B
orm
an &
D'A
gost
ino,
199
6; W
ong
& M
eyer
, 199
8). M
uch
of H
anus
hek'
s(1
998)
ana
lysi
s of
the
°eff
ects
of
clas
s si
ze"
is a
n an
alys
is o
f pu
pil-
teac
her
ratio
(FI
R)
effe
cts
(Tab
les
3-6,
pp.
16-
24 a
re e
ven
labe
led
PTR
whi
lepr
ocla
imin
g to
pro
vide
evi
denc
e on
cla
ss s
ize)
, and
this
cou
ld in
clud
e te
ache
rai
des,
dep
endi
ng o
n ho
w d
ata
are
repo
rted
. He
conc
lude
cith
at c
lass
siz
e (s
ic)
[or
PTR
(re
ally
)] h
as li
ttle
effe
ct o
n st
uden
t out
com
es. B
esid
es P
rim
e T
ime,
the
Nev
ada
clas
s-si
ze in
itiat
ive
is g
ettin
g m
ixed
res
ults
, whe
re b
ecau
se o
fsp
ace
limits
, one
cla
ss-s
ize
trea
tmen
t is
two
teac
hers
in a
cla
ss o
f 30
-35
stud
ents
. The
inev
itabl
e co
nclu
sion
fro
m a
ll th
ese
resu
lts is
that
cla
ss s
izes
not t
each
er a
ides
, inf
luen
ce s
tude
nt o
utco
mes
.
The
teac
her-
aide
fm
ding
s pr
esen
t ser
ious
pol
icy
prob
lem
s. M
any
teac
hers
like
and
rel
y on
teac
her
aide
s. T
each
er a
ides
oft
en li
ve in
the
imm
edia
te s
choo
l com
mun
ity a
nd k
now
the
com
mun
ity a
nd th
e pe
ople
ther
e;th
e te
ache
rs m
ay c
omm
ute.
As
dem
ogra
phy
and
educ
atio
n pr
actic
e ch
ange
,te
ache
r ai
des
may
be
impo
rtan
t in
assi
stin
g a
teac
her
with
incl
usio
nthe
plac
emen
t of
spec
ial-
need
s st
uden
ts in
the
regu
lar
clas
sroo
m r
athe
r th
an in
reso
urce
roo
ms
or s
elf-
cont
aine
d se
tting
s. T
each
er a
ides
may
be
indi
spen
sabl
e in
hel
ping
with
bili
ngua
l or
Eng
lish
as a
Sec
ond
Lan
guag
e(E
SL)
and
Lim
ited
Eng
lish
Prof
icie
ncy
(LE
P) s
tude
nts
and
in h
elpi
ng te
ache
rsun
ders
tand
the
cultu
res
of s
tude
nts
from
the
com
mun
ity. T
he e
ffic
ient
and
effe
ctiv
e us
e of
teac
her
aide
s is
an
area
beg
ging
for
mor
e so
lid r
esea
rch.
8
1 0
AA
SA/R
eady
- 9
Cla
ss S
ize
and
Safe
ty
Scho
ol s
afet
y ha
s be
en il
lum
inat
ed in
the
hars
h gl
are
of s
ome
shoc
king
viol
ence
, and
als
o va
stly
ove
rsta
ted.
Fed
eral
legi
slat
ion
and
fund
ing
have
follo
wed
the
natio
nal g
oal o
f ac
hiev
ing
safe
and
dru
g-fr
eesc
hool
s. C
lass
siz
ean
d sc
hool
siz
e ar
e ad
min
istr
ativ
ely
mut
able
var
iabl
es.
Cla
ss-s
ize
rese
arch
sho
ws
that
out
com
es a
ssoc
iate
dw
ith s
mal
l cla
sses
(and
with
sm
all s
choo
ls)
are
the
foun
datio
ns o
f sa
fesc
hool
s: im
prov
edst
uden
t beh
avio
r an
d hu
man
rel
atio
ns s
kills
; inc
reas
edpa
rtic
ipat
ion
insc
hool
ing
and
scho
ol-s
anct
ione
d ev
ents
; and
incr
ease
dse
nse
of c
omm
unity
and
fam
ily in
sm
all c
lass
es; a
nd a
gen
eral
ly im
p [r
oved
scho
ol c
limat
e w
here
teac
hers
, stu
dent
s, a
nd p
aren
ts f
eel l
ess
stre
ss th
an in
larg
ercl
asse
s an
dla
rger
sch
ools
. Sm
alln
ess
prom
otes
fam
iliar
ity w
ith a
ndkn
owle
dge
ofin
divi
dual
s th
at c
an h
ead
off
viol
ence
bef
ore
it ha
ppen
s.A
lthou
gh m
uch
rese
arch
con
nect
s th
e us
e of
sm
all c
lass
es a
nd s
choo
lsto
pos
itive
stu
dent
beha
vior
, muc
h re
mai
ns to
be
done
her
e. T
he a
nalo
gy, h
owev
er, o
f th
e us
e of
smal
l cla
sses
in s
ucce
ssfu
l alte
rnat
ive
scho
ols
for
diff
icul
t you
th is
a p
ower
ful
guid
elin
e.
Scho
ol-W
ide
Rem
edia
l Pro
ject
s
Giv
en a
cla
ss-s
ize
effe
ct a
nd th
e co
mpe
ting
cost
s re
med
ial
proj
ects
suc
h as
the
popu
lar
and
usef
ul S
ucce
ss f
or A
ll (S
FA),
seri
ous
anal
yses
sho
uld
be d
one
to d
eter
min
e w
hat p
ortio
n of
pro
ject
sca
n be
attr
ibut
ed s
impl
y to
thei
r us
e of
sm
all c
lass
es to
get
thei
r gai
ns. I
fpr
ojec
ts p
rovi
de li
ttle
bene
fit f
or th
eir
cost
s ov
er a
nd a
bove
wha
t cou
ldbe
gai
ned
by s
choo
l-w
ide
clas
s-si
ze r
educ
tion,
pro
ject
ssh
ould
be
held
to s
tric
t cos
t-be
nefi
t ana
lyse
s. P
erha
ps th
e sc
hool
-wid
e in
itiat
ive
shou
ldbe
sm
all c
lass
es a
nd p
roje
cts
shou
ld ta
rget
the
smal
l num
ber
ofes
peci
ally
dif
ficu
lt st
uden
ts w
ho n
eed
even
mor
e di
rect
indi
vidu
alat
tent
ion
than
sm
all c
lass
es a
llow
. Mos
t rem
edia
l pro
ject
s us
ed in
scho
ols
toda
y ar
e so
ld a
t sub
stan
tial p
rice
s.
Unf
ortu
nate
ly, s
ome
proj
ects
that
rel
y on
cla
ss-s
ize
effe
cts
to g
etth
eir
posi
tive
resu
lts a
lso
driv
e th
e pr
ojec
t-m
enta
lity,
"pu
ll-ou
t"or
"ad
d-on
" ap
proa
ch to
edu
catio
n. T
o th
e ex
tent
that
thes
e pr
ojec
tsus
e bo
thpu
ll-ou
t and
teac
her-
aide
trea
tmen
ts, t
he c
lass
-siz
e ef
fect
may
hav
eex
tra
hurd
les
to le
ap!
The
cla
ss-s
ize
rese
arch
hel
ps a
ddre
ss th
eM
iles
and
Dar
ling-
Ham
mon
d (1
998)
con
cern
that
"ve
ry li
ttle
rese
arch
addr
esse
s ho
w s
choo
ls m
ight
org
aniz
e te
achi
ng r
esou
rces
mor
eef
fect
ivel
y at
the
scho
ol le
veL
" (p
. 9).
Use
RE
SEA
RC
H!
Cla
ss S
ize,
Not
PT
R, S
houl
d be
a P
olic
v B
ase
Polic
y de
cisi
ons
and
eval
uatio
ns o
f ed
ucat
ion
outc
omes
nee
dto
be
mad
e se
para
tely
for
cla
ss s
ize
and
for
PTR
. Min
glin
g cl
ass
size
and
PT
R
9
ill
AA
SAiR
eaay
.10
caus
es c
onfu
sion
, blu
nts
the
posi
tive
impa
ct o
f cl
ass
size
and
hid
essh
ortc
omin
gs a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith P
TR
Han
ushe
k (1
998)
sta
ted
the
clas
s si
ze a
nd P
TR
con
fusi
on s
ucci
nctly
:"T
he d
iscu
ssio
n un
til n
ow h
as f
ocus
ed o
n pu
pil-
teac
her
ratio
s, b
ut p
upil-
teac
her
ratio
s ar
e no
t the
sam
e as
cla
ss s
izes
" (p
. 12)
. The
hes
itatio
n to
use
smal
l cla
sses
and
the
tort
uous
app
roac
h to
und
erst
andi
ng th
e po
wer
of
smal
lcl
asse
s ha
ve b
een
driv
en b
y un
criti
cal a
ccep
tanc
e an
d su
bstit
utio
n of
PT
Rre
sults
as
clas
s-si
ze o
utco
mes
ove
r tim
e.
"Cla
ss-s
ize
redu
ctio
n" s
ugge
sts
that
som
e ra
tiona
l, re
sear
ch-b
ased
cla
sssi
ze is
in g
ener
al u
se. W
hat i
s th
e re
sear
ch b
ase
upon
whi
ch p
rese
nt c
lass
size
s ar
e bu
ilt?
The
cur
rent
cla
ss s
ize
rese
arch
is p
rovi
ding
a s
erio
us lo
ok a
tw
hat c
lass
siz
es m
ight
be
need
ed to
mee
t the
cha
lleng
es o
f th
e ch
angi
ngco
ntex
ts a
nd d
emog
raph
ics
of e
duca
tion'
s cl
ient
s.
Fede
ral P
olic
y T
rend
s: S
mal
l Cla
sses
are
Goo
d Po
licy
and
Goo
d Po
litic
s
The
fed
eral
pol
icy
deba
te a
bout
cla
ss s
ize
may
be
shif
ting
slig
htly
tow
ard
smal
ler
clas
ses.
In
a 19
88 r
epor
t, C
lass
Siz
e an
d Pu
blic
Pol
icy:
Pol
itics
and
Pana
ceas
, the
fed
eral
pol
icy
posi
tion
was
sum
mar
ized
by
Tom
linso
n as
:E
vide
nce
to d
ate
..
. doe
s no
t gen
eral
ly s
uppo
rt a
pol
icy
oflim
iting
cla
ss s
ize
in o
rder
to r
aise
stu
dent
ach
ieve
men
t or
toim
prov
e th
e qu
ality
of
wor
k-lif
e fo
r te
ache
rs; n
or d
oes
it ju
stif
ysm
all r
educ
tions
in p
upil/
teac
her
ratio
s or
cla
ss s
ize
on o
rder
toen
hanc
e st
uden
t ach
ieve
men
t. R
esea
rch
also
fai
ls to
sup
port
scho
ol p
olic
ies
desi
gned
to lo
wer
cla
ss s
ize
if th
ese
do n
ot f
irst
spec
ify
whi
ch p
upils
will
ben
efit
and
how
and
why
they
will
do
so.
(p. 3
7) (
Not
e th
e cl
ass-
size
PT
R c
onfu
sion
. CM
A).
By
1997
, the
U.S
. Dep
artm
ent o
f E
duca
tion'
s re
port
, Bui
ldin
gK
now
ledg
e fo
r a
Nat
ion
of L
earn
ers
incl
uded
the
stat
emen
t tha
t "st
udie
s..
.su
ch a
s re
duci
ng c
lass
siz
e in
the
prim
ary
grad
es, h
ave
prov
ed to
hel
pch
ildre
n ge
t a g
ood
star
t in
scho
ol"
(p. 2
9). R
educ
ing
Cla
ss S
ize:
Wha
t Do
We
Kno
w (
Pritc
hard
, 199
8) in
clud
ed th
e st
atem
ent:
Red
ucin
g cl
ass
size
to b
elow
20
stud
ents
lead
s to
hig
her
stud
ent
achi
evem
ent.
How
ever
, cla
ss-s
ize
redu
ctio
n re
pres
ents
aco
nsid
erab
le c
omm
itmen
t of
fund
s, a
nd it
s im
plem
enta
tion
can
have
a s
izab
le im
pact
on
the
avai
labi
lity
of q
ualif
ied
teac
hers
. ..
.
The
re is
mor
e th
an o
ne w
ay to
impl
emen
t cla
ss-s
ize
redu
ctio
n,an
d m
ore
than
one
way
to te
ach
in a
sm
alle
r cl
ass.
Dep
endi
ng o
nho
w it
s do
ne, t
he b
enef
its o
f cl
ass-
size
red
uctio
n w
ill b
e la
rger
of
smal
ler.
(p.
14)
19
10
AA
SA
/Rea
dy-
11
In a
199
8 U
. S. D
epar
tmen
t of
Edu
catio
n-co
mm
issi
oned
rep
ort,
Cla
ssSi
ze a
nd S
tude
nts
At R
isk:
Wha
t is
Kno
wn?
Wha
t is
Nex
t? (
Finn
, 199
8)co
nclu
ded
that
"A
cle
ar s
mal
l-cl
ass
adva
ntag
e w
as f
ound
for
inne
r-ci
ty, u
rban
,su
burb
an a
nd r
ural
sch
ools
; for
mal
es a
nd f
emal
es; a
nd f
or w
hite
and
min
ority
stu
dent
s al
ike"
(p.
13)
, and
that
ther
e is
lots
of
room
for
add
edre
sear
ch to
add
ress
man
y lin
geri
ng is
sues
and
que
stio
ns.
The
shi
ft in
em
phas
is o
n cl
ass
size
by
the
U. S
. Dep
artm
ent o
fE
duca
tion
refl
ects
pol
itica
l age
ndas
of
the
times
. The
am
ount
of
fede
ral
fund
ing
for
educ
atio
n is
min
or w
hen
com
pare
d to
loca
l and
sta
te s
uppo
rt, s
oef
fort
s to
get
sm
all c
lass
es f
or y
oung
chi
ldre
n ne
ed to
targ
et s
tate
and
loca
lpo
licy
mak
ers
mor
e th
an f
eder
al o
ffic
ials
. Fed
eral
edu
catio
n fu
ndin
g is
prim
arily
cat
egor
ical
, dir
ecte
d to
spe
cifi
c gr
oups
or
for
narr
ow p
urpo
ses.
Fund
ing
for
clas
s-si
ze r
educ
tion
is g
ener
al o
r ac
ross
-the
-boa
rd s
o th
at a
llst
uden
ts w
ould
ben
efit.
Ano
ther
app
roac
h to
usi
ng s
mal
l cla
sses
that
mak
esse
nse
whe
n fu
nds
are
limite
d w
ould
be
to ta
rget
cla
ss-s
ize
redu
ctio
ns to
scho
ols
or e
ven
to c
lass
es th
at h
ave
high
den
sitie
s of
stu
dent
s w
hom
sm
alle
rcl
asse
s ha
ve b
een
show
n to
hel
p m
ore.
Wen
glin
sky,
(19
97)
said
:
In o
ther
wor
ds, f
ourt
h gr
ader
s in
sm
alle
r-th
an-a
vera
ge c
lass
esar
e ab
out a
hal
f a
year
ahe
ad o
f fo
urth
gra
ders
in la
rger
-tha
n-av
erag
e cl
asse
s (p
. 24)
..
. The
larg
est e
ffec
ts s
eem
to b
e fo
r po
orst
uden
ts in
hig
h-co
st a
reas
. (p.
25)
.
If w
e've
not
had
rea
lly s
erio
us d
iscu
ssio
ns o
n cl
ass
size
issu
es a
ndim
plic
atio
ns b
efor
e, a
t lea
st le
t's g
et s
erio
us a
bout
a r
esea
rch-
driv
en b
ase
for
maj
or p
olic
y sh
ifts
in A
mer
ican
edu
catio
n. W
e ha
ve k
now
ledg
e ab
out o
nesc
ient
ific
ally
-val
idat
ed w
ay to
impr
ove
earl
y sc
hool
ing
for
child
ren.
Sm
all K
-3cl
asse
s of
fer
Qua
lity,
Equ
ality
, and
Equ
ity. H
ow to
do
wha
t res
earc
h sh
ows
shou
ld b
e do
ne is
a f
air
ques
tion
for
enlig
hten
ed p
olic
y di
scus
sion
s, p
oliti
cal
deci
sion
s, e
duca
tiona
l lea
ders
hip
and
new
edu
catio
n st
udie
s. T
hese
pos
itive
step
s w
ill r
equi
re a
col
lect
ive
natio
nal w
isdo
m a
nd a
bet
ter
way
. Tim
e is
was
ting. H
ere
is E
dwar
d B
ear,
com
ing
dow
nsta
irs
now
, bum
p, b
ump,
bum
p, o
n th
e ba
ck o
f hi
s he
ad, b
ehin
d C
hris
toph
er R
obin
. It i
s,as
far
as
he k
now
s, th
e on
ly w
ay o
f co
min
g do
wns
tair
s, b
utso
met
imes
he
feel
s th
at th
ere
real
ly is
ano
ther
way
, if
only
he
coul
d st
op b
umpi
ng f
or a
mom
ent a
nd th
ink
of it
. And
then
he
feel
s th
at p
erha
ps th
ere
isn'
t. (p
. 1)
A. A
. Miln
e, W
inni
e T
he P
ooh.
11
13
AA
SA
/Rea
dy -
12
Tab
le 1
. Che
ckpo
ints
for
Tru
e C
osts
of
Rea
sona
ble-
Size
d (e
.g. 1
8:1
or s
o)C
lass
es in
Pri
mar
y G
rade
s. (
Ach
illes
& P
rice
, 199
9. A
dapt
ed f
rom
Sch
ool
Bus
ines
s A
ffai
rs.)
Item
Pote
ntia
l for
Cos
t Sav
ing
A. G
rade
Ret
entio
nA
.N
umbe
r of
stu
dent
s he
ld b
ack
decr
ease
s
Lat
er d
rop-
out r
ate
decr
ease
sB
.V
anda
lism
cos
ts d
ecre
ase
Req
uire
d co
rrec
tive
actio
ns, s
uch
as S
atur
day
scho
ol o
rde
tent
ion
decr
ease
Cla
ssro
om d
isru
ptio
ns d
ecre
ase
C. R
emed
iatio
n an
dC
.Fe
wer
exp
ensi
ve s
peci
al p
roje
cts
requ
ired
Spec
ial P
roje
cts
B. I
mpr
oved
Stud
ent B
ehav
ior
in S
choo
l
D. E
arly
ID
of
Lea
rnin
gPr
oble
ms
E. T
each
er M
oral
e
F. C
reat
ive
Spac
eU
se
G. C
omm
unity
,Pa
rent
Invo
lvem
ent,
Vol
unte
ers
14
Con
cent
rate
on
few
er s
tude
nts
inte
nsel
y fo
rsh
orte
r du
ratio
nD
.Sp
ecia
l edu
catio
n pr
ogra
ms
redu
ced
in la
ter
year
s
Prog
ram
s ac
cura
tely
"ta
rget
ed"
to m
ost n
eedy
stud
ents
Not
e po
ssib
ility
of
incr
ease
d co
sts
in K
and
1E
.In
crea
sed
atte
ndan
ce
Red
uced
sub
stitu
te c
osts
Red
uced
"B
urn
out"
F.T
rans
port
atio
n-re
late
d co
sts
Flex
ibili
ty a
nd "
foun
d" s
pace
Part
ners
hips
with
bus
ines
sG
.Sm
all c
lass
es a
ttrac
t par
ents
and
vol
unte
ers
Fiel
d tr
ips
(etc
.) a
re le
ss c
onge
sted
12
AA
SA
/Rea
4-
Tab
le 2
. Wor
kshe
et: C
onve
rsio
n of
Cur
rent
Sta
ffin
gIn
to O
ptio
ns f
or C
lass
-Si
ze E
xam
ples
are
in (
).
Cur
rent
Sta
ff A
lloca
tions
Posi
tions
(n)
Act
ual
Des
ired
I. R
egul
ar C
lass
room
Tea
cher
s
U. T
each
er A
ides
(E
st. 2
per
teac
her
for
conv
ersi
on)
III.
Spe
cial
ty P
erso
ns (
e.g.
):A
. Med
ia/L
ibra
ryB
. Gui
danc
eC
. Adm
inis
trat
ion
D. S
peci
alis
ts (
e.g.
):
(19)
4= (
2)
1. L
angu
age(
s)1.
2. P
hys.
Ed.
2.(.
5)3.
Mus
ic/A
rt3.
(.5)
4. T
echn
olog
y4.
(1)
5. E
tc.
5.E
. Titl
e I,
Etc
.E
.(2
)F.
Exc
eptio
nal C
hild
ren
F.1.
Gif
ted
1.(.
5)2.
LD
2.(.
5)G
. Oth
er (
Nur
se, C
oord
inat
or)
G.
(2)
H. T
otal
Spe
cial
ty P
erso
nnel
H.
(12)
Tot
al P
ositi
ons
Ava
ilabl
e fo
r C
onsi
dera
tion:
(19
+12
)(3
1)
IV. T
otal
Enr
ollm
ent f
or C
onsi
dera
tion:
(511
)V
.L
owes
t Cla
ss s
ize
for
Con
side
ratio
n (5
11 =
31)
:(1
6.5)
VL
Neg
otia
ted
Tar
get t
o A
chie
ve(2
0:1)
'Ada
pted
fro
m S
teve
Han
sel,
Prin
cipa
l, D
rape
r E
lem
enta
ry S
choo
l, R
ocki
ngha
mC
ount
y, N
C
13
15
Table 3. Demographic Information about SchoolsWhere Small Classes (18:1 or so) Have Been Implemented atLittle Extra Costs.
DEMOGRAPHIC INFO (Estimates)
School N GRADES Free Lunch Minority
I. Monaview (SC) 600 pre K - 5 77% 45%
II. Downtown (NC)
III. 004-1111 (NC) .380 K-5 78% 53%
IV. Hillcrest (NC)
V. B. Hoffman (MI) 270 K-5 4% 25%
Table 4. Processes Used At Selected Schools to Get Small Classes With Littleor No Funds Beyond What isAlready Available.
CLASS SIZES/GRADES, (n) CLASS SIZES/GRADES, (n)
(1997 - 1998) or PRE (1997 - 1998) or POST How Achieve "Small"School lap). 1 (n) 2 (n) K(LI.1 ihal 2021 ElaiI. Monaview (SC) 26 (3) 20 (5) 16 21 14(6) 14 (6) 21 21 Re-allocate Title III. Downtown (NC) 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 STAFFING: Same
per-pupil expenseSet up at 1:14, but no more per-pupil funding than district averageas rest of districtTitle I
III. Oak Hill (NC) 33(1) 28(2) 29(2) 26(2) 14(2) 13-14(2) 14 24 Use Title I.Matched withother school usingPTR in SSS study.
IV. Hillcrest (NC)
V. B. Hoffman (MI) 27(2) 27(2) 27(2) 27(2) (see below *) AVE=22 Special Ed
The small school size and limited number of teachers encourage other changes than just class size: Loopingand muti-age classes. By assigning the special education teachers to "classes," the "After" was (instead of 27:1):K(2) half day: AM/PM at n=20; 1-2 (4) with n=88; 2-3 (2) with n=44; 3-4 (2) with n=39; 4-5 (1) with n=20; 3-4-5(1) with n=20 (12 teachers for 270 pupils, or about 22:1.
16
AA
SA
IRea
dy. -
16
RE
FER
EN
CE
S
Ach
illes
, C. M
., N
ye, B
. A.,
Bai
n, H
. P.,
Zah
aria
s, J
. & F
ulto
n, D
. (19
93).
The
teac
her-
aide
puz
zle.
An
expl
orat
ory
stud
y. P
aper
at M
SER
A. N
ewO
rlea
ns, 1
1/12
/93.
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illes
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., Fi
nn, J
. D.,
& B
ain,
H. (
1997
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sing
cla
ss s
ize
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educ
eth
e eq
uity
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catio
nal L
eade
rshi
p, 5
5 (4
), 4
0-43
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iser
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g, K
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ust,
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ucce
ssSt
arts
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l: L
ife
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Sm
all C
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. Gre
ensb
oro,
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vers
ity o
f N
orth
Car
olin
a at
Gre
ensb
oro,
Fin
al R
epor
t. Sm
all-
gran
t/Sch
ool-
base
dR
esea
rch
Proj
ect.
(ER
IC E
A 0
2904
9)
Bai
n, H
. P.,
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AR
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N:
HE
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nc.
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e Pe
rry
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m a
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licy
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icat
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nal E
valu
atio
n an
d Po
licy
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ogni
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ol o
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. The
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ure
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hild
ren:
Lon
g-T
erm
Out
com
es o
f E
arly
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od P
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The
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rch
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ruct
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o-on
e tu
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l Lea
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he 2
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ma
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ch f
orm
etho
ds o
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oup
inst
ruct
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as e
ffec
tive
as o
ne-t
o-on
e tu
tori
ng.
Edu
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nal R
esea
rche
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e I
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eta-
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ysis
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atio
n re
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nal
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luat
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Polic
y A
naly
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artm
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d te
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Tes
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eses
fro
m a
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iona
l com
mis
sion
rep
ort.
Edu
catio
nal R
esea
rche
r, 2
7 (1
), 5
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16
17
AA
SA
/Rea
dy-
17
Dav
idso
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Bec
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F. E
., &
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. Q. (
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he e
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f a
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e te
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rogr
am o
n fu
nctio
nal l
itera
cyex
amin
atio
nsc
ores
of
elev
enth
-gra
de s
tude
nts.
Pap
er p
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nted
at M
id-S
outh
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nal R
esea
rch
Ass
ocia
tion
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RA
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ashv
ille,
TN
.
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ooL
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iew
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nal
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ugus
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l eng
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ent a
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tude
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ter
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artm
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mer
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tL
abor
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l Res
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iffe
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atio
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18
AA
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18
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atio
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appa
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SI
98-3
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nal L
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18
AA
SA
/Rea
dy -
19
Smith
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Rel
atio
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esse
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r sa
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n an
d pu
pil a
ffec
t: A
met
a-an
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anFr
anci
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CA
Far
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t Lab
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Edu
catio
nal R
esea
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orth
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orpo
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e-ye
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S Sp
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olic
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oliti
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ashi
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C: U
S D
epar
tmen
t of
Edu
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n, O
ffic
e of
Edu
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nal R
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Impr
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PIP
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Wei
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. (19
89, J
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, Qua
lity
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l pro
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s: A
long
term
soc
ial
inve
stm
ent.
Occ
asio
nal p
aper
#5.
For
d Fo
unda
tion
Proj
ect o
n Sc
hool
Wel
fare
and
the
Am
eric
an F
utur
e. N
ew Y
ork:
The
For
d Fo
unda
tion
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.
Wen
glin
sky,
H. (
1997
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hen
mon
ey m
atte
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rinc
eton
, NJ:
ET
S. P
olic
yIn
form
atio
n C
ente
r.
Won
g, K
. K. &
Mey
er, S
. J. (
1998
, Sum
mer
). T
itle
I sc
hool
wid
e pr
ogra
ms:
Asy
nthe
sis
of f
indi
ngs
from
rec
ent e
valu
atio
n. E
duca
tion
Eva
luat
ion
and
Polic
y A
naly
sis,
20
(2),
115
-136
. 19
CIA
A/M
iscJ
Am
albd
oe
AN
NO
TA
TE
D B
IBL
IOG
RA
PHY
Ach
illes
, C .M
. (19
96)
Sum
mar
y of
Rec
ent C
lass
-Siz
e R
esea
rch
with
an
Em
phas
is o
nT
enne
ssee
's P
roje
ct S
TA
R a
nd it
s D
eriv
ativ
e R
esea
rch
Stud
ies.
Nas
hvill
e, T
N:
Ten
ness
ee S
tate
Uni
vers
ity. C
ente
r of
Exc
elle
nce
for
Res
earc
h on
Bas
ic S
kills
. 56
page
s. T
his
sum
mar
y pr
imar
ily e
mph
asiz
es P
roje
ct S
TA
R a
nd th
e se
ries
of
clas
s-si
zest
udie
s cl
osel
y co
nnec
ted
to S
TA
R o
r st
udie
s co
nduc
ted
by S
TA
R-r
elat
ed p
erso
nnel
The
aut
hor
rais
es s
elec
ted
soci
al a
nd p
oliti
cal c
onsi
dera
tions
and
pos
sibl
e re
sear
chto
pics
to in
crea
se th
e un
ders
tand
ing
of c
lass
-siz
e ou
tcom
es. T
he p
ublic
atio
n in
clud
esan
ext
ensi
ve b
iblio
grap
hy.
Boy
d-Z
ahar
ias,
J.,
& P
ate-
Bai
n, H
. (19
98).
Tea
cher
Aid
es a
nd S
tude
nt L
earn
ings
: Les
sons
from
Pro
ject
ST
AR
. Arl
ingt
on, V
A: E
duca
tion
Res
earc
h Se
rvic
e (E
RS)
. 31
page
s.T
his
"Rel
evan
t Res
earc
h fo
r Sc
hool
Dec
isio
ns"
docu
men
t exp
lain
s ge
nera
l ST
AR
find
ings
and
spe
cifi
c ou
tcom
es o
f ST
AR
's s
econ
d ex
peri
men
tal c
ondi
tion,
the
use
ofa
full-
time
inst
ruct
iona
l aid
e. Z
ahar
ias
and
Bai
n co
nclu
de th
at S
TA
R r
esul
ts d
id n
otsu
ppor
t the
use
of
full-
time
aide
s to
incr
ease
stu
dent
ach
ieve
men
t.
Ege
lson
, P.,
Har
man
, P.,
& A
chill
es, C
. M. (
1996
). D
oes
Cla
ss S
ize
Mak
e a
Dif
fere
nce?
Gre
ensb
oro,
NC
: Sou
thE
aste
rn R
egio
nal V
isio
n fo
r E
duca
tion
(SE
RV
E),
Reg
iona
lE
duca
tion
Lab
orat
ory.
40
page
s. T
he R
egio
nal L
abor
ator
y re
port
of
rece
nt c
lass
-siz
ein
tere
st in
Nor
th C
arol
ina
war
ns r
eade
rs to
mak
e ca
refu
l dis
tinct
ions
bet
wee
n cl
ass
size
and
pup
il-te
ache
r-ra
tio (
Y1R
). T
he r
epor
t con
tain
s hi
ghly
rea
dabl
e su
mm
arie
s of
stat
e-le
vel c
lass
-siz
e in
itiat
ives
and
em
phas
izes
the
posi
tive
outc
omes
of
loca
lly-
supp
orte
d cl
ass
size
red
uctio
n in
Bur
ke C
ount
y in
gra
des
1-3.
Finn
, J. D
. (19
98, A
pril)
Cla
ss S
ize
and
Stud
ents
at R
isk
Wha
t is
Kno
wn?
Wha
t is
Nex
t?W
ashi
ngto
n, D
C: U
S D
epar
tmen
t of
Edu
catio
n, O
ER
I (A
R 9
8-71
04).
38
page
s. T
his
easi
ly r
ead
and
care
fully
pre
sent
ed r
evie
w o
f cl
ass-
size
stu
dies
incl
udes
pri
oriti
es f
orad
ded
rese
arch
and
que
stio
ns w
hy th
e pe
rsis
tent
cla
ss-s
ize
effe
ct m
ay e
xist
. The
docu
men
t sum
mar
izes
res
earc
h on
Aca
dem
ic E
ffec
ts o
f Sm
all C
lass
Siz
e, A
sses
sing
Cos
ts a
nd B
enef
its o
f Sm
alle
r C
lass
es, a
nd I
nstr
uctio
nal P
ract
ice
and
Stud
ent
Beh
avio
r. T
he r
epor
t em
phas
izes
Pro
ject
ST
AR
.
A-1
21
CA
L41
Mis
cAna
th.d
oe
Kru
eger
, A. B
. (19
98, M
arch
) R
eass
essi
ng th
e vi
ew th
at A
mer
ican
sch
ools
are
brok
en.
FRB
NY
Eco
nom
ic P
olic
y R
evie
w, 2
9-43
. Usi
ng p
rodu
ctio
n-fu
nctio
n an
d ec
onom
ican
alys
es, K
rueg
er a
naly
zes
scho
ol o
utpu
ts s
uch
as te
st-s
core
cha
nge
over
tim
e. A
maj
or p
ortio
n re
port
s on
a r
e-an
alys
is o
f ST
AR
out
com
es th
at s
how
s co
ntin
uing
grow
th o
ver
time
and
a cl
ass-
size
eff
ect w
ithin
the
cont
rol g
roup
.
Mol
nar,
A. (
1998
). S
mal
ler
Cla
sses
, not
Vou
cher
s, I
ncre
ase
Stud
ent A
chie
vem
ent.
Har
risb
urg,
PA
: Key
ston
e R
esea
rch
Cen
ter.
48
page
s. I
n th
is c
lear
ly w
ritte
n re
port
,M
olna
r co
ntra
sts
the
Milw
auke
e Pa
rent
al C
hoic
e V
ouch
er P
rogr
am w
ith W
isco
nsin
'sSt
uden
t Ach
ieve
men
t Gua
rant
ee in
Edu
catio
n (S
AG
E)
outc
omes
and
sho
ws
how
SAG
E r
esul
ts "
trac
k" w
ith S
TA
R a
nd S
TA
R-r
elat
ed s
tudi
es.
Mos
telle
r, F
. (19
95 S
umm
er/F
all)
. "T
he T
enne
ssee
Stu
dy o
f cl
ass
size
in th
e ea
rly
scho
olgr
ades
." T
he F
utur
e of
Chi
ldre
n: C
ritic
al I
ssue
s fo
r C
hild
ren
and
You
ths.
5 (
2), 1
13-
127.
Mos
telle
r's c
lear
and
cog
ent r
evie
w b
roug
ht th
e ST
AR
Pro
ject
to p
ublic
atte
ntio
n an
d en
ergi
zed
the
rece
nt c
lass
-siz
e de
bate
s. M
oste
ller
criti
cally
ana
lyze
s th
est
reng
ths
and
wea
knes
ses
of S
TA
R, d
iscu
sses
the
effe
ct s
izes
of
the
resu
lts, a
nd p
uts
clas
s si
ze in
to p
ersp
ectiv
e as
edu
catio
n po
licy.
Hig
hly
reco
mm
ende
d.
Mos
telle
r, F
., L
ight
, R. J
. & S
achs
, J. A
. (19
96, W
inte
r). S
usta
ined
inqu
iry
in e
duca
tion:
Les
sons
fro
m s
kill
grou
ping
and
cla
ss s
ize.
Har
vard
Edu
catio
nal R
evie
w, 6
6 (4
), 7
97-
827.
Thr
ee s
chol
ars
anal
yze
two
long
-ter
m to
pics
of
educ
atio
n co
ncer
n th
at a
lso
have
exte
nsiv
e re
sear
ch le
gaci
es. T
hey
iden
tify
the
good
stu
dies
, maj
or th
emes
, and
the
outc
omes
that
des
erve
con
side
ratio
n in
edu
catio
n po
licy
and
plan
ning
. The
sec
tion
oncl
ass
size
pro
vide
s an
alys
es o
f ST
AR
and
ST
AR
-rel
ated
stu
dies
.
Pate
-Bai
n, H
., B
oyd-
Zah
aria
s, J
., C
ain
V.,
Wor
d, E
. & B
inkl
ey, M
. E. (
1997
, Sep
tem
ber)
.ST
AR
Fol
low
-up
Stud
ies,
199
6-19
97. L
eban
on, T
N: H
ER
OS,
Inc
. Bas
ed o
n a
limite
d sa
mpl
e of
gra
de 1
1 st
uden
ts w
ho h
ad b
een
in S
TA
R in
gra
des
K-3
, the
aut
hors
iden
tify
long
-ter
m r
esul
ts th
at s
eem
rel
ated
to s
mal
l-cl
ass
earl
y sc
hool
ing.
Som
ebe
nefi
ts in
clud
e hi
gher
gra
des
in h
igh
scho
ol, f
ewer
ret
entio
ns a
nd d
ropo
uts,
sel
ectio
nof
col
lege
-pre
para
tory
cou
rses
suc
h as
cal
culu
s an
d fo
reig
n la
ngua
ge, a
nd f
ewer
susp
ensi
ons
from
sch
ool T
his
pilo
t stu
dy s
how
ed w
ays
to lo
cate
stu
dent
s an
dco
nduc
t fol
low
-up
stud
ies
usin
g th
e ST
AR
dat
abas
e.
A-2
22