practical methodologies for the synthesis of indoles

37
Practical Methodologies for the Synthesis of Indoles Guy R. Humphrey* and Jeffrey T. Kuethe* Department of Process Research, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065 Received October 7, 2005 Contents 1. Introduction 2875 2. Fischer Indole Synthesis 2875 2.1. General Comments 2875 2.2. Via Aryl Hydrazines 2876 2.3. Via Japp-Klingemann Reaction 2880 2.4. Via Metal-Catalyzed Arylation of Benzophenone Hydrazone or tert-Butylcarbazate 2883 2.5. Via Metal-Catalyzed Hydroamination of Alkynes 2885 2.6. Via Metal-Catalyzed Hydroformylation of Alkenes 2885 3. Heteroannulations and Cyclization of 2-Alkynylanilines 2887 3.1. General Comments 2887 3.2. Indole Synthesis via the Larock Heteroannulation 2888 3.3. Cyclization of 2-Alkynylaniline Derivatives 2890 3.3.1. Metal Alkoxide-Mediated Reactions 2890 3.3.2. Castro Indole Synthesis 2892 3.3.3. Palladium-Mediated Processes 2894 3.3.4. Iodine-Promoted Electrophilic Cyclizations 2896 4. Reductive Cyclizations 2896 4.1. General Comments 2896 4.2. Leimgruber-Batcho Indole Synthesis 2897 4.3. Reductive Cyclization of o-Nitrobenzylcarbonyl Compounds 2898 4.4. Dinitrostyrene Reductive Cyclizations 2901 4.5. Reductive Cyclization of o-Nitrophenylacetonitriles 2901 4.6. Reductive Cyclization of o-Nitrostyrenes 2902 5. Miscellaneous Processes 2903 5.1. Cyclization of 2-Aminophenethyl Aldehydes 2903 5.2. Nenitzescu Indole Synthesis 2903 5.3. Hydroformylation of Anilines 2904 5.4. Intramolecular Heck Cyclizations 2904 5.5. Intramolecular Michael Addition/Elimination 2906 5.6. Madelung-Houlihan Indole Synthesis 2908 5.7. Plieninger Indole Synthesis 2908 6. Acknowledgments 2908 7. References 2908 1. Introduction The indole ring system is probably the most ubiquitous heterocycle in nature. Owing to the great structural diversity of biologically active indoles, it is not surprising that the indole ring system has become an important structural component in many pharmaceutical agents. 1 Substituted indoles have been referred to as “privileged structures” since they are capable of binding to many receptors with high affinity. 2 For well over a hundred years, the synthesis and functionalization of indoles has been a major area of focus for synthetic organic chemists, and numerous methods for the preparation of indoles have been developed. 3 Key factors, including starting material availability and functional group tolerance, often dictate which particular indole synthesis will be suitable. In some cases, specific substitution patterns remain difficult to obtain by standard indole-forming reac- tions; thus, new methodologies emerge. The process chemist is primarily interested in mild synthetic methods that provide rapid assembly of the indole ring, tolerate a wide range of functional groups, and are atom economical. The implementation of practical, safe, and scalable methods for the large-scale preparation of indoles is of critical interest to synthetic chemists who design industrial or manufacturing syntheses, as well as researchers in academia. In this review, we will highlight practical methodologies which have either been successfully demon- strated or are potentially useful for the large-scale synthesis of indoles. Reactions and methodologies that have appeared in the scientific literature between 1995 and June 2005 will be discussed, and emphasis will be placed only on those reactions leading to the indole ring. The synthesis of oxindoles, indolines, carbazoles, azaindoles, and other simi- larily substituted analogous will not be presented in this review. 4,5 While it is recognized that many industrial preparations have only been reported as patents outlining the manufacturing route of a particular indole substrate, a thorough review of the patent literature, which is often difficult to interpret, is beyond the scope of this review. 2. Fischer Indole Synthesis 2.1. General Comments For over 100 years, the Fischer indole reaction has remained an extremely useful and important method for the synthesis of a variety of indole intermediates and biologically active compounds. 6 The Fischer reaction often provides a simple, efficient method for the transformation of enolizable N-arylhydrazones into indoles. In many cases, the indoliza- tion reaction is carried out by simply heating the ketone or aldehyde and the arylhydrazine with the appropriate acid or * E-mail addresses: [email protected] and Jeffrey_Kuethe@ merck.com. 2875 Chem. Rev. 2006, 106, 2875-2911 10.1021/cr0505270 CCC: $59.00 © 2006 American Chemical Society Published on Web 06/07/2006

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Page 1: Practical Methodologies for the Synthesis of Indoles

Practical Methodologies for the Synthesis of Indoles

Guy R. Humphrey* and Jeffrey T. Kuethe*

Department of Process Research, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065

Received October 7, 2005

Contents1. Introduction 28752. Fischer Indole Synthesis 2875

2.1. General Comments 28752.2. Via Aryl Hydrazines 28762.3. Via Japp−Klingemann Reaction 28802.4. Via Metal-Catalyzed Arylation of

Benzophenone Hydrazone ortert-Butylcarbazate

2883

2.5. Via Metal-Catalyzed Hydroamination ofAlkynes

2885

2.6. Via Metal-Catalyzed Hydroformylation ofAlkenes

2885

3. Heteroannulations and Cyclization of2-Alkynylanilines

2887

3.1. General Comments 28873.2. Indole Synthesis via the Larock

Heteroannulation2888

3.3. Cyclization of 2-Alkynylaniline Derivatives 28903.3.1. Metal Alkoxide-Mediated Reactions 28903.3.2. Castro Indole Synthesis 28923.3.3. Palladium-Mediated Processes 28943.3.4. Iodine-Promoted Electrophilic Cyclizations 2896

4. Reductive Cyclizations 28964.1. General Comments 28964.2. Leimgruber−Batcho Indole Synthesis 28974.3. Reductive Cyclization of

o-Nitrobenzylcarbonyl Compounds2898

4.4. Dinitrostyrene Reductive Cyclizations 29014.5. Reductive Cyclization of

o-Nitrophenylacetonitriles2901

4.6. Reductive Cyclization of o-Nitrostyrenes 29025. Miscellaneous Processes 2903

5.1. Cyclization of 2-Aminophenethyl Aldehydes 29035.2. Nenitzescu Indole Synthesis 29035.3. Hydroformylation of Anilines 29045.4. Intramolecular Heck Cyclizations 29045.5. Intramolecular Michael Addition/Elimination 29065.6. Madelung−Houlihan Indole Synthesis 29085.7. Plieninger Indole Synthesis 2908

6. Acknowledgments 29087. References 2908

1. IntroductionThe indole ring system is probably the most ubiquitous

heterocycle in nature. Owing to the great structural diversityof biologically active indoles, it is not surprising that theindole ring system has become an important structuralcomponent in many pharmaceutical agents.1 Substitutedindoles have been referred to as “privileged structures” sincethey are capable of binding to many receptors with highaffinity.2 For well over a hundred years, the synthesis andfunctionalization of indoles has been a major area of focusfor synthetic organic chemists, and numerous methods forthe preparation of indoles have been developed.3 Key factors,including starting material availability and functional grouptolerance, often dictate which particular indole synthesis willbe suitable. In some cases, specific substitution patternsremain difficult to obtain by standard indole-forming reac-tions; thus, new methodologies emerge.

The process chemist is primarily interested in mildsynthetic methods that provide rapid assembly of the indolering, tolerate a wide range of functional groups, and are atomeconomical. The implementation of practical, safe, andscalable methods for the large-scale preparation of indolesis of critical interest to synthetic chemists who designindustrial or manufacturing syntheses, as well as researchersin academia. In this review, we will highlight practicalmethodologies which have either been successfully demon-strated or are potentially useful for the large-scale synthesisof indoles. Reactions and methodologies that have appearedin the scientific literature between 1995 and June 2005 willbe discussed, and emphasis will be placed only on thosereactions leading to the indole ring. The synthesis ofoxindoles, indolines, carbazoles, azaindoles, and other simi-larily substituted analogous will not be presented in thisreview.4,5 While it is recognized that many industrialpreparations have only been reported as patents outliningthe manufacturing route of a particular indole substrate, athorough review of the patent literature, which is oftendifficult to interpret, is beyond the scope of this review.

2. Fischer Indole Synthesis

2.1. General CommentsFor over 100 years, the Fischer indole reaction has

remained an extremely useful and important method for thesynthesis of a variety of indole intermediates and biologicallyactive compounds.6 The Fischer reaction often provides asimple, efficient method for the transformation of enolizableN-arylhydrazones into indoles. In many cases, the indoliza-tion reaction is carried out by simply heating the ketone oraldehyde and the arylhydrazine with the appropriate acid or

* E-mail addresses: [email protected] and [email protected].

2875Chem. Rev. 2006, 106, 2875−2911

10.1021/cr0505270 CCC: $59.00 © 2006 American Chemical SocietyPublished on Web 06/07/2006

Page 2: Practical Methodologies for the Synthesis of Indoles

acid catalyst without isolation of the hydrazone intermediate.Advantages of the Fischer reaction include the acceptanceof a wide range of compatible functional groups around thearomatic ring and lack of a requirement for a functional groupto form the new C-C and C-N bonds. TheN-arylhydra-zones are frequently prepared via condensation of anarylhydrazine with an enolizable ketone. However, since fewarylhydrazines are commercially available, they are generallyprepared by reduction of aryl diazonium salts, which in turnare obtained from the appropriate aniline. Alternatively, aryldiazonium salts can be converted directly to hydrazones viathe Japp-Klingemann reaction.7 The Japp-Klingemannreaction involves treatment of the aryl diazonium salt withan active methylenyl or methinyl compound under acidic orbasic conditions to form an azo derivative which under basic,acidic, or thermal conditions is converted to the hydrazone.

Other, highly efficient, metal-catalyzed methods to accessarylhydrazone intermediates useful in the Fischer cyclizationhave emerged over the last 5 years.

The mechanism of the Fischer indole cyclization is thoughtto involve a [3,3]-sigmatropic rearrangement of an ene-hydrazine tautomer2 to a bis iminobenzylketone3 (Scheme1).8,9 Cyclization and aromatization with loss of ammoniaprovides the indole product5. If the ketone is unsymmetrical,the tautomerization can occur at eitherR-position, resultingin the formation of a mixture of indole isomers.10

Developments in methodology and applications of theFischer indole reaction have been recently reviewed.1h,3a Asearch of the literature over the last 10 years revealed over700 references documenting the use of the Fischer reaction,mostly for the small-scale preparation of potentially interest-ing medicinal compounds. Several larger-scale applicationsof the Fischer reaction have been described over the sameperiod, and these are highlighted in this section.

2.2. Via Aryl HydrazinesA large-scale preparation of MDL 103371 (10), an

N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-type glycine receptor an-tagonist for the potential treatment of stroke, was requiredfor clinical development purposes. As outlined in Scheme2, Watson and co-workers developed a straightforward andefficient three-step synthesis based on Fischer indolizationchemistry.11 Starting from commercially available 3,5-dichlorophenylhydrazine hydrochloride (6), treatment withethyl pyruvate in ethanol gave the hydrazone7 as anE/Zmixture. Fischer cyclization using PPA (polyphosphoric acid)in toluene at 95-100°C provided the indole ethylcarboxylate8 in 97% yield as a crystalline solid. Finally, Vilsmeier-Haack formylation gave kilogram quantities of indole alde-hyde9 in 89% yield, which was subsequently converted insix steps to the activeE-ene-acid10 in 49% overall yield.

A number of 5-HT1D receptor agonists, containing atryptamine nucleus with a sulfamoylmethyl group at the5-position, have been synthesized using Fischer chemistry.Utilizing the Grandberg modification,12 Bosch et al. con-

Guy Humphrey was born in 1959 in Rochester, Kent, England. He studiedchemistry at Brunel University in Middlesex, U.K., where he received hisBachelor of Science degree in 1982. He undertook graduate studies withProfessor Raymond Baker at the University of Southampton, Southampton,U.K., where he received his Ph.D. in 1986. Thereafter, he joined theMerck process research group in Hoddesdon, U.K. In 1990, he relocatedto the Merck Process Research Department in Rahway, NJ. His currentresearch focuses on the design and implementation of practical syntheticmethodology for the synthesis of pharmaceutical intermediates andproducts.

Jeff Kuethe was born in Cincinnati, OH in 1965. He studied chemistry atMiddle Tennessee State University, where he received a Bachelor ofScience degree in 1993. He then joined the group of Professor AlbertPadwa at Emory University in Atlanta, GA, where he received a Ph.D. in1998. He continued as a postdoctoral fellow in the group of ProfessorDaniel Comins at North Carolina State University before joining theDepartment of Process Research at Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, NJ, in2000. His research interests include process research, synthetic methodol-ogy, heterocyclic chemistry, alkaloid and natural product synthesis, andtandem transformations.

Scheme 1

Scheme 2

2876 Chemical Reviews, 2006, Vol. 106, No. 7 Humphrey and Kuethe

Page 3: Practical Methodologies for the Synthesis of Indoles

verted hydrazine12and acetal13 to tryptamine14 in a one-pot procedure (Scheme 3).13 The sulfamoylphenylhydrazine12 was prepared in 82% yield from aniline11 by diazoti-zation and reduction using SnCl2. Treatment with 4-chlo-robutyraldehyde diethyl acetal (13) in buffered HCl (bufferedat pH 5 with Na2HPO4) gave the tryptamine14 in 58%overall yield. Tryptamine14 was dimethylated using form-aldehyde-sodium borohydride to afford Almotriptan (15)in 88% yield.

Indoles substituted at C-5 with anN-methylaminosulfonyl-methyl group such as Sumatriptan (16) and analogues arepotent selective serotonin 5-HT1D receptor agonists poten-tially useful for the treatment of migraines (Scheme 4).14

Use of the Fischer indolization reaction to prepare indolesfrom the hydrazine17 was shown to be problematic due toinstability of the resultant indole product18. In many cases,bis-indoles (e.g.20) were obtained as difficult to removebyproducts, presumably via the Michael addition of productto the reactive imine19.15,16

A number of methodologies have been developed in orderto overcome this problem. Protection of the benzylic sidechain as the 4-hydroxy-2-methyl-3-isothiazolone-1,1-dioxide21 was described by Remuzon et al.,15 and theN-ethoxy-carbonyl derivative22was used by Pe´te and co-workers.17,18

In both cases, the protecting groups prevented bis-indoleformation and greatly aided product purification.

In other examples, careful control of the reaction param-eters has proven successful in minimizing byproduct forma-tion. Brodfuehrer et al. described the development of anefficient Fischer indole synthesis of avitriptan (23), a potent5-HT1D receptor agonist.19 Previous work had shown thatthe key hydroxypropyl indole intermediate26 could be

prepared via a zinc chloride-catalyzed Fischer reactionbetween hydrazine24 and dihydropyran25 (Scheme 5).20

However, the yield of the indolization step was only 26%and initial preparation of the drug on a multi-kilogram scalewas carried out via a palladium-catalyzed heteroannulationreaction of an iodoaniline and an alkyne (see Scheme 47).

To develop an economical and scalable synthesis ofavitriptan (23), the authors reinvestigated the Fischer ap-proach and optimized the choice of aldehyde equivalent andreaction conditions (Scheme 6). A two-phase indolizationprocedure was developed which minimized the acid decom-position of the product and enabled the successful use of5-chlorovaleraldehyde (27), providing a 65-70% yield ofthe chloroindole29. Namely, a solution of hydrazone28 inbutyl acetate was added to a two-phase mixture of 6 Mphosphoric acid and butyl acetate at 105°C, and after asimple workup, the product could be crystallized from butylacetate without the need for chromatography.

A novel, highly convergent, asymmetric synthesis of theDP antagonist34was developed by the Merck process group(Scheme 7).21 Reaction of benzylhydrazine30 with unsatur-ated keto-acid31 in propionic acid provided hydrazone32,which was cyclized in situ by addition of methanesulfonicacid to give exclusively the trans-unsaturated acid33 in 85%yield. Subsequent asymmetric hydrogenation using binap-RuCl2-cymene in ethanol gave the saturated acid34 in >99%yield and 91-92% ee. Addition of diisopropylamine (DIPA)to the crude hydrogenation mixture resulted in the DIPA saltof 34 in 88% overall yield and enantiomeric purity upgradeto >99%. This synthesis was demonstrated successfully ona multi-kilogram scale.

Fischer indole reactions of cyclic enol ethers have beenutilized successfully by a number of groups to preparesubstituted tryptophol intermediates. As detailed in Scheme8, Anderson and co-workers explored and optimized thepreparation of 5-fluorotryptophol derivative36.22 The slow

Scheme 3

Scheme 4

Scheme 5

Scheme 6

Practical Methodologies for the Synthesis of Indoles Chemical Reviews, 2006, Vol. 106, No. 7 2877

Page 4: Practical Methodologies for the Synthesis of Indoles

addition of dihydropyran (DHP) to a solution of hydrazineHCl salt 35 in aqueous propylene glycol was found to becritical to obtaining high yields of36 and minimizingbyproducts38 and 39. The tryptophol derivative36 wassubsequently converted to the 5-HT inhibitor37 in ap-proximately 50% yield.

Campos et al. have recently reported an extension of thismethodology to a general synthesis of substituted indolesfrom cyclic enol ethers and enol lactones (Scheme 9).23 Forthe synthesis of substituted tryptophol derivatives42, additionof DHP to a mixture of hydrazine HCl salt40 in 4% H2-SO4/dimethylacetamide was found to provide good to excel-lent yields of isolated products. In addition, good to excellentyields of similarly substituted indole derivatives48-52wereobtained from the corresponding enols43-45 and enollactones46 and47 (Table 1).

The methodology was also applied to the synthesis ofGlaxo’s antimigraine drug Sumatriptan (16) (Scheme 10) viaa one-pot reaction of hydrazine53with dihydropyran to givethe hydroxyindole54. Activation of the hydroxyl group asthe mesylate followed by displacement with excess dimeth-ylamine according to the method of Brodfuehrer19 furnishedSumatriptan (16) in 45% overall yield.

The same paper described how Campos and co-workersextended this efficient approach toN-substituted indole aceticacids. Demonstration of the methodology was highlightedby a single-step synthesis of Merck’s anti-inflammatory drugIndomethacin (56), from readily available starting materials(Scheme 11). Coupling ofN-acylhydrazine5524 with an-gelicalactone47 using slightly modified conditions fromthose of the general procedure provided Indomethacin (56)in 65% yield.

Bentley and co-workers reported a short, practical syn-thesis of the 2,3,4-trisubstituted indole fragment61 of the

antibiotic nosiheptide62 (Scheme 12).25 Commerciallyavailable 3-amino-4-chlorobenzoic acid (57) was convertedto the hydrazine and condensed in situ with methyl 2-oxo-butanoate to give the hydrazone58 in excellent yield as acrystalline solid. Subsequent Fischer indolization using PPAin AcOH provided the indole59 in 87% isolated yield.Hydrogenolysis of the chlorine substituent, with Pd/C, gavethe indole60 in 85% yield. Reduction of the acid functional-

Scheme 7

Scheme 8

Scheme 9

Table 1a

a Data taken from ref 23.

Scheme 10

2878 Chemical Reviews, 2006, Vol. 106, No. 7 Humphrey and Kuethe

Page 5: Practical Methodologies for the Synthesis of Indoles

ity at C-4 provided the hydroxymethyl intermediate61 in78% yield.

A concise and efficient synthesis ofseco-duocarmycin SA(68) was reported by Tietze and co-workers in which thekey indole65 was constructed via Fischer cyclization and aradical 5-exo-trig cyclization was used to set up the tricyclicindole core67 (Scheme 13).26 Diazotization of commerciallyavailable 2-methoxy-4-nitroaniline (63) was followed by insitu reduction and condensation with methyl pyruvate cleanlyto afford the crystalline hydrazone64 in 69% overall yield.Fischer cyclization using PPA/xylene at 120°C for 18 hfurnished indole65 in 64% yield. Protecting group manipu-lation, reduction of the nitro group, Boc protection, andbromination followed by alkylation with 1,3-dichloropropeneresulted in the cyclization precursor66 in 41% yield overthe seven-step sequence. Cyclization using a catalytic amountof 2,2′-azobis(2-methylpropionitrile (AIBN) and tris(trimeth-

ylsilyl)silane gave the tricylic core67 in 79% yield. Removalof the Boc group,N-(3-(dimethylamino)propyl)-N′-ethylcar-bodiimide (EDC) coupling with trimethoxyindolecarboxylicacid, and debenzylation, under transfer hydrogenation condi-tions, gaveseco-duocarmycin (68).

Several convenient and potentially large-scale synthesesof melatonin analogues using Fischer indole cyclizationchemistry have been reported. Nenajdenko disclosed the firstexamples of Fischer indolizations of aminocarbonyl com-pounds containing unprotected amino groups (Scheme 14).27

The requisite hydrochloride salts of the amino-ketonecompounds71 were prepared via Claisen condensation ofcommercially availableN-vinylcaprolactam69 with arylesters followed by acidic hydrolysis.28 Condensation of theamino-ketones71 with the aryl hydrazines72 in acetic acidand warming to reflux, with or without the addition ofgaseous HCl, provided the 2-substituted dihomotryptamines73 in good to excellent yields. The products were obtainedby crystallization after concentration of the acetic acid andaddition of water.

The synthesis of a number of 2-aryl-N-acetylindolylalkyl-amines76 was also reported recently by Nenajdenko andco-workers (Scheme 15).29 N-Acylketones75 were treatedwith arylhydrazines74 in acetic acid with gaseous HCl ascatalyst to provide the corresponding indolylalkylamides76.Good to excellent yields of products76 were obtained fromhydrazines bearing both electron-donating and -withdrawinggroups.

Extension of this methodology to nonaryl ketones (77a-c) was explored with respect to regiochemistry in the indoleproduct. Reaction of the benzyl ketone77awith phenylhy-drazine afforded the 3-phenylindole81a in 93% yield,presumably via the more thermodynamically stable conju-

Scheme 11

Scheme 12

Scheme 13

Scheme 14

Scheme 15

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Page 6: Practical Methodologies for the Synthesis of Indoles

gated ene-hydrazine79a. On the other hand, the ketone77bgave the 2-methylindole compound80b. In this case, theinternal ene-hydrazine78b was favored over the terminalene-hydrazine79b (Scheme 16 and Table 2). The 4-oxooctyl-N-acetamide77creacted with phenylhydrazine to yield a 1:2ratio of the indole isomers80c and81c.

Marais and Holzapfel described an interesting alternativeapproach to the melatonin and tryptophan nucleus from2-hydroxypyrrolidine derivatives (Scheme 17).30 Althoughthis method was not carried out on a large scale, the simpleprocedures, high yields, and availability of pyrrolidinone82and pyroglutamic acid83 as starting materials merit discus-sion of this work as a potential efficient, large-scale entryinto these very important indole frameworks. The 2-hy-droxypyrrolidine derivatives84and85were easily preparedfrom pyrrolidinone82 and pyroglutamic acid (83), respec-tively. Protection of82 and83 as the CBZ derivatives andselective reduction of the ring carbonyl using lithiumtriethylborohydride provided the 2-hydroxy derivatives84and85 in 84% and 91% yield, respectively. Fischer indolereaction withp-methoxyphenylhydrazine hydrochloride (86)in acetic acid/water/ethanol at reflux for 35 min gave themelatonin derivative87 and the tryptophan derivative88 inexcellent yield (>95% in both cases).

In the course of investigating approaches to the synthesisof 8-desbromohinckdentine A, Liu and McWhorter requireda large-scale synthesis of the key indolenine95 (Scheme18).31 Fischer indole reaction between phenylhydrazinehydrochloride (89) and 2-bromoacetophenone (90) using PPAat 120°C32 gave the indole91 in 78% yield. Indole91 wasconverted to indolenine95 in high yield using a four-stepsequence as shown.33

An elegant asymmetric synthesis of the strychnos alkaloidTubifolidine (100) relied on the chiral indole derivative98as a key intermediate to set the remaining asymmetric centersby substrate control (Scheme 19).34 Indole98was assembledusing a highly regioselective Fischer indolization betweenketone97, available via asymmetric Michael reaction,35 andphenylhydrazine hydrochloride in acetic acid at 80°C.Standard decarboxylation gave indole98 in very high yieldand enantiomeric purity. Indole98 was successfully con-verted to Tubifolidine (100) via a multistep synthesis withcomplete diastereocontrol.

2.3. Via Japp −Klingemann ReactionThe Japp-Klingemann reaction provides a very useful

alternative route to a number of arylhydrazones employedin the Fischer indolization process (Scheme 20).36 When

Scheme 16

Table 2a

N-acetylindolylalkylamine R yield (%)

81a Ph 9380b H 7780c/81c Pr 90

a Data taken from ref 29.

Scheme 17

Scheme 18

Scheme 19

2880 Chemical Reviews, 2006, Vol. 106, No. 7 Humphrey and Kuethe

Page 7: Practical Methodologies for the Synthesis of Indoles

aryldiazonium salts101are treated directly withâ-ketoesters102, deacylation is followed by indole formation to giveindole-2-carboxylate esters106.37 Alternatively, if a â-ke-toacid103is used, decarboxylation occurs and a 2-acylindole107 is formed.38 The Japp-Klingemann procedure avoidsthe formation and use of arylhydrazines, which can bedifficult to prepare and handle in some cases.

Carboxylic acid111 has been shown to be an extremelyuseful intermediate in the preparation of a wide range ofpharmaceutical intermediates.39 A production-scale synthesisof the non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase (RT) inhibitorAtevirdine mesylate (U-87201E;112) was described usingindole111which was obtained from a commercial source.40

Recently, Bessard described a new, efficient process for thepreparation of111via Japp-Klingemann and Fischer indolechemistry using readily available malonate derivatives(Scheme 21).41 Diazotization of p-anisidine 108 underclassical conditions gave the diazonium salt, which was useddirectly as a solution in the next step. Successful reactionwith dimethyl 2-methylmalonate was highly dependent onthe choice of base. Best results were obtained usingmethanol/water as solvent and 1 equiv each of sodiumcarbonate and triethylamine. Using these conditions, the azointermediate109was obtained in>90% conversion. Japp-Klingemann rearrangement of109 was achieved usingcatalytic sodium ethoxide in ethanol at room temperature toafford hydrazone110in 90% assay yield. Fischer cyclization

by treatment of the crude hydrazone with gaseous HCl (3equiv) in refluxing ethanol and subsequent hydrolysisprovided the indole-2-carboxylic acid111 in 64% overallyield from p-anisidine109.

An industrially viable synthesis of the hormone melatonin(121), based on Japp-Klingemann and Fischer cyclizationchemistry, was recently described by Reddy and co-workers(Scheme 22).42 Crystalline ethyl 2-acetyl-5-phthalimidopen-tanoate (115) was prepared in a simple, one-pot procedurefrom phthalimide113 in 90% overall yield. Reaction of115with the diazonium salt ofp-anisidine116 gave the func-tionalized indole117 in 80% yield (80 wt % pure) andcontained intermediates118, 119, and 120. Hydrolysis ofcrude117 using potassium hydroxide, followed by in situtreatment with 5% HCl gave120 in 75% isolated yield fromcompound115. Acetylation provided melatonin (121) in 80%yield. This route was reportedly demonstrated at a 5-10kilogram scale.

Cook et al.43 reported the large-scale preparation of a seriesof 5-, 6-, and 5,6-disubstituted-3-methylindoles125a-dusing the Japp-Klingemann/Fischer indole protocol ofHeath-Brown and Philpott (Scheme 23).44 For the synthesis

Scheme 20

Scheme 21

Scheme 22

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Page 8: Practical Methodologies for the Synthesis of Indoles

of indole 125a, 3-chloroanisidine was diazotized understandard conditions and treated with ethylR-ethylacetoacetateto provide hydrazone123a. Fischer cyclization using HClin ethanol or PPA provided a 14:1 mixture of the regioiso-meric indoles124aand the 4-chloro-5-methoxy regioisomer.The required product124a was isolated in pure form bysimple crystallization from the crude reaction mixture.Hydrolysis with potassium hydroxide and decarboxylationunder standard conditions gave indole125a.

Indoles125a-d have been utilized in the synthesis of awide range of interesting natural products. For example,indole 125awas subsequently used to prepare theL(-)-6-chloro-5-hydroxytryptophan residue of the cyclic hexapeptidekeramamide A (126).45

In a similar manner, indole125b was used for the totalsynthesis of a number of natural products including (+)-majvinine, (+)-10-methoxyaffinisine, (+)-N-methylsarpagine,and macralstonidine.46 Indoles125cand125dwere used inthe enantiospecific total syntheses of Tryprostatin A47 andthe 2-bromotryptophan amino acid present in the cyclicpeptide Jaspamide, respectively.48

Until recently, the regioselective synthesis of indolescontaining benzylic substituents (e.g. CH2X) was typicallyachieved via halogen-metal exchange49 or directed lithiationchemistry50 on a preformed indole nucleus. An interestingand potentially very useful regioselective synthesis of 7-chlo-romethylindoles131via the sulfonic acid derivative130wasrecently disclosed by Pe´te et al. (Scheme 24).51 In thisapproach the sulfonyl group serves as a latent chlorosubstituent and subsequent reaction with nucleophiles suchas alcohols or amines was extremely facile. Japp-Klinge-mann reaction of diazotized 2-aminophenylmethanesulfonicacid with the â-oxo-ester derivatives128a-d affordedhydrazones129a-d. Fischer indolization using formic acidfor 129a-b or acetic acid/HCl for129c-d followed bycrystallization of the products from water provided theindole-7-methanesulfonic acids130a-d in 60-74% overall

yield. Treatment of the sulfonic acids130a-b and130e-fwith thionyl chloride at room temperature gave the chlo-romethylindoles131a-d in essentially quantitative yield. Thehighly reactive chloromethylindoles were converted to usefulsubstituted indoles132 in high yield by treatment withvarious alcohols or amines (e.g. MeOH or NHMe2).

The same methodology was useful for the preparation ofsimilar 5-substituted indoles134 from p-methanesulfonicacids133 whereas, as expected, mixtures of 4- and 6-sub-stituted indoles136a-b were obtained fromm-methane-sulfonic acids135 (Scheme 25).52

A general, large-scale synthesis of cycloalkylindoles140was reported recently by Hillier et al. (Scheme 26).53 Japp-Klingemann condensation of the diazonium salts of137withthe hydrolyzed oxo-esters138following a modified literatureprocedure36 gave the keto-hydrazones139 in excellent yieldby simple crystallization from the reaction mixture. Fisherindolization using 1.8 M H2SO4 in acetonitrile at 80°C for1 h provided indoles140 in good to excellent yields.

Scheme 23

Scheme 24

Scheme 25

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Reduction of the tricyclic ketoindoles140 using (S)-oxazaborolidine (OAB) and borane-dimethylsulfide com-plex (BH3‚DMS) gave the chiral alcohols141. Displacementunder Mitsunobu conditions with an enolate equivalentprovided a novel access to the indole acetic acid derivatives142, which were useful as prostaglandin-D (DP) receptorantagonists.

2.4. Via Metal-Catalyzed Arylation ofBenzophenone Hydrazone or tert -Butylcarbazate

One of the limitations of the Fischer indole reaction isthe availability of certain substituted aryl hydrazine orarylhydrazone intermediates. As mentioned in the introduc-tion to this section, the most common methods for thepreparation ofN-aryl hydrazones are the direct condensationof the N-aryl hydrazine with a carbonyl compound or theJapp-Klingemann reaction of aryl diazonium halides. Bothmethods involve formation of aryl diazonium salts whichare either reduced to hydrazines or reacted directly in theJapp-Klingemann reaction. In an attempt to overcome thislimitation, Buchwald and co-workers reported a palladium-catalyzed coupling strategy for the preparation ofN-arylbenzophenone hydrazones145from commercially available,inexpensive benzophenone hydrazone143and aryl bromides144 (Scheme 27).54 The stable, often crystalline, nonenoliz-able benzophenone hydrazones145 are not capable ofundergoing Fischer indolization; however, on treatment withacid in the presence of various ketones, enolizable hydra-zones are formed which undergo smooth Fischer reaction toprovide indoles146 in good yields. In general,p-toluene-sulfonic acid was found to be the optimum acid catalyst forthe Fischer reaction in most cases, and only a small excess(1.5 equiv) of the ketone was required. This methodologywas proven to be quite general and applicable to a wide rangeof aryl bromide and ketone substrates, giving indoles, in mostcases, in good to excellent yields (Table 3).

In subsequent work by the same group, Xantphos [9,9-dimethyl-4,5-bis(diphenylphosphino)xanthene] was found tobe far superior to 2,2′-bis(diphenylphosphino)-1,1′-binaph-thalene (BINAP) as a catalyst for the cross-coupling reactionto provide the aryl hydrazones. The methodology wasextended to includeN-alkylation of theN-aryl hydrazones161and subsequent in situ Fischer reaction to provideN-alkyl(R2) Bn, Pr, Me, allyl, CH2CH(OH)Me, CH2CH(OH)nBu)indoles162 in good yields (Scheme 28).55

Buchwald and co-workers have also demonstrated thatN-arylindoles could be prepared from benzophenone hydra-

Scheme 26

Scheme 27

Table 3a

a Data taken from ref 54.

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zone143 and an arylbromide163 via a one-pot sequentialpalladium-catalyzed coupling (Scheme 29). Treatment ofintermediate hydrazone164with a second mole of aryl halidein a one-pot procedure providedN,N-diarylhydrazones165.Treatment of165 with a variety of ketones in the presenceof TsOH in refluxing ethanol furnished indoles166 in goodto excellent overall yield. Interestingly, when unsymmetricalN,N-diarylhydrazones were employed, the Fischer cyclizationoccurred predominately on the more electron-rich arene.56

While highly useful for the small-scale rapid preparationof many structurally diverseN-H, N-alkyl, andN-aryl indoles,from a practical standpoint the separation of the benzophe-none byproduct from either the indole (one-pot reaction) orthe arylhydrazine is a key issue. In a recent publication,Mauger and Mignani described the successful optimizationand safe scale-up of the Buchwald palladium-catalyzedhydrazonation chemistry for the preparation of hydrazinehydrochloride169from p-bromotoluene167(Scheme 30).57

In this case, benzophenone hydrazone168 was obtained in93% isolated yield as a crystalline solid. Hydrolysis usingconcentrated hydrochloric acid in ethanol provided thehydrazine hydrochloride169 in essentially quantitative yieldcontaining only traces of benzophenone.

In related work, an expedient synthesis of indoles fromN-Boc arylhydrazines was described by Lim and Cho(Scheme 31).58 Reaction ofN-Boc arylhydrazines170withketones171 in the presence of TsOH provided good toexcellent yields of the Fischer indole products172. Thereaction was demonstrated with a number of substitutedhydrazines and a variety of acyclic and cyclic ketones. Unlikethe benzophenone hydrazone chemistry, this methodologydoes not generate potentially difficult to remove byproducts.The products were isolated in essentially pure form by simplewater workup.N-Boc arylhydrazides170were available viapalladium or copper catalysis as described by Skerlj59 and

Buchwald,60 respectively. Thus, para-substituted electron-deficient aryl bromides were coupled in good yield usingtert-butylcarbazate (2.0 equiv), Pd2(dba)3 (1 mol %), DPPF(3 mol %), and Cs2CO3 (1.0 equiv) in toluene at 100°C.48

Alternatively, both electron-rich and electron-deficient hy-drazides were prepared by the copper-catalyzed coupling oftert-butylcarbazate with aryl iodides using 1,10-phenanthro-line as ligand.49 One limitation of this reaction was the pooryields obtained from ortho-substitutedN-Boc arylhydrazines.

An interesting extension of this methodology for theselective synthesis of 4-bromoindoles was reported by Chaeand Buchwald.61 Chemoselective, copper-catalyzed hydra-zonation of symmetrical 3,5-dibromoiodoarenes173, fol-lowed by Fischer indolization, gave a variety of 4,6-dibromo-5-substituted indoles175 (Scheme 32). Selective hydrode-bromination at the less hindered 6-position, using the catalyticsystem Pd(OAc)2/rac-BINAP/NaBH4 in THF/diglyme, pro-vided the 4-bromoindoles176 in high regioselectivity.

This methodology was successfully applied to the efficientsynthesis of 4-bromo-5-methoxyindole ester178. Indole178was used as a key intermediate in the enantioselective

Scheme 28

Scheme 29

Scheme 30

Scheme 31

Scheme 32

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synthesis of the antihypertensive agent Indolodioxane(U86192A;179) (Scheme 33).

2.5. Via Metal-Catalyzed Hydroamination ofAlkynes

Despite the incredible range of substrates tolerated andthe versatility of the Fischer indolization process, the reactionof hydrazines with unprotected aldehydes often proceeds inlow yields and can generate unwanted side-products.62 Anumber of strategies, including protection as acetals, aminals,enol ethers, or bisulfite adducts, have been used to overcomethis problem, some of which are described in earlier sectionsof this review. Very recently, the titanium-catalyzed inter-molecular hydroamination of alkynes with hydrazines to givehydrazones directly was described by Odom and co-workers(Scheme 34).63 In the case of arylhydrazines181, the producthydrazones182underwent a one-pot Fischer indole reactionby addition of ZnCl2 to provideN-alkyl andN-aryl indoles183 in high yield on a multigram scale. This methodologyrepresents a novel entry into hydrazone synthesis via alkynes180 and has been extended by several other groups.

As a part of a general study on the hydroamination ofalkynes, Bellar investigated the regioselectivity of arylhy-drazine addition to various alkynes using 2.5-10 mol % thecyclopentadienyl titanium catalyst [(η5-Cp)2Ti(η2-Me3SiC2-SiMe3)].64 The work was extended to provide an efficientone-pot synthesis of tryptamine and tryptamine homologuesby a titanium-catalyzed hydroamination of chloroalkynes(Scheme 35).65 The titanium catalyst186 was readilyprepared from commercially available 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol and Ti(NMe2)4 in 72% yield via a publishedprocedure.66 The simple, one-pot indolization involved

heating the chloroalkyne and hydrazine with 2.5-5 mol %catalyst in toluene at 80-120°C for 1-24 h. The mechanisminvolved an initial highly selective, titanium-catalyzed,Markovnikov hydroamination of the alkyne184 to providetheN-aryl-N-chloro-alkylhydrazones. In situ Fischer reactionand nucleophilic substitution of the alkyl chloride by theliberated ammonia afforded the tryptamine derivatives187in good to excellent yields. When R3 ) Cl, mixtures of thetwo regioisomeric indoles were obtained.

A similar catalyst system was used by the same authorsin a new, very efficient synthesis of tryptophols andtryptophol homologues by hydroamination of alkynyl alco-hols followed by in situ Fischer indole reaction (Scheme36).67 For example, TBS-protected pentyne188was reactedwith N-methyl-N-phenylhydrazine189 in the presence of 5mol % catalyst190to afford the hydrazone192as the majorproduct. Treatment of the reaction mixture with ZnCl2 gavethe silyl-protected tryptophol193 in 75% yield (Scheme 36).The highly selective Markovnikov addition68 to affordhydrazone192 was explained by the intermediacy of thetitanaazacyclobutene derivative191.

In this work, the catalyst was conveniently formed in situfrom commercially available 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenoland Ti(NEt2)4. The one-pot synthesis of a number offunctionalized tryptophols196from TBS-protected pentynol188a and hexynol188b was carried out in high yield(Scheme 37). Although high yields of 2,3-disubstitutedindoles195were obtained in most cases, application of thismethodology to the synthesis of indoles unsubstituted at the2-position has not been reported. The use of a combinationof TiCl4 and t-BuNH2 as the sole catalyst for the tandemhydroamination/Fischer indolization was also reported byAckermann and Born.69

2.6. Via Metal-Catalyzed Hydroformylation ofAlkenes

The preparation of aldehydes, useful for the Fischer indoleprocess, via hydroformylation of alkenes is well-known.70

Originally reported by Eilbracht and co-workers, the tandemhydroformylation/Fischer indole reaction has evolved into apowerful and efficient method for the one-pot constructionof complex indoles (Scheme 38).71 The general reactionpathway involves in situ generation of the aldehyde inter-mediate198, condensation with an aryl hydrazine to givehydrazone intermediate199, and finally [3,3]-sigmatropicrearrangement to provide the indole product200.

Beller and co-workers have reported an extension of thismethodology to a general synthesis of hydrazones fromolefins using Iphos204as catalyst (Scheme 39).72 A numberof simple and functionalized alkenes201were reacted witharyl hydrazines202using Rh(CO)2acac (0.1 mol %), Iphos

Scheme 33

Scheme 34

Scheme 35

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204(0.2 mol %), and 10 bar of CO/H2 in toluene to providethe hydrazones203 in very high yield and selectivity.Addition of ZnCl2 to selected hydrazones203gave the indoleproducts205 in high overall yields.

The use of the tandem hydroformylation/Fischer indoliza-tion protocol for the synthesis of pharmacologically interest-ing indoles bearing amino-alkyl side chains was recentlyreported by Eilbracht and Schmidt (Scheme 40).73,74Excellentyields of substituted tryptamines208 were obtained from

various allylamines206and hydrazines207using Xantphosas the ligand. The Rh/Xantphos system provided completelyregioselective hydroformylation of the allylamines such thatno products from the isomeric aldehydes were detected.

The procedure involved hydroformylation in the presenceof the hydrazine in THF to provide the intermediatehydrazones. The hydrazone was then heated to 100°C in 4wt % aqueous H2SO4 for 2 h tocomplete the Fischer reaction.The stability of the carbamate protecting group of208eand208f to the Fischer indolization conditions is especially

Scheme 36

Scheme 37

Scheme 38

Scheme 39

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noteworthy since it provides a handle for derivatization tomore complex potential targets such as L-775606 (209).

The same methodology was extended to branchedtryptamines and homotryptamines (Scheme 41). For example,

piperidine alkene210 gave good to quantitative yields ofthe 3-(N-methylpiperidyl)indoles212, which are importantstructural elements of clinical candidates such as the anti-migraine compound LY334370 (213) and Naratriptan (214).

The procedure was subsequently improved to carry outthe hydroformylation/Fischer reaction in a single operationwithout the need for a solvent switch; use of the water solubleligands 216 and 217 allowed the whole reaction to beperformed in aqueous sulfuric acid. Simple basification ofthe crude reaction mixture, extraction, and crystallizationafforded the desired indoles215and219in good to excellentyield (Scheme 42).

The methodology was compatible withN-Boc hydrazinessynthesized via the Goldberg reaction, and several one-potsyntheses of antimigraine drug candidates have been dem-onstrated. For example, LY334370 (221) was prepared frompiperidine (210) andN-Boc arylhydrazine220in 95% overallyield (Scheme 43).

The hydroamination/Fischer indolization chemistry clearlyhas tremendous potential for the rapid synthesis of indolelibraries. The relatively mild reaction conditions, low catalystloadings, environmentally benign solvent systems, andgeneral overall atom efficiency are also very attractive froma large-scale preparative viewpoint.

3. Heteroannulations and Cyclization of2-Alkynylanilines

3.1. General Comments

Efficient methods for the construction of functionalizedindoles have involved the reaction of 2-haloanilines and2-aminophenols with either terminal or internal alkynes.These starting materials are often commercially available orreadily accessible through proven synthetic techniques. Theapplication of these attractive starting materials for the large-scale preparation of both 2-substituted and 2,3-disubstitutedindoles has emerged in recent years as an important andeffective means of preparing the indole ring system. The one-pot preparation of indoles from 2-haloanilines has beenachieved by a number of transition-metal-catalyzed processes.In addition, the cyclization of 2-alkynylanilines, oftenobtained from 2-haloanilines or activated 2-aminophenols,has been mediated by strong bases or catalyzed by eitherpalladium complexes or Lewis acids such as copper(I) andcopper(II) salts. Furthermore, the preparation of indoles via

Scheme 40

Scheme 42

Scheme 41

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an in situ amination/cyclization of an aromaticortho-haloalkyne that proceeded through an intermediate 2-alkyn-ylaniline has been described. The heteroannulation ofo-haloanilines with internal alkynes (Larock heteroannula-tion) and the cyclization of 2-alkynylanilines are bothversatile and practical methods for the construction of theindole ring. These reactions will be highlighted in thissection.

3.2. Indole Synthesis via the LarockHeteroannulation

The palladium-catalyzed reaction betweeno-iodoanilinederivatives222 and internal alkynes for the preparation of2,3-disubstituted indoles223 is referred to as the Larockheteroannulation reaction (Scheme 44).75 The Larock het-eroannulation is an extremely attractive method for theformation of complex indoles in a single operation. Thereaction generally provides a means of preparing complexindole targets in a highly convergent manner, since bothstarting materials (i.e.o-iodoaniline and internal alkyne) canpossess considerable functionality. The heteroannulationreaction is regioselective and almost always gives 2,3-disubstituted indoles, where the more sterically hinderedgroup (RL) of the alkyne occupies the 2-position of the indolering. In particular, silylated alkynes have been extensivelyemployed in the annulation process, which proceeded withexcellent regiocontrol, giving almost exclusively 3-substituted2-silylindoles. The resulting silylindoles can be proto-desilylated to the corresponding 3-substituted indoles or serveas a useful handle for further manipulation. In addition,substituents on the nitrogen moiety are also tolerated, leadingto N-substituted indoles. Therefore, it is not surprising thatthis important reaction has received considerable attentionfor the large-scale preparation of indoles.

Chen and co-workers utilized the Larock heteroannulationfor the preparation of indole227. Further elaboration of227gave indole228, which was required for activity screeningand safety assessment studies (Scheme 45).76 Coupling ofiodoaniline224 with bis-TES-propargyl alcohol225 in thepresence of Pd(OAc)2 in DMF with 5 equiv of Na2CO3

provided a mixture of226 and227 in a 96:4 ratio. Due tothe high water solubility of227, addition of 1.5 equiv ofMgSO4 minimized the desilylation of226 to 227 andincreased the overall yield of the reaction. SelectiveO-desilylation of226with tetrabutylammonium fluoride gavethe desired mono-TES-indole227, which was crystallizedfrom the one-pot reaction mixture in 72% isolated yield.Reaction of227 with NaCN and NaOH in ethanol/water

resulted in cyanide exchange, hydrolysis of the cyano group,and desilylation. Indole228was precipitated from the crudereaction mixture in excellent purity and 55% overall yield.

Chen and co-workers also utilized the above methodologyfor the synthesis of Maxalt (232) (Scheme 46).77

Brodfuehrer and Wang et al. in their paper on the Fischerindole cyclization synthesis of Avitriptan (23) (Schemes 5and 6) briefly reported that the Larock heteroannulation hadbeen used to prepare multikilogram quantities of Avitriptan(23) (Scheme 47).19,78 The key transformation involved thepalladium-catalyzed heteroannulation of iodoaniline234andacetylene235, which provided indole236. Subsequent acidhydrolysis of the silyl group furnished Avitriptan (23) in 65-70% overall yield from aniline233.

Goldstein et al. reported a practical synthesis of (5-trifluoromethyl)tryptophol and tryptamines via the Larockheteroannulation (Scheme 48).79 Reaction of (trifluorometh-yl)iodoaniline 237 with (triethylsilyl)acetylene238 in thepresence of PdCl2(dppf), 2 equiv of Na2CO3, and 1 equiv ofLiCl in DMF at 100 °C gave tryptophol240 in 44% yield.

Scheme 43

Scheme 44

Scheme 45

Scheme 46

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On the other hand, reaction of237with acetylene239underthe identical reaction conditions afforded tryptamine241 in83% isolated yield. Desilylation of240 with TBAF gaveindole 242 in 82% yield. Treatment of241 with hydrazinehydrate followed by the addition of 1 N HCl gave thedeprotected tryptamine derivative243 in 87% yield after thedirect crystallization of the HCl salt from the crude reactionmixture.

Walsh and co-workers reported the preparation of indoles247 and 248, which were utilized in the synthesis of thegonadotropin releasing hormone antagonist249 (Scheme49).80 The key transformation in their synthesis involved theLarock heteroannulation ofo-iodoanilines244and245withchiral alkynylsilane246. Reaction of244 with 246 in thepresence of Pd(OAc)2 and PPh3 with 1 equiv of LiCl and2.5 equiv of K2CO3 in DMF at 100°C gave indole247 in89% yield. Subjection ofo-iodoaniline245 to reaction with246 under the identical reaction conditions yielded indole248 in 72% yield. Although the reaction of245 with 246occurred in lower isolated yield, it was pointed out that theconvergence afforded by incorporating the desired amideearlier in the synthesis justified the use of this transformation.The preparation of249 was accomplished in an additionaleight synthetic steps from indole248.

Gathergood and Scammells have extended the Larockheteroannulation to the preparation ofN,N-disubstitutedtryptamines253 and 254, which were used in a practicaland versatile synthesis of the natural product psilocin255(Scheme 50).81 Reaction ofN-Boc-2-iodo-3-methoxyaniline250with acetylene251 in the presence of Pd(OAc)2, PPh3,tetraethylammonium chloride, and Hu¨nigs base in DMF at80 °C for 48 h afforded tryptamine253 in 69% yield.Reaction of250 with acetylene252 under the identicalreaction conditions gave tryptamine254 in 77% isolatedyield. Two additional steps were required for the completionof the synthesis of psilocin255 from indole253.

In an elegant approach to optically active tryptophans,Cook et al. have utilized the Larock heteroannulation forthe large-scale synthesis ofD-tryptophans263and264whichcan be further elaborated to tetracyclic ketones261and262(Scheme 51).82,83 These intermediates have proven to bevaluable building blocks which were applied for highlyfunctionalized macroline and sarpagine indole syntheses. Thekey indole-forming step involved reaction between iodo-anilines256or 257and the propargyl-substituted Scho¨llkopfchiral auxiliary258, which is readily derived fromL-valineand glycine.84 The Larock heteroannulation between256and258 in the presence of Pd(OAc)2, Na2CO3, and LiCl in DMFat 100°C provided indole259 in 77% isolated yield. In asimilar fashion, reaction between257 and 258 under theidentical reaction conditions employing K2CO3 as the baseafforded indole260 in 75% isolated yield. Hydrolysis of259or 260 with 2 N HCl in ethanol resulted in cleavage of theSchollkopf chiral auxiliary and concomitant loss of theindole-2-silyl group to giveD-tryptophane ethyl esters265and266 in 86 and 92% yields, respectively. Methylation of259and260with MeI and NaH followed by hydrolysis gaveN-methyl methoxy-substitutedD-tryptophan ethyl esters263

Scheme 47

Scheme 48

Scheme 49

Scheme 50

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(88%) and 264 (90%). Tryptophans263 and 264 weresubsequently converted in a highly optimized three-stepprocedure to ketones261and262, which have been carriedon to highly functionalized macroline and sarpagine alka-loids. Cook and co-workers have also demonstrated thesynthetic utility of this approach for the preparation of othersubstituted tryptophans.85

One of the major limitations of the Larock heteroannula-tion is that the reaction fails to give indole products in usefulsynthetic yields when 2-bromo- or 2-chloroanilines areemployed and requires the use of iodoanilines which are oftennot commercially available. Recently, Lu and Senanayakereported the first regioselective palladium-catalyzed indoliza-tion of 2-bromo- or 2-chloroanilines with internal alkynes,which greatly extended the scope and utility of the Larockheteroannulation (Scheme 52).86 In this work it has beenrightfully emphasized that the use of cheaper 2-bromo- or2-chloroaniline derivatives should provide significant practi-cal and economical value. Reaction of a variety of either2-bromo- or 2-chloroanilines (267 or 268) with variousinternal alkynes269 in the presence of K2CO3 and Pd(OAc)2employing 1,1′-bis(di-tert-butylphosphino)ferrocene (270) asthe ligand in NMP at 110-130°C provided 2,3-disubstitutedindoles 271 in yields ranging from 60 to 99% and withexcellent regioselectivity. The major byproducts observed

under these conditions were dihydrophenazines272; how-ever, when the reaction was conducted at lower concentra-tions, the formation of these byproducts was greatly mini-mized.

3.3. Cyclization of 2-Alkynylaniline Derivatives

3.3.1. Metal Alkoxide-Mediated Reactions

The alkoxide-mediated cyclization of 2-alkynylanilines haslong been exploited as a valuable synthetic method for theconstruction of 2,3-unsubstituted and 2-substituted indoles(Scheme 53).87-89 The overall sequence usually involves atwo-step process: (1) Sonogashira cross-coupling of 2-ha-loanilines 273 or 2-carboxamidoaryl triflates274 affords2-alkynylanilines275; and (2) alkoxide-mediated cyclizationgives the corresponding indole276. Most noteable successhas been achieved by heating the appropriate 2-alkynylanilinewith either NaOEt or KOt-Bu in a protic solvent, usuallythe corresponding alcohol. Initial investigations involvedreactions withN-substituted anilines, usually carbamates(methyl, ethyl, Boc, trifluoro); however, the unsubstitutedanilines can also be utilized in the reaction. When carbamateswere employed in the reaction, cyclization to the indole withconcurrent deacylation occurred, givingN-unsubstitutedindoles of type276.

Wang and co-workers utilized an alkoxide-mediated cy-clization of 2-alkynylaniline278 for the synthesis of 5,6-difluoroindole279, which was needed in large quantities asan intermediate in the preparation of the rebeccamycinanalogue280 (Scheme 54).90 Palladium-catalyzed couplingof carbamate277with trimethylsilylacetylene in the presence

Scheme 51

Scheme 52 Scheme 53

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of Pd(OAc)2 and P(o-tolyl)3 in NEt3 afforded acetylenide278in 94% yield. Treatment of278with NaOEt in EtOH at 70°C for 14 h resulted in cyclization, desilylation, anddeacylation to provide 5,6-difluoroindole279in 82% isolatedyield. Further elaboration of this indole to280was completedin three additional steps.

Indole derivatives containing oxygen-bearing substituentssuch as hydroxyl, alkoxy, or acetoxy groups are known tobe important medicinal agents and are present in a numberof physiologically active substances and natural products.Kondo and Sakamoto have demonstrated the synthetic utilityof the alkoxide-mediated cyclization of 2-alkynylanilines forthe preparation of a number of these important compounds(Scheme 55).91 For example, Sonogashira cross-coupling ofiodoanilides281 with (trimethylsilyl)acetylene in the pres-ence of Pd(PPh)2Cl2 and copper(I) iodide in triethylaminegave the (trimethylsilyl)ethynyl phenylcarbamates282 inyields of 85-100%. Cyclization of282 in the presence ofKOtBu in tert-butyl alcohol afforded methoxy- and isopro-pylsiloxyindoles283 in 10-79% yields.

Ogasawara and co-workers utilized an alkoxide-mediatedcyclization of the highly functionalized indole precursor284to give indole285, which was used in the total synthesis of19-oxygenated pentacyclicStrychnosalkaloids (Scheme56).92 The 2-alkynylaniline284was prepared in reasonableyield in a limited number of steps. Treatment of284 withNaOEt in refluxing EtOH provided indole285 in 85%isolated yield.

Recently, Knochel reported an extremely mild procedurefor the alkoxide-mediated cyclization of 2-alkynylanilinesto indoles which relied on the use of NMP as the reactionsolvent (Scheme 57).93 The use of NMP enables solubiliza-tion of potassium and cesium alkoxides such as KOt-Bu,CsOt-Bu, and KH and leads to increased reaction rates andlower reaction temperatures. These mild conditions allowusing various functionalities which may not survive in moreforcing cyclization conditions and allowed for the preparationof a range of polyfunctional indoles. For example, reactionof 286 with KOt-Bu in NMP for 4 h atroom temperatureafforded 2-phenylindole287 in 79% yield. An interestingextension of this methodology involved the one-pot prepara-tion of indole 288. Reaction of286 first with potassiumhydride in NMP for 2 h followed by the direct addition ofmethyl iodide gaveN-methyl-2-phenylindole288 in 96%yield. The one-pot functionalization of the C-3 position ofthe indole ring was also possible. For example, reaction of289 with potassium hydride in NMP for 2 h followed bythe direct addition of dibromotetrachloroethane furnished thehighly substituted indole290 in 58% yield by a one-pottransformation.

Dai and co-workers have reported a practical indolesynthesis starting from commercially available 2-aminophe-nols (Scheme 58).94 For example, reaction of acylated2-aminophenol291 with Tf2O in the presence of NEt3

furnished aryl triflate292. Sonogashira cross-coupling withphenylacetylene was reported to be remarkably enhancedwhen conducted in the presence of tetrabutylammoniumiodide (n-Bu4NI) and gave the 2-alkynylanilide293 in94% yield. Reaction of293 with KOt-Bu in NMP at60 °C provided indole294 in 81% isolated yield wheredeacylation occurred under the reaction conditions. Several

Scheme 54

Scheme 55

Scheme 56

Scheme 57

Scheme 58

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additional examples of this transformation were alsoreported.

This methodology has also been utilized for the preparationof 5-, 6-, and 7-aminoindoles297a-c (Scheme 59).95 Thekey step involved reaction of 2-alkynylanilines295a-c withKOt-Bu in NMP at 60-70 °C, providing the correspondingnitroindoles296a-c in 72-86% yield. Hydrogenation of thenitro group over Pd/C in EtOH furnished the aminoindoles297a-c in 85-96% yield. In the same paper, 4-aminoindoles300 and301 were obtained by reaction of298 or 299 withKOt-Bu in NMP at 80°C, which directly gave the desired4-aminoindoles300and301 in 75 and 90% yields, respec-tively (Scheme 60).

Sendzik and Hui have reported the aqueous tetrabutylam-monium hydroxide (Bu4NOH)-mediated cyclization of 2-al-kynylaniline 304 to give indole305, which is the directprecursor of the uPA inhibitor306 (Scheme 61).96 Sono-gashira coupling ofN-Boc-aniline302with arylacetylene303provided 2-alkynylaniline304 in 72% yield. Treatment of304 with 40 wt % aqueous Bu4NOH in refluxing THFresulted in cyclization with concomitant loss of the Boc groupto give indole305 in 89% yield. Indole305 was convertedto 306 in two additional steps.

3.3.2. Castro Indole SynthesisThe Castro indole synthesis formally involves cyclization

of either o-iodoaniline derivatives with cuprous acetylides

or 2-alkynylanilines with copper(I) salts, usually copper(I)iodide (Scheme 62).97 While reactions employing cuprousacetylides are rare and not amenable to scale up, copper-promoted cyclizations of 2-alkynylanilines309have receivedconsiderable attention as an attractive method for theconstruction of indoles. In most cases, copper(I) iodide isused in excess;98 however, cases using substoichiometricamounts (<1.0 equiv) and even catalytic reactions employingboth Cu(I) and Cu(II) salts have recently surfaced (vidainfra). For the process chemist, the Castro indole synthesisis particularly attractive since it affords freeN-H indoleswithout requiring the use of cumbersome nitrogen protectinggroups, utilizes economically attractive copper as the metalsource, and succeeds where other methods often fail.

Farr and co-workers reported the multi-kilogram-scalepreparation of indole313 using a modification of theprocedure originally reported by Castro (Scheme 63).99 Indole313 was an intermediate utilized in the synthesis of thegonanotropin releasing hormone antagonist314. The required2-alkynylaniline312 was prepared in quantitative yield bycoupling of acetylene311and iodoaniline hydrochloride310.Reaction of crude312with 0.5 equiv of copper(I) iodide inDMF at 134°C for 3 h afforded313, which was isolated bycrystallization in 88% yield. Indole313 was converted to314 in four to five additional steps via two separate reactionpathways.

Isobe has described the synthesis ofR-C-mannosylindole316via the Castro indole synthesis ofN-tosylalkynylaniline315 (Scheme 64).100 While no experimental details wereprovided, treatment of315 with CuI and NEt3 in DMFallowed for the preparation of gram quantities of indole316in 80% yield.

Cook et al. employed a Castro indole synthesis for thepreparation ofL-isotryptophan (321) (Scheme 65).101 Pal-ladium-catalyzed cross-coupling of 2-iodoaniline (317) withalkyne318 gave 2-alkynylaniline319 in 95% yield. When

Scheme 59

Scheme 60

Scheme 61

Scheme 62

Scheme 63

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treated with CuI in DMF at 95°C, cyclization to indole320occurred; however, under these reaction conditions significantepimerization of the stereogenic center (*) was observed.This problem was alleviated through the use of ethyleneglycol, which served as a proton source and suppressed theepimerization to less than 6%, and indole320 was isolatedin 80% yield. The desiredL-isotryptophan (321) was obtainedin two additional steps in 72% yield.

The development of a catalytic variant of the Castro indolesynthesis has been stimulated by an increased interest incopper-catalyzed reactions, which provide economical at-tractiveness and potential applications for the large-scalesynthesis of indoles. Villemin and Goussu102 demonstratedin 1989 that cyclization of 2-aminodiphenylacetylene couldbe conducted with a catalytic amount of copper(I) iodide(5.8 mol %) in refluxing DMF to give 2-phenylindole in 99%yield; however, the application of these harsh reactionconditions for the general synthesis of other indole substrateshas not surfaced.

Yamamoto and co-workers have reported the CuCl-catalyzed cyclization of 2-alkynyl-N-arylideneanilines323in the presence of various alcohols as a practical means ofsynthesizingN-(alkoxybenzyl)indoles325 (Scheme 66).103

The starting imines323 were prepared in two steps bySonogashira coupling of 2-iodoanilines322 with terminalalkynes followed by condensation with an aldehyde. Treat-ment of323with 5 mol % CuCl and 2 equiv of a number ofdifferent alcohols in toluene at 100°C for 1-24 h providedindoles325 in modest to good yields. Presumably, copper-mediated cyclization gives the zwitterionic intermediate324,which is attacked by alcohol to give indole325.

The cyclization of 2-alkynylanilines employing catalyticcopper(II) salts was recently demonstrated by Hiroya et al.(Scheme 67).104,105 This reaction could be applied to sul-fonamide and primary and secondary aniline derivativeswhere the catalysts of choice were either Cu(OAc)2 forN-substituted 2-alkynylanilines or Cu(OCOCF3)2 hydrate forunsubstituted 2-alkynylanilines; however, it should be pointedout that other copper(II) salts, such as Cu(OTf)2, could also

be used. The reactions were typically conducted in refluxing1,2-dichloroethane for 2-48 h, giving the desired indoles327 in good to excellent yield. Several representativeexamples are depicted in Scheme 67. The yields of theindoles were dependent on the bulkiness of the substituentson the acetylene terminus.

The same research group also reported that attemptedcyclization ofN-substituted 2-alkynylanilines326employingother Lewis acids such as BF3‚OEt2, TiCl4, TiCl2(Oi-Pr)2,AlCl 3, ZnCl2, and Sn(OTf)2 failed to give any syntheticallyuseful yields of the corresponding indoles. On the other hand,Sakai, Annaka, and Konakahara have demonstrated that theintramolecular cyclization of 2-alkynylaniline328could becatalyzed by indium tribromide (Scheme 68).106 Reaction of328 with 1 equiv of InBr3 in refluxing toluene gave2-phenylindole329 in less than 10 min and in quantitativeyield. When the reaction was conducted with only 5 mol %InBr3, 2-phenylindole was isolated in nearly quantitative yieldafter only 1 h of reflux. Prolonged heating does, however,lead to a dramatic decrease in yield of329; the authors didnot comment any further on this observation.

Rutjes el al. have utilized a silver triflate (AgOTf)-catalyzed cyclization of 2-alkynylanilines330 for the prepa-ration of isotryptophan331 (Scheme 69).107 The keytransformation involved refluxing Boc-protected amino acid330 in the presence of 10 mol % AgOTf to provide a slowbut clean conversion to chiral isotryptophan derivative331,which was isolated in 75% yield. Treatment of the racemicN-tosyl derivative under the identical reaction conditions gaveracemic331 in 86% yield. In both cases, cyclization to theindole was accompanied by cleavage of the amino-protectinggroup.

Scheme 64

Scheme 65

Scheme 66

Scheme 67

Scheme 68

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Cacchi and co-workers have reported that reaction of2-(phenylethynyl)aniline in the presence of 5% CuI and 2equiv of K3PO4, in dioxane at 110°C for 24 h, gave onlytrace amounts of 2-phenylindole (Scheme 70).108The additionof the chelating ligand (()-1,2-trans-cyclohexanediamine(CHDA) improved the yield to 50%. Speculating that a moreacidic N-H bond may favor cyclization to the indole, theyturned their attention to reactions of the trifluoroacetamidoderivative332. Reactions of332 with 5 mol % CuI in thepresence of either CHDA or PPh3 gave 2-substituted indoles333 in 49-88% yields.

In the same paper, it was shown that the copper complex334 ([Cu(phen)(PPh3)2]-NO3)109 can serve as an efficientcatalyst for the preparation of 2-aryl- and 2-heteroarylindolesfrom 2-iodotrifluoroacetanilide332and 1-alkynes (Scheme71). Reaction of332 with various arylacetylenes in thepresence of 10 mol %334 in refluxing toluene affordedindoles333in good to excellent yield (62-96%). In addition,phenylacetylene bearing both electron-donating and electron-withdrawing groups furnished the desired indoles. However,reaction with 1-hexyne under these conditions gave 2-bu-tylindole in only 11% yield.

Ackermann has reported a general and efficient indolesynthesis based on a catalytic one-pot [Ullman-Goldberg/Castro (or alkoxide-mediated)] indole synthesis (Scheme72).110 Treatment of 2-alkynylbromobenzenes335 with 10mol % CuI and 3 equiv of KOt-Bu in toluene containing an

appropriately substituted aniline furnished indoles336in 67-84% isolated yield for the one-pot transformation. In thiswork it was pointed out that the intermolecular Ullmanncoupling, or hydroamination, was followed by intramolecularcyclization to give the indole products.

3.3.3. Palladium-Mediated ProcessesThe palladium-catalyzed cyclization of 2-alkynylanilines

and the one-pot annulation of 2-haloanilines with terminalalkynes have received considerable attention as usefulmethods for the construction of indoles (Scheme 73). Forexample, both 2-substituted indoles339and 2,3-disubstitutedindoles340and341can be obtained from either 2-alkynyl-anilines338 or 2-haloanilines337 in modest to excellentyields. Reaction of 2-haloanilines with terminal acetyleneslikely involves 2-alkynylanilines338as synthetic intermedi-ates which further react with the palladium catalyst, leadingto the desired indoles. The preparation of 2,3-disubstitutedindoles 340 and 341 from both 337 and 338 requiresreductive elimination of either an indolylpalladium interme-diate, leading to substituted indoles of type340, or an acyl-indolylpalladium species, giving acylindoles of type341.While these methods have not yet been reported for the large-scale preparation of indoles, they deserve mention aspotentially scalable processes. Since these reactions wererecently reviewed in detail, they will not be discussed here.111

Instead, only the most recently reported examples will behighlighted.

Cacchi has disclosed a rapid approach to 3-alkynylindoles344and 2-substituted 3-acylindoles345which involved thepalladium-catalyzed reaction ofo-alkynyltrifluoroacetanilide342with 1-bromoalkynes343(Scheme 74).112 For example,reaction of342 with 1.2 equiv of343 in the presence of 5mol % Pd(PPh)4 and 3 equiv of Cs2CO3 or K2CO3 in MeCNfurnished the corresponding 3-alkynylindoles344 in modestto good yield. Higher yields were obtained when 1-bro-

Scheme 69

Scheme 70

Scheme 71

Scheme 72

Scheme 73

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moarylacetylenes were used; however, 1-bromoalkylacety-lenes could also be employed. Reaction of indoles344witha catalytic amount ofp-TsOH in a 2:1 mixture of MeOH/acetone gave 2-substituted 3-acylindoles345 in good toexcellent yield.

The one-pot cross-coupling and heteroannulation of tri-floxyanilides346a-c with various terminal alkynes for thepreparation of 2-substituted 5-, 6-, and 7-nitroindoles wasreported by Dai and co-workers (Scheme 75).113 The one-pot reactions for346a and 346b were carried out in thepresence of 10 mol % Pd(PPh)4, 30 mol % CuI, and 150mol %n-Bu4NI in a solvent combination of either 5:1 DMF/NEt3 or CH3CN/NEt3. A variety of functional groups weretolerated in the reaction, and protection of the OH was notrequired. Formation of the C-7 nitroindole347cwas prob-lematic and required the use of Pd(PPh3)Cl2 as the catalystalong with the stronger base tetramethylguanidine (TMG)at 100 °C. It was suggested that theortho-nitro group of347cmay form a hydrogen bond with the amido moiety andinterfere with the indole ring closure reaction; however, nocomment was made regarding the isolation of any intermedi-ates prior to cyclization to indole347c.

Ackermann has reported a highly efficient, regioselectiveindole synthesis based on a palladium-catalyzed amination/cyclization protocol of 2-alkynyl-1-chlorobenzenes348(Scheme 76).114 The starting 2-alkynyl-1-chlorobenzenes348were prepared with excellent selectivity and isolated yields(73-96%) by Sonogashira coupling of the correspondingo-dihalobenzenes using Pd(PPh3)2Cl2 and CuI. Reaction ofchloroalkynes348 with the palladium complex generatedfrom the commercially available imidazolium carbene salt351 (HIPrCl) and Pd(OAc)2 in the presence of KOt-Bu intoluene at 105°C for 2 h afforded good to excellent yields

of the indole products350for the single-step transformation.A variety of N-protecting groups, such as benzyl orp-methoxybenzyl (PMB), could be introduced via the corre-sponding amine, which allows the further manipulation ofthe resulting indoles. In addition, the reaction could be carriedout with mild bases such as Cs2CO3 or the less expensiveK3PO4. When these bases were employed, longer reactiontimes and incomplete cyclization of the amination intermedi-ate349were observed. However, the addition of CuI (5 mol%) was found to accelerate these reactions and quantitativeconversion to the indole occurred.

In the same paper, this methodology was expanded to themulticatalytic one-pot synthesis of indole353starting from1-chloro-2-iodobenzene (352) (Scheme 77). This particularlyremarkable transformation consisted of a Sonogashira cou-pling reaction, amination, and intramolecular cyclization tothe corresponding indole. Treatment of32 first with acombination of 10 mol % CuI, 1.5 equiv of phenylacetylene,3 equiv of Cs2CO3, 5 mol % Pd(OAc)2, and 5 mol % HIPrCl351 in toluene at 105°C for 1 h followed by the directaddition ofp-toluidine to the reaction mixture gave quantita-tive conversion to indole353, which was isolated in 64%yield.

Pal and co-workers have disclosed a straightforward one-pot procedure catalyzed by Pd/C in water/2-aminoethanolfor the preparation of 2-substitutedN-methanesulfonyl in-doles355beginning withN-(2-iodophenyl)methanesulfona-mides354 (Scheme 78).115 Reaction of354 with a varietyof acetylenes in the presence of 10% Pd/C (3 mol %), PPh3

(10 mol %), CuI (6 mol %), and 2-aminoethanol (3 equiv)in water provided good to excellent yields of the correspond-ing N-methanesulfonyl indoles355. Since this water-basedsynthesis is safe and inexpensive, the authors point out thatthe methodology is efficient, simple to perform, does not

Scheme 74

Scheme 75

Scheme 76

Scheme 77

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involve the use of expensive reagents or catalysts, and isamenable for the large-scale preparation of 2-substitutedindoles.

3.3.4. Iodine-Promoted Electrophilic Cyclizations

The electrophilic cyclization of appropriately functional-ized aromatic acetylenes promoted by iodine has beenutilized for the preparation of a number of heterocycliccompounds.116 The application of this strategy for theconstruction of 3-iodoindoles from 2-alkynylanilines wasrecently investigated as a practical method for the preparationof these versatile synthetic intermediates.117 Although theimplementation of these strategies for the large-scale syn-thesis of 3-iodoindoles has not yet been reported, therelatively mild reaction conditions and generality of theseprocesses necessitate their inclusion in this section. Forexample, Amjad and Knight reported a simple two-stepmethod for the construction ofN-tosyl- orN-Boc-protectedindoles358 from 2-haloanilines356 (Scheme 79).118 Thefirst step involved Sonogashira coupling of 2-haloanilines356to give the 2-alkynylanilines357in excellent yields (85-94%). Exposure of357with 3 equiv of iodine and anhydrousK2CO3 in MeCN at 0 °C followed by warming to roomtemperature gave the desired 3-iodoindoles358 in good toexcellent overall yield.

Yue and Larock have also developed a two-step synthesisof N-methyl-3-iodoindoles361beginning withN,N-dimethyl-2-iodoanilines359(Scheme 80).119 Sonogashira coupling of359 with various alkynes provided the 2-alkynyldimethyl-anilines360 in good yield. Treatment of360 with 2 equivof molecular iodine in CH2Cl2 at room temperature affordedthe 3-iodoindoles361, in nearly quantitative yield for mostexamples. Workup of these reactions required the additionof aqueous Na2S2O3, which spontaneously decomposed traceamounts of indolium triodide salts and effectively removedany excess of iodine.

The overall success of the above reaction was attributedto a number of factors. The enhanced nucleophilicity of thedimethylaniline nitrogen also orientates the nitrogen lone pairof electrons pointing toward the triple bond (Scheme 81).Subsequent cyclization was followed by removal of themethyl group by the highly nucleophilic iodide ion. The useof CH2Cl2 as the solvent increases the solubility of theindolium salt364 and facilitates the dealkylation step.

4. Reductive Cyclizations

4.1. General Comments

The reductive cyclization of aromatic nitro compounds isan extremely powerful method for the preparation of theindole ring and has been reviewed.120,121Due to a significantarray of both commercially available and readily accessibleo-nitrotoluenes, researchers in both academia and industryhave come to rely on reductive cyclization techniques forthe large-scale preparation of indoles. Reductive cyclizationis usually accomplished by catalytic hydrogenation over Pd/C, Pt/C, or a combination of Raney nickel and hydrazine.Other suitable reductants that have also been employedinclude sodium dithionite, nickel boride/hydrazine, iron orzinc in acetic acid, stannous chloride, TiCl2-HCl, and TiCl3.For the large-scale preparation of indoles, reactions whichare robust and are able to tolerate a large range of functionalgroups have received the most attention. The Leimgruber-Batcho indole synthesis and the reductive cyclization ofo-nitrobenzylcarbonyl compounds (including the Reissertindole synthesis),o-dinitrostyrenes,o-nitrostyrenes, ando-nitrophenylacetonitriles have proven to be practical andscalable methods for the construction of the indole ring.

Scheme 78

Scheme 79

Scheme 80

Scheme 81

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4.2. Leimgruber −Batcho Indole SynthesisOne of the most important and commonly used methods

for the preparation of 2,3-unsubstituted indoles is theLeimgruber-Batcho indole synthesis.122 The classical Leim-gruber-Batcho indole synthesis involves the condensationof an appropriately substitutedo-nitrotoluene 366 withdimethylformamide dimethyl acetal (DMFDMA) to giveintermediateâ-(dimethylamino)-2-nitrostyrene (367). Reduc-tive cyclization leads to substituted indoles368(Scheme 82).The increased acidity of the methyl group of theo-nitrotoluene allows the facile preparation of the remarkablystable intermediate367. In an improved procedure, theformation of367 is conducted in the presence of an excessof pyrrolidine, which exchanges with the dimethylaminosubstituent.123 The reaction is capable of tolerating a largerange of ring substituents and has been used extensively forthe construction of both natural products and pharmaceuti-cally important compounds.

Ohkubo and co-workers reported the large-scale prepara-tion of both 5- and 6-benzyloxyindole (373/374), which wereutilized in the preparation of intermediate376. Indole 376was further elaborated to the indolopyrrolocarbazole alkaloidsacryriaflavins377and378(Scheme 83).124 Reaction of369or 370 with DMFDMA in the presence of pyrrolidine wasfollowed by the direct crystallization of371 (94%) or372(91%) from the crude reaction mixture by addition of ethanol.Reductive cyclization with nickel boride/hydrazine mono-hydrate gave the desired indoles373 and374 in 86% and94% yields, respectively. Indole374has also been employedin the multi-kilogram synthesis of the potent DNA topo-isomerase I inhibitor379.125

Simig and co-workers have demonstrated a new andpractical synthesis of 5-formylindole384for the elaborationof a new manufacturing route to the antimigraine drugnaratriptan (385) (Scheme 84).126 The synthesis began byreaction of 3-methyl-4-nitrobenzaldehyde (380) with ethyleneglycol in the presence of a catalytic amount of TsOH to giveacetal381 in 82% yield. Treatment of381with DMFDMAin DMF at 140°C and subsequent catalytic hydrogenationof the nitro group with Pd/C afforded indole383 in 65%yield. Hydrolysis of 383 with aqueous HCl furnished5-formylindole384 in 91% yield. According to the authors,the overall yield of 49% represents the best synthetic routecurrently available for the preparation of 5-formylindole.

Showalter et al. reported an efficient route to indole391which was used for the preparation of the novel 1H-pyrrolo-[3,2-g]quinazoline ring system392(Scheme 85).127 Nitrationof ethyl 3-methyl-4-nitrobenzoate (386) gave a mixture (86:14) of regioisomers387/388where the desired regioisomer387 was obtained in 70% yield by crystallization from2-propanol. Condensation of387with DMF dimethylacetalin refluxing 1,4-dioxane gave intermediate389, which wasnot isolated but directly underwent cylization via catalytichydrogenation with 5% Pd/C to afford indole391 in 96%yield for the two steps. Indole391 was reported to becontaminated with 4-10% of 1-hydroxyindole390but couldbe obtained in pure form by crystallization from aqueousMeOH. Subsequent reaction with formamidine acetate inrefluxing 2-methoxyethanol provided the target compound392.

Scheme 82

Scheme 83

Scheme 84

Scheme 85

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Nagata and co-workers required large quantities of 6-iodo-4-trimethylisatin397, which was the key intermediate in thesynthesis of SM-130686 (398) (Scheme 86).128 One of thepreparative synthetic routes described in their paper utilizedindole396, which was derived from commercially available2-methyl-3-nitrobenzotrifluoride (393). Reaction of393withN-iodosuccinimide in 96% sulfuric acid gave394 in 86%yield. Condensation of394 with tris(dimethylamino)-methane129 in DMF yielded enamine395, which was useddirectly in the reductive cyclization step. Reduction of thenitro group using buffered aqueous titanium(III) chloride wasaccompanied by simultaneous hydrolysis of the enamine andcyclization130 to indole 396, which occurred in 83% yieldfrom nitrotoluene393. Indole 396 was converted in twosynthetic steps to the required isatin397in 65% overall yield.

Duncton has reported the large-scale preparation of6-chloro-5-fluoroindole (402) via a modified Leimgruber-Batcho reaction (Scheme 87).131 Indole 402 is the hetero-cyclic core of the potent and selective 5-HT2c receptor agonistRo 60-0175 (403). Reaction of nitrotoluene399with DMFdimethylacetal at 140°C under standard conditions affordedvarying amounts of the methoxy-substituted side product401in addition to the desired enamine400. Reductive cyclizationof this mixture with Raney nickel and hydrazine in methanolafforded indole402, which could not be separated from401without resorting to careful chromatographic separation.These problems were solved by simply condensing399withN,N-dimethylformamide diisopropylacetal (DMFDIPA); theseconditions cleanly gave enamine400 as the sole product.Subsequent reductive cyclization with Raney nickel/hydra-zine yielded indole402 in 60% overall yield from nitrotolu-ene399.

Faul and co-workers reported the large-scale preparationof N-(azacycloalkyl) indole409 via the modified Leimgru-ber-Batcho synthesis originally described by Coe et al.132

(Scheme 88).133 Condensation of404with DMFDMA in thepresence of pyrrolidine at 60°C for 5 h gave the pyrrolidineenamine 405 in 94% yield. Methanolysis of405 withtrimethylsilyl chloride in MeOH afforded406 in 84% yield.Catalytic hydrogenation of406 with 5% Pd/C in MeOHfurnished407 in quantitative yield. The reductive aminationof 407 was performed by addition of408 to a solution ofNaBH(OAc)3 in AcOH at room temperature followed byheating to 50-60 °C for 24-48 h to effect the cyclizationto indole409, that was isolated in 76% yield by crystalliza-tion from the crude reaction mixture after aqueous workup.

4.3. Reductive Cyclization ofo-Nitrobenzylcarbonyl Compounds

One of the oldest methods for the construction of indolesis reductive cyclization ofo-nitrobenzylcarbonyl com-pounds.134 The classic Reissert indole synthesis involvescondensation of ano-nitrotoluene410 with an oxalic esterto give o-nitrophenylpyruvate derivative411 followed byreductive cyclization to indole-2-carboxylic acid derivatives412 (Scheme 89).11,135 While the Reissert indole synthesishas been utilized for the small-scale synthesis of a wide rangeof both natural and unnatural products, the general applica-tion of the Reissert indole synthesis for the large-scalesynthesis of indoles has received limited attention.

A modified Reissert procedure for the large-scale prepara-tion of indole416was recently reported which was used inthe preparation of the potent NMDA/glycine antagonist419(Scheme 90).136 Chloronitrotoluene413 was iodinated toprovide iodide414. Treatment of414with dimethyl oxalatein the presence of potassium methoxide gave keto ester415in quantitative yield. Reduction of415 with iron, zinc, oraqueous titanium trichloride yielded varying amounts of thedesired indole416 together with hydroxyquinolinone417as a significant byproduct (>20%). When tin(II) chloridedihydrate was employed as the reductant,N-hydroxyindole418 was obtained exclusively. Conversion of418 to indole416 was effected in quantitative yield by reaction with

Scheme 86

Scheme 87

Scheme 88

Scheme 89

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aqueous TiCl3. A one-pot procedure was adapted wherebyreduction of415with tin(II) chloride dihydrate was followedby the addition of aqueous TiCl3 to give indole416 in 51%overall yield from414. Conversion to419 was completedin 10 additional steps.

Jimenez and co-workers have reported the multigrampreparation of indole423via a Reissert reaction and its usein the synthesis of the mitomycin derivative424 (Scheme91).137 Reaction of 3,6-dimethyl-2,4-dinitroanisole (420) withdimethyl oxalate in the presence of KOt-Bu gave keto ester421, which was crystallized in 63% yield. Reductive cy-clization of 421 with stannous chloride in MeOH gaveexclusivelyN-hydroxyindole422 in 60% yield where noneof the regioisomeric indole resulting from cyclization of theo-nitrogroup was detected. This suggested that the leaststerically hinderedp-nitro group underwent reduction/cy-clization prior to reduction of the more sterically hinderedo-nitro group. Catalytic hydrogenation of422 furnishedindole423in quantitative yield, which was further elaboratedto the target compound424.

Gallou has disclosed an efficient and practical synthesisof 2-arylindole-6-carboxylic acid derivatives430 via amodified Reissert indole synthesis.138 The key transformation

involved an aromatic nucleophilic substitution (SNAr) of arylnitro chlorides withâ-keto esters followed by a one-potreductive cyclization/decarboxylation. As shown in Scheme92, treatment of425 first with â-keto ester426 in thepresence of KO-tBu in NMP and quenching into HCl indioxane furnished intermediate427, which was not isolated.Reductive cyclization of427 by the direct addition of Fe/AcOH to the reaction mixture and heating to 85°C for 4 hgave indole intermediate428. The crude ester was thensubjected to decarboxylation (NaOH, MeOH, reflux) andconcomitant hydrolysis of the cyano group to give indole429 in 72% overall yield. The sequence was accomplishedwithout any isolation of intermediates or chromatography.The methodology was also applied to the preparation of otherindoles430with overall yields ranging from 25 to 79%. Theauthors also comment that, considering the operationalsimplicity and cost-effectiveness of the protocol, this methodwould be useful in the large-scale preparation of this classof indoles.

Murakami et al. examined the Reissert indole synthesisand discovered that reduction of 2-nitrophenylpyruvate esters432 with either Pd/C in EtOH or PtO2 in either EtOH orAcOH gave varying amounts of both the expected indoleproduct433and 3-hydroxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-2-quinolones434 (Scheme 93).139 They concluded that hydrogenation of

Scheme 90

Scheme 91

Scheme 92

Scheme 93

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2-nitrophenylpyruvate esters with 5% Pd/C in EtOH was thebest conditions for the preparation of indoles by the Reissertindole synthesis. However, up to 10% of quinolone byprod-ucts 435 was observed, as shown in the reduction of thesterically hindered 2-nitrophenylpyruvate431. Hydrogenationof the same substrate with PtO2 gave a reversal in thisselectivity, and quinolone434 was obtained as the majorproduct. It was proposed that reduction of the enol tautomer432 was competitive under catalytic hydrogenation condi-tions, and the judicious choice of hydrogenation catalyst wascrucial for control of the product distribution.

An extremely interesting acid-mediated indole ring closureof readily availableo-tosylaminobenzylfurans437 via amodified Reissert reaction (Scheme 94) has been demon-strated by Butin and co-workers.140 Alkylation of either2-methyl- or 2-ethylfuran436 with o-tosylaminobenzylalcohols435 was conducted in the presence of a catalyticamount of p-TsOH in refluxing CH2Cl2 to provide thebenzylfurans437 in high yields. The products were obtaineddirectly by crystallization from the crude reaction mixtures.When compounds437 were heated in ethanolic HCl,protonation, cyclization, rearrangement, and tautomerizationled to indoles441 in good to excellent yields. The indoleproducts were also isolated by direct crystallization from thecrude reaction.

The reductive cyclization ofo-nitrobenzyl ketones for thesynthesis of 2- or 2,3-substituted indoles has long beenknown to be a valuable method for the construction ofindoles. However, this method has been severely limited byavailable methods for the synthesis of the prerequisiteo-nitrobenzyl ketones. While there have been advances whichgive ready access to these starting materials,141,142,143 thepractical implementation of these methods for the large-scalepreparation of indoles has not yet been realized. However,recent reports have surfaced for the preparation ofo-nitrobenzyl ketones which should allow for the large-scaleconstruction of highly substituted indoles from relativelysimple precursors.

Buchwald has developed an outstanding approach for thesynthesis of both 2-substituted indoles444 and 2,3-disub-stituted indoles447starting from readily available 2-haloni-trobenzenes442and methyl or cyclic ketones (Scheme 95).144

Arylation of either 2-bromo- or 2-chloro-substituted benzenes442 with a number of methyl and cyclic ketones in thepresence of 1 mol % Pd2(dba)3, 4 mol % ligand445, 2.5equiv of K3PO4, and 20 mol % phenol (or 4-methoxyphenol)in toluene at 35-50 °C for 15-27 h gave the intermediateo-nitrobenzyl ketones443. The use of a phenol additive incombination with the phosphine ligand was found to becrucial for the successful preparation of theo-nitrobenzylketone intermediates. In the absence of any phenol additive,low conversion to product was observed. Following anaqueous workup, reductive cyclization of443 to the 2-sub-stituted indole products444was accomplished with aqueousTiCl3 in the presence of NH4OAc in EtOH to furnish theindole products in moderate to excellent overall yields. Itwas also reported that direct addition of an electrophile suchas MeI or methyl bromoacetate to the reaction mixture uponcompletion of the ketone arylation, followed by heating to50 °C, yielded the alkylated ketone intermediates446.Reductive cyclization of crude446with aqueous TiCl3/NH4-OAc in EtOH gave access to 2,3-disubstituted indoles447in modest to excellent yields.

Another practical and attractive method for the reductivecyclization of ketone453 to give the protected 1H-indol-2-yl-1H-quinolin-2-one ring system454 of the potent KDRkinase inhibitor455 has been described by Wong and co-workers (Scheme 96).145 Reaction of silyl-nitro compound450, prepared in two steps from commercially available4-nitrobenzyl bromide448, with aldehyde451in the presenceof a catalytic amount of tetrabutylammonium fluoride(TBAF) furnished alcohol452 in 89% yield. Oxidation of452 with Ac2O/DMSO gave ketone453, which could becrystallized from the crude reaction mixture in 78% yield.The reductive cyclization of453 was accomplished underhighly optimized conditions employing hydrogenation overRaney nickel in order to minimize the formation ofN-hydroxyindole456. Under these conditions, indole454wasobtained in 90% isolated yield by crystallization from thecrude reaction mixture. When Pd/C or Pt/C was employedas the reductant,N-hydroxyindole456 became the majorproduct. Acid hydrolysis of454 provided the target com-pound455 in near quantitative yield.

Scheme 94

Scheme 95

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4.4. Dinitrostyrene Reductive Cyclizations

The reductive cyclization ofortho-â-nitrostyrenes457 isknown to be an effective and proven method for theconstruction of indoles where other methods have failed(Scheme 97). Related to the Leimgruber-Batcho indolesynthesis, the prerequisite ortho-â-nitrostyrenes457are oftenprepared by condensation of ano-nitrobenzaldehyde with anitroalkane or nitration of a benzaldehyde precursor. Reduc-tive cyclization has usually been carried out under thestandard reductive methods listed above.

Prota and co-workers reported an expedient synthesis of5,6-dihydroxyindole462which required no protecting groupsor chromatographic purifications and took advantage of thereductive cyclization ofo-â-nitrostyrene461(Scheme 98).146

The required precursor461was prepared in two steps from3,4-dihydroxybenzaldehyde459 in 67% overall yield. Treat-ment of 461 with sodium dithionite in a phosphate buffer(pH 4) at 40°C in the presence of ZnSO4 afforded the desiredindole462 in 52% yield. The use of Na2S2O4 in the presenceof Zn(II) ions was critical for the success of the reactionand reproducibly provided462 in high purity, despite itspronounced instability. In a similar fashion, reaction of theprotected precursors463and464under the identical reactionconditions gave indoles465and466 in 90% and 70% yields,respectively.

Chen and Leftheris et al. reported a general, large-scalesynthesis of 2-methyl-7-methoxyindole470, a commonstructural unit found in a number of biologically activecompounds, by the reductive cyclization ofâ-methyl-3-methoxy-2,â-dinitrostyrene (469) (Scheme 99).147 Attemptsto prepare469 by the direct condensation of commerciallyavailable 3-methoxy-2-nitrobenzaldehyde (467) with nitro-ethane, in the presence of either ammonium acetate ormethylamine hydrochloride, gave low yields of469(<45%).The poor yields were presumably due to oligomerization orpolymerization, and a stepwise preparation of469 wasdeveloped. Treatment of467with nitroethane in the presenceof potassium fluoride and 18-crown-6 at room temperaturein 2-propanol gave the hydroxydinitro product468 in 96%isolated yield. Subsequent reaction of468 with aceticanhydride and sodium acetate in the presence of potassiumfluoride and 18-crown-6 furnished469 in 96% yield. Thereductive cyclization was carried out by hydrogenation of469 with 10% Pd/C in a solvent combination of EtOAc,acetic acid, and EtOH to afford 2-methyl-7-methoxyindole(470) in 62% yield. Intermediates468 and469 and indole470 were isolated in a straightforward manner by directcrystallization from the crude reaction mixtures. The syn-thesis of indoles471-474 via the same synthetic strategywas also described.

4.5. Reductive Cyclization ofo-Nitrophenylacetonitriles

The reductive cyclization ofo-nitrophenylacetonitriles475for the preparation of indoles is also a useful method for theconstruction of both 2,3-unsubstituted and 3-substitutedindoles476 (Scheme 100).148-150

Recently, Walkington and co-workers utilized this processfor the preparation of>100 kg of 6-(trifluoromethyl)indole

Scheme 96

Scheme 97

Scheme 98

Scheme 99

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480 (Scheme 101).151 Nucleophilic aromatic substitution of4-chloro-3-nitrobenzotrifluoride (477) with benzyl cyano-acetate (478) in a suspension of K2CO3 in DMF gavecompound479in 97% yield after precipitation of the productfrom the crude reaction mixture by the addition of water.The wet cake was used directly in the reductive cyclizationstep. Hydrogenation of crude479 with 5% Pd/C in EtOHinvolved a sequence of several transformations (i.e. reductionof the nitro group, hydrogenolysis of the benzyl ester,decarboxylation, cyclization, and elimination of ammonia)and gave indole480 in 88% isolated yield. The authorscommented that the exact order of these events for thisremarkable transformation remained unclear. The synthesisof indoles481-483via the same synthetic strategy was alsodescribed in the paper.

4.6. Reductive Cyclization of o-NitrostyrenesThe reductive cyclization of nitrostyrene compounds484

(Scheme 102) for the formation of substituted indoles hasreceived considerable attention since the pioneering workof Cadogan152 and Sundberg153 first described the formationof indoles by the deoxygenation of aromatic nitro compoundswith trivalent phosphorus compounds (typically triethylphosphite). While this reaction is broad in scope, the extremereaction conditions (>150°C), formation of bothN-hydroxy-and N-ethoxyindole byproducts, and generation of largeamounts of phosphorus waste render this transformationimpractical for the process chemist. The transition metal-catalyzed reductive cyclization of aromatic nitro compoundsemploying carbon monoxide as the stoichiometric reductanthas emerged in recent years as a highly versatile method forthe construction of indoles.154-157 Due to the harsh reactionconditions of many of these approaches which employ highpressures of CO, high reaction temperatures, or high catalyst/ligand loadings, these methods have remained only academic.However, recent developments have now surfaced whichmake this extremely efficient transformation a reality for thelarge-scale preparation of indoles.

Kuethe and co-workers described the preparation of thehighly functionalized indole454, which was subsequentlydeprotected to give the potent and selective KDR kinaseinhibitor 455(Scheme 103).158Treatment of the crude alcohol452 (Scheme 96) with trifluoroacetic anhydride (TFAA)followed by elimination of the resulting trifluoroacetate withDBU at 60 °C in a one-pot operation afforded exclusivelythetrans-nitrostyrene486. The product was isolated in 80%yield by direct crystallization from the crude reaction mixture.Under optimized reaction conditions which employed 0.1mol % Pd(TFA)2, 0.7 mol % 3,4,7,8-tetramethylphenanthro-line (TMP) in DMF, at 80°C, and 15 psi of CO, indole454was isolated by crystallization from the crude reactionmixture in analytically pure form and in 95% isolated yield.

The same group has also utilized this methodology forthe preparation of a number of 2,2′- and 2,3′-bisindoles491,which were subsequently used in the synthesis of indolo-carbazole aglycon492and glycosides493and494(Scheme104).159 For example, reaction of TMS-nitro compound487and indole 2-carboxaldehyde488 with a catalytic amountof TBAF afforded intermediate alcohol489. Direct additionof TFAA to the reaction mixture followed by elimination of

Scheme 100

Scheme 101

Scheme 102

Scheme 103

Scheme 104

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the corresponding trifluoroacetate with DBU at 60°C, in aone-pot procedure, afforded exclusively thetrans-nitrostyrene490 in 85% overall yield. Reductive cyclization of490utilizing Pd(OAc)2, PPh3 in MeCN at 70°C, and 15 psi COfurnished the unsymmetrical 2,2′-bisindole491in 96% yield.

Davies and Smitrovich et al. have reported the applicationof the highly active catalyst system utilized in Schemes 103and 104 for the reductive cyclization of otherortho-nitrostyrenes under mild conditions.160 The requiredortho-nitrostyrenes used in this study either were commerciallyavailable or were prepared by the synthetic sequencesoutlined in Schemes 103 and 104, or by a DBU-mediatedaddition of anortho-nitrotoluene to benzaldehydes (Scheme105). Optimization of the reaction parameters for thereductive cyclization ofortho-nitrostyrenes497 was ac-complished in an extremely rapid fashion employing aparallel pressure reactor (PPR).161 Reductive cyclization of498 in the presence of 0.1-1.5 mol % Pd(OAc)2 orPd(TFA)2, 0.7-3 mol % 1,10-phenanthroline (phen), or3,4,7,8-tetramethyl-1,10-phenanthroline (tm-phen), at 15 psiCO at 80°C for 16 h in DMF, afforded good to excellentyields of the corresponding indoles499. The indole productscould be obtained by simply filtering the crude reactionmixture and crystallization of the product. Since the onlybyproduct of the reaction is CO2, the reductive cyclizationof o-nitrostyrenes under these conditions offers significanteconomic and environmental advantages.

5. Miscellaneous Processes

5.1. Cyclization of 2-Aminophenethyl AldehydesAlper and Nguyen required several hundred grams of

methyl 7-chloroindole-4-carboxylate502 and devised anelegant, chromatography-free synthesis which was based onthe intramolecular cyclization of a masked 2-aminophenethylalcohol (Scheme 106).162 Trifluoroacetamide500 was pre-pared in four synthetic steps, in 23% yield, from readilyavailable starting materials. The key indolization reactioninvolved treatment of500with H2SO4 in refluxing methanol,which afforded the desired indole502 in nearly quantitative

yield after aqueous workup. Presumably, methanolysis of theisocoumarin functionality was followed by rapid tautomer-ization to501 and cyclization to the corresponding indole.This reaction closely resembles the Watanabe indole syn-thesis involving the oxidative cyclization of 2-aminophen-ethyl alcohols.163

5.2. Nenitzescu Indole SynthesisThe classical Nenitzescu indole synthesis involves the

condensation ofp-benzoquinones withâ-aminocrotonicesters and is a highly regioselective method for the formation1,2,3-trisubstituted-5-hydroxyindoles.164,165,166 While thismethod provides a rapid means of preparing functionalized5-hydroxindoles from simple, readily accessible startingmaterials, isolated yields are typically low, presumably dueto an elaborate mechanism which provides numerous pos-sibilities for side reactions. Despite this limitation, applica-tions of the Nenitzescu indole synthesis for the large-scaleproduction of indole substrates continue to be reported.

Kasai et al. reported the large-scale preparation of indole504, which was further elaborated to the antitumor indole-quinone EO9 (505) (Scheme 107).167 Reaction of 503,prepared from 4-methoxyacetoacetate and ammonia, with 3equiv of benzoquinone, in EtOAc at 50°C containing 3.5equiv of AcOH, for 16 h was followed by the addition ofNa2S2O4 and adjustment of the pH to 7.5 using aqueousNaOH. The resulting sodium salts of hydroquinone werefiltered off, and indole504was obtained in 49% yield afterrecrystallization. Indole504 was then converted to EO9 in10 additional steps.

Martinelli and co-workers utilized a Nenitzescu-basedapproach for the large-scale synthesis of LY311727 (508),a potent and selective s-PLA2 inhibitor (Scheme 108).168

Treatment of crude506, prepared by condensation of methylpropionyl acetate and benzylamine, with 1.4 equiv ofbenzoquinone in nitromethane for 48 h furnished indole507,which precipitated from the crude reaction mixture in 69%yield. The crude product was slurried in hot 1,2-dichloro-ethane to give pure507in 52% overall yield. The preparationof 508 was accomplished in seven additional steps.

Ila and Junjappa and co-workers have reported thepreparation of the indolo[2,1-a]isoquinolines511employinga convergent Nenitzescu reaction between tetrahydroiso-quinoline-derived enaminones509 and benzoquinones510(Scheme 109).169 Reaction of equimolar amounts of509withbenzoquinones510 in nitromethane for 2 days gave exclu-sively the desired indolo[2,1-a]isoquinolines511in 68-75%yield.

Scheme 105

Scheme 106

Scheme 107

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Lewis and co-workers recently disclosed the extension ofthe Nenitzescu reaction to the benzylimines of simpleketones, thus proving that a stabilized enamine tautomericform of aâ-dicarbonyl system is not a structural prerequisitefor the Nenitzescu reaction (Scheme 110).170 For example,preparation and reaction of the benzylimines of cyclohex-anone and 2-methylcyclohexanone (512) in essentially a one-pot procedure with benzoquinone afforded indole derivatives513in 60% and 40% yields, respectively. In a similar fashion,reaction of deoxybenzoin benzylamine gave indole514 in60%, and reaction of the benzylimine ofR-tetralone furnishedindole 515 in 59% yields.

In the same paper, Lewis and co-workers utilized thisapproach for the preparation of the potent and selectiveδ-opioid receptor antagonists518 and 519 (Scheme 111).For example, treatment of naltrexone (516) or naloxone (517)with benzylamine in the presence of TsOH followed byreaction with benzoquinone in either nitromethane or EtOHafforded indoles518 and519 in 55% yield.

5.3. Hydroformylation of AnilinesDong and Busacca have developed a two-step synthesis

of tryptamines and tryptophols from 2-haloanilines522

involving a palladium-catalyzed Heck reaction followed bya rhodium-catalyzed hydroformylation/cyclization/dehydra-tion sequence (Scheme 112).171 Reaction of a variety of halo-anilines with either N-tosylallylamine or N,N-di-Boc-allylamine under standard Heck conditions (5 mol %Pd(OAc)2, 10 mol % (o-Tol)3P, NEt3, MeCN, reflux)afforded the corresponding Heck adducts523 in modest togood yields. The hydroformylation/cyclization/dehydrationof functionalized anilines523was accomplished by reactionwith 5 mol % HRh(CO)(PPh3)3 and PPh3, at 70°C for 70 hin the presence of H2/CO (1:1, 300 psi) to give thetryptamines in modest to good yield. When the sequencewas carried out using allyl alcohol, tryptophol was produced.

5.4. Intramolecular Heck CyclizationsThe intramolecular Heck reaction has found much use in

the synthesis of carbazoles, indoles, oxindoles, and indo-

Scheme 108

Scheme 109

Scheme 110

Scheme 111

Scheme 112

Scheme 113

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lines.172 However, relatively few reports of large-scale indolesyntheses utilizing the intramolecular Heck reaction werefound in the literature over the last 10 years. The first

example of a very straightforward and direct coupling ofo-iodoanilines with ketones via palladium catalysis to provideindoles was described by Chen and co-workers (Scheme113).173 The reaction pathway was assumed to be formationof enamines526followed by an intramolecular Heck reactionto provide the indoles527. The choices of base and solventwere found to be critical to the success of the reaction andto minimize byproduct formation. When a nonoxidizableamine base such as DABCO was used in DMF as solvent,good yields of the intramolecular Heck cyclized productswere obtained.

The reaction was generally tolerant of substitution on theaniline ring with a number of cyclic ketones, pyruvic acid,and acetylsilane (Table 4). Addition of magnesium sulfate(1.5 equiv) was found to promote the annulation in somecases (entries 1, 2b, 4, 8, and 10), presumably aiding enamineformation via removal of water. While this method was veryeffective for the Heck cyclization employing aryl iodides,the use of aryl bromides was not discussed.

Macor and co-workers required a large-scale synthesis ofthe anti-migraine agent CP-122,288 (546) (Scheme 114).174

In their original synthesis, Heck cyclization of a monobro-moaniline540gave the intermediate543 in good yield. Theproblematic and low yielding formation of monobromo-aniline540 led the authors to investigate the Heck reactionon the more easily prepared dibromide541. Thus, dibromi-nation of the aniline539 using Br2/MeOH/NaHCO3 gavedibromide541 in 96% yield. Trifluoroacetylation and Mit-sunobu coupling with the allylic alcohol542gave the Hecksubstrate544 in 92% yield. Intramolecular Heck cyclizationusing Pd(OAc)2 and NBu4Cl in the presence of triethylaminegave the highly substituted indole545 (X ) Br) in a veryrespectable 76% yield.175 Reduction of the CBZ moiety andhydrogenolysis of the bromine at the 7-position provided CP-122,228 (546). It was noted that this highly efficient Heckcyclization of dibromoanilines may provide a generalsynthesis of 7-bromoindole derivatives and, via furthertransformation, of more complex 7-substituted indoles noteasily accessed via other methods.

The large-scale synthesis of a key intermediate useful forthe preparation of DP antagonist34 was recently describedby Shafiee et al. (Scheme 115).176 The approach involvedthe enzymatic hydrolysis of racemic indole ester550 andsubsequent functionalization of the chiral indole acid551.The synthesis of550 was carried out by condensation of2-bromo-4-fluoroaniline (547) with the keto ester548usingP(OEt)3 as the dehydrating agent to afford the relativelyhydrolytically stable imine549 in >98% yield. Intramo-

Table 4a

a Data taken from ref 173.

Scheme 114

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lecular Heck cyclization using Pd(OAc)2 and P(o-tol)3 inDMAc provided indole ester550 in 76% yield. Efficientenzymatic hydrolysis of550with Pseudomonas fluorescensand removal of the (S)-acid by basic workup was followedby basic hydrolysis to give the (R)-indole acid551, whichwas isolated as the dicyclohexylamine (DCHA) salt in 45%overall yield (Scheme 2).176 Introduction of the methylsulfone and benzyl moieties provided the DP antagonist34,in 65% overall yield from551, where the whole sequencewas carried out on a 25-50 kg scale.

A very elegant asymmetric synthesis of the same DPantagonist34 using an intramolecular Heck reaction toconstruct the tricyclic core was described by Campos et al.(Scheme 116).177 Although not fully developed for large-scale use, the key indole-forming sequence is worthy of note.The amide552, prepared via Trost178 asymmetric allylicalkylation of cyclopentenyl acetate and subsequent amidationwith dibromofluoroaniline, was subjected to iodolactamiza-tion and elimination to provide the bicyclic lactam Heckprecursor553 in 85% yield over two steps. Palladium-catalyzed Heck reaction under a number of conditionsreported in the literature gave incomplete conversion to554.171,179Complete conversion to554 was obtained whenthe intramolecular Heck reaction was carried out employingligand-free conditions using Pd(OAc)2. Tetracycle554wasconverted to34 in six steps with retention of optical purity.

5.5. Intramolecular Michael Addition/EliminationA practical, one-pot 2-acylindole-3-acetic acid synthesis

via an intramolecular Michael addition was described byStevens and co-workers (Scheme 117).180 Treatment ofsulfonamides555with bromoacetophenones and potassiumcarbonate generated the indolines556. Subsequent additionof a stronger base such as DBU or Cs2CO3 promotedelimination of toluenesulfinic acid and aromatization to affordthe indoles557 in excellent yields.

This methodology was applied to the very simple andhighly efficient, large-scale synthesis of the selective cy-

Scheme 115

Scheme 116

Scheme 117

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Scheme 118

Scheme 119

Scheme 120

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clooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitor561as described by Caronet al. (Scheme 118).181 Thus, Heck reaction of 2-bromo-5-chloronitrobenzene (558) with ethyl acrylate gave the cin-namate559 in 95% yield. Reduction and protection of theresultant aniline furnished sulfonamide560. Alkylation of560 with R-bromoacetophenone using K2CO3 in DMACafforded the dihydroindole intermediate. Addition of sodiumhydroxide to the same pot promoted both the elimination ofthe toluenesulfinic acid and hydrolysis of the ester to provideacid 561 in 82% overall yield.

5.6. Madelung −Houlihan Indole SynthesisAlthough the Madelung-Houlihan indole synthesis182 has

seldom been utilized for the large-scale preparation ofindoles, a recent application deserves mention (Scheme119).183 A large-scale route to tricyclic indole568, which isthe synthetic precursor to the 5-HT2C receptor agonist569,was developed where the key step in the process involvedthe Madelung-Houlihan indole synthesis between aniline562and morpholine amide564. Treatment of562with sec-butyllithium at-40 °C afforded the dilithiated intermediate563. Cooling to-78 °C and reaction with amide564 gavethe tetrahedral intermediate lithiumN,O-semiacetal565,which upon acidic workup afforded ketone566in 94% yield.Cyclization to indole567 was accomplished by treatingketone566 with in situ generated HCl in MeOH. Reactionof 567with NaOH/NaI in DMSO/H2O resulted in cleavageof the N-Boc group and cyclization to give the targetcompound568 in 92% isolated yield from ketone566. Theoverall sequence did not require any chromatographicpurifications and gave568 in excellent overall yield.

5.7. Plieninger Indole SynthesisThe Plieninger indole synthesis involves the conversion

of a 2-aminodihydronaphthalene to a 4-substituted indole.The lack of available synthetic methods for the preparationof the starting materials has severely limited the utility ofthis reaction.184 Recently, Kerr and co-workers extended thesynthetic utility of the Plieninger indole reaction and appliedthe method toward the synthesis of 5-hydroxy-, alkoxy-, andalkyl-4-alkylindoles573 (Scheme 120).185 Diels-Alder cy-cloaddition of quinoid imine derivatives569 with variousbutadienes570 provided the cycloadducts571 in good toexcellent yield. Oxidative cleavage of the resulting doublebond yielded a dicarbonyl intermediate572, which upontreatment with anhydrous acid cyclized to give highlyfunctionalized indoles573. The overall sequence onlyrequired two purifications and represents an expedientmethod for the construction of indoles of type573.

6. AcknowledgmentsThe authors would like to thank Dr. Kevin Campos, Dr.

Matthew Tudge, and Dr. Mike Hillier of Merck and Co.,Inc., for helpful discussions during the preparation of thismanuscript. The authors would also like to thank thereviewers for the many useful comments and suggestionsprovided and Dr. Michael Lipton for the invitation tocontribute to this thematic issue ofChemical ReViews.

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