Practicing Lifelong Learning

in Asia in the 21st Century

Carolyn Mede l -Añonuevo

IESCD

The U N E S C O Institute for Education, Hamburg, is a legally independent entity. While the Institute's programmes are established along the lines laid down by the General Conference of U N E S C O , the publications of the Institute are issued under its sole responsibility; U N E S C O is not responsible for their contents.

The points of view, selection of facts, and opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily coincide with official positions of the U N E S C O Institute for Education, Hamburg.

The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the U N E S C O Secretariat concerning the legal status of any country or territory, or its authorities, or concerning the delimitations of the frontiers of any country or territory.

© U N E S C O Institute for Education, 2001 ISBN 92-820-1113-5

Produced and printed in the Philippines. Cover page design M s Joanne de León Design and layout Isabel Templo/east axis creative Printed by Art Angel Prirrtshop

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Foreword

U N D E R T A K I N G RESEARCH on lifelong learning is one of main areas of

work of the U N E S C O Institute of Education (UIE). Starting in 1972 w h e n

the Governing Board approved this orientation, UIE continues to pursue

the study of lifelong learning in cooperation with policymakers, educa­

tors and researchers all over the world. This mandate takes on a more

urgent note as learning throughout life is deemed to be crucial in surviv­

ing the rapid societal changes in the 21st century. Individuals need to

learn key life and survival skills; they need to learn h o w to process fast

changing information to relevant knowledge; and w o m e n and m e n need

to learn h o w to live together in a world made smaller by globalization

processes.

The elucidation of a conceptual framework of lifelong learning which

is grounded on concrete practices across the globe is primarily assigned

to our Cluster I: Learning Throughout Life In Different Cultural C o n ­

texts: From Laying Foundation to Strengthening Creative Participation.

This cluster has the following objectives: 1) to review and assess the state

of the art of lifelong learning policies and practices in as m a n y regions in

the world as possible; 2) to discuss and analyze key issues, themes, initia­

tives and n e w horizons of lifelong learning that need to be integrated

into the framework; and 3) to disseminate information about the frame­

work and conceptual analysis through appropriate channels.

In line with the first two objectives, a three-day expert meeting was

organized in Chiangmai, Thailand in December 2000. Bringing together

policy-makers, educators , researchers and N G O s from China, Japan,

Malaysia, Philippines, South Korea, and Thailand, the meeting 1) reviewed

m

the existing discourses, policies and practices on lifelong learning in the

above mentioned countries; 2) applied a gender perspective in the re­

view; and 3) proposed specific areas of work in the future.

During the meeting, the presentation of papers was complemented

by a rich exchange of ideas and experiences, with a sharp analysis of the

similarities and differences, as its conclusion. Yet, even as similar discourses

and practices were identified, the need to contextualize and situate re­

mains a primary task in the elaboration of a lifelong learning framework.

For example, the pursuit of the Education for A U (EFA) goals was always

in the background of the presentation of some participants. It w a s clear

that there is yet no Asian perspective on lifelong learning, instead w e

have specific country perspectives, which still could be unpacked to re­

veal multiple perspectives. Clearly, too, a gender perspective on lifelong

learning still needs to be articulated.

This publication is an attempt to capture the diverse discourses and

practices in these countries, with a caution that this is not comprehen­

sive. Organized in the form of a primer, this booklet summarizes in a

readily accessible form, the m a n y questions and issues raised vis-à-vis

lifelong learning. While it tries to answer most of the questions, the book­

let is also meant to facilitate reflection and to raise more questions. W e

hope that by disseminating the rich experience of the Chiangmai meet­

ing, w e are able to stimulate more debates and dialogues on the potentials

of lifelong learning, which could then enlighten existing as well as future

practices of learning throughout life.

O u r heartfelt thanks go to the participants of Chiangmai: Eun Soon

Baik, C h a n Lean H e n g , Preeyanuch Jaruyavidyanont, Gerald Joseph,

M a d y a Molly Lee, Rosario de G u z m a n , Takafumi Miyake , Suvit

Pichayasathit, Dhora Rojas, Zhang Tiedao, whose inputs constitute the

basis for this publication. W e are likewise pleased that w e are co-publish­

ing this with the Asia-Pacific Programme for Education for All (APPEAL)

of the U N E S C O Principal Regional Office in Asia and Pacific (PROAP) ,

our main U N E S C O partner in the region.

Clarifying the lifelong learning framework entails examining exist-

IV

ing discourses — their philosophical, policy and cognitive underpinnings

— and reflecting on existing practices..This is not an easy task given the

multiplicity of actors and agencies. But it is a challenge that UIE has

taken to heart and is very m u c h a part of our work. •

A d a m a Ouane

Director, U N E S C O Institute for Education

v

Introduction

T H E M O S T POPULATED REGION in the world, Asia is also the most di­

verse. Highly industrialized nations exist side by side predominantly ru­

ral countries. There are large income gaps a m o n g the countries as well as

within these nations. There are big cities at the same time that there are

large rural populations. In China for example, 900 million out of the 1.2

billion people live in rural areas. Asians practice different faiths from Is­

lam, Buddhism, Christianity to Hinduism. They belong to hundreds of

ethnic communities and speak different languages. The range of colonizers

from the Americans, Dutch, English, French, Portuguese to the Spanish

have likewise left specific imprints on the ways of life of the Asians. In

terms of access to education, millions of Asians are able to finish tertiary

education while there are îillions and millions more, majority of them

w o m e n , w h o are unable to read and write.

To appreciate the landscape of lifelong learning in the region, one

then has to contextualize the description and analysis in the diversity of

the region. In the 21ST century where processes of regionalization and

globalization have a tendency to homogenize countries, the specific

economic, political and social characteristics continue to mediate in the

forms and characteristics lifelong learning takes in the region. A s a

preliminary reflection and analysis, this report is not exhaustive. It

attempts to describe some discourses and practices of lifelong learning —

some similar, some different — not to generalize but to allow for a nuanced

understanding of h o w lifelong learning is proceeding in the region. In the

framework of dissemination of good practices, this booklet is aimed at

encouraging policy makers, educators, and researchers to reflect on their

1

o w n realities in the light of these practices, and to consider h o w lifelong

learning could truly be maximized in their respective contexts to

transform societies.

By organizing this report in terms of Frequently Asked Questions

(FAQ), it is expected to respond to the c o m m o n concerns and issues raised

vis-à-vis lifelong learning.

H o w is lifelong learning understood in Asia?

A s a principle of learning throughout all the phases of life, lifelong

learning is not n e w to the region. It is embedded in belief systems of

m a n y indigenous communities as well as recognized philosophies as

Confucianism. While this seemed to be a c o m m o n sensical principle and

therefore easy to implement, in fact, it did not translate to equal access

of learning opportunities to all. S o m e Chinese for example, consider Con­

fucianism's principle of lifelong learning to be limited to the elite and

catered to the formation of bureaucrats. Analysis of histories of coun­

tries in the region also show that w o m e n did not benefit from the same

learning opportunities the m e n had access to.

Today lifelong learning is used interchangeably with lifelong educa­

tion and has a range of connotations. For example, in South Korea, where

lifelong learning is quite well k n o w n to the people, the term is also used

to denote social education, lifelong education or non-formal education

aside from the usual association with school education. In Thailand, life­

long education means integration of formal, non-formal, and informal

education. S o m e use lifelong learning to refer to adult education and other

forms of non-formal education. O n the other hand, the principle of life­

long learning is integral to the work of m a n y non-government organiza­

tions ( N G O s ) but is not labeled as such.

Meanwhile, a study on adult education in Asia and Pacific which

attempted to m a p adult education activities in the region considers life­

long learning as the highest stage of the continuum of adult education

program types. [Figure 1]

2

Figure 1

Country Activities Along a Continuum of Adult Education Program Types

Myanmar Uzbekistan Malaysia Japan China Papua N e w Guinea

India Nepal Indonesia Thailand Korea

Afghanistan Philippines Laos Vietnam

Source: Adult Education in Asia and the Pacific: Policies, Issues, and Trends 1997

It is also evident that the use of terminology lifelong learning has

been influenced by the U N E S C O Delors Report of 1996. A cursory re­

view of the literature shows that m a n y refer to the four pillars of learn­

ing: to know, to be, to do, and to live together. W h a t is clear is that life­

long learning as an educational principle in not uniformly understood

and is still highly contested. It seems there is very little discussion on the

distinction of the shift from lifelong education to lifelong learning. So

far, one difference that has been identified is that education is more

teacher-oriented, while learning is learner-oriented.

Given the wide range of understanding and usage of lifelong learn­

ing, the challenge ahead remains that of clarifying the concepts and

principles that ate being used in relation to lifelong learning. Should

lifelong learning be used to denote educational activities done in rich

countries while literacy is to be used to describe basic education for adults¿

O r should w e look at literacy as laying the foundation so that people

could continuously learn, and therefore, as a component of lifelong learn-

ing¿ A s one of the more fashionable education terms in the 21ST cen­

tury, it is tempting to use lifelong learning indiscriminately. At this point,

3

perhaps it useful to distinguish between lifelong learning as a principle of

learning throughout the life cycle and in different areas (lifelong and

lifewide) and lifelong learning "as a master concept for educational poli­

cies" [Faure, 1972] which will treat education holistically and integrate

all stages and forms of education.

Table 1

Types of Institutions

1

2 3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12 13

14

Educational and Training Institute for Government Vocational Training Center In-Service Center for Industrial Educational Private Tutoring Institution and General Lifelong Education Institute Lifelong Education Institute Affiliated with Schools at Local Level

Lifelong Education Institute as Supplementary School System Lifelong Education Institute and Agency for Youths Lifelong Education Institute and Agency for W o m e n

Lifelong Education Institute and Agency for Senior Citizens Institutions and Facilities for Individuals on Social Welfare Lifelong Education Institute as a Culture Center Counseling Institution Academic Association and Research Institution Public Agency and Civic Association

Total

N u m b e r of Institutions

195

510 769

99,442

10,464

2,794

5,298

202

42,068

18,075

13,866

1,053 5,843

6,975

207,554

N u m b e r of

Trainees per Year 1,031,982

481,595 3,754,100

9,076,055

3,590,955

1,008,598

555,733

320,590

-

-

-

--

-

-

Representative type

In service Training

--

Private learning institute (Hak Won) University extension program, School-based non-formal education Supplementary schooling

Lifelong education by N G O

- Education for women and elderly - Lifelong education by N G O Lifelong education by N G O

Lifelong education by N G O

Culture center (museum, library, art gallery) --

- Social organization - Civic organization

Source: White Paper on Lifelong Education, 1999, pp. 542-545, as cited in Eun Soon Baik.

4

To appreciate the South Korean thinking on lifelong learning, Types

of Educational Institutions of Lifelong Education, is presented in Table 1

to show the range of activities considered as lifelong education.

W h y is lifelong learning so popular now?

T w o of the most often cited reasons for the importance of lifelong

learning is for people to keep pace with the speed of development of

information and knowledge and for people to learn n e w skills in rapidly

changing societies. These reasons also hold true for Asia. Given the social

and economic context, there are even additional objectives lifelong learn­

ing is expected to achieve.

For example, the National Technical Education and Skill Develop­

ment Plan of the Philippines considers global competitiveness, rural de­

velopment, and social integration as major factors to bear in mind in

their technical education and skills development programs which are con­

sidered part of lifelong learning. In Japan, a government policy paper on

lifelong learning (Future Social Education Policy in Response to Chang­

ing Society) recommends concrete measures to ensure the adult's right

to learning in the face of rapid social changes.

In China's context, the government is committed to empower rural

villagers with n e w technologies and to promote the entrepreneurial ca­

pacities of the rural communities and such capacity building is lifelong

learning. The theme of empowerment , this time for w o m e n is also an

important reason for the Department of Non-Formal Education (DNFE)

of Thailand for pursuing lifelong education strategies. This means that

w o m e n should not only be learning to earn a living but also learning to

be good citizens and to attain a high quality of life.

Meanwhile from the N G O s point of view, lifelong learning could be

maximized to address global issues like environmental degradation, pov­

erty, h u m a n rights violations, conflict, and war. Furthermore they argue

that the primary objectives of lifelong learning should be to empower

people, promote citizen's participation, and to enhance their capacity to

solve problems.

5

In m a n y countries, lifelong learning takes on an urgent tone w h e n it

is considered a means of poverty alleviation. The argument is that large

sections of the region's population need to learn n e w knowledge and

skills which will allow them to have access to more economic opportuni­

ties. The importance of being able to utilize n e w information and c o m ­

munication technologies (ICTs) is also a key factor cited in need to learn

n e w skills. It is clear that in Asia lifelong learning is expected to address

survival and development issues through n e w knowledge and acquisi­

tion of n e w skills.

While the economic reasons for lifelong learning continue to domi­

nate, there are also other perspectives in valuing lifelong learning . Aside

from the empowerment discourse and the citizenship and democracy

imperative, there is also the view of lifelong learning as a means to recon­

struct a n e w set of values that are more humane or to reinterpret values

to address gender inequality.

Given the severe economic conditions Asian families, communities

and societies are facing, it is only logical to gear lifelong learning to help

solve these problems. The challenge is to go beyond the economistic

discourse and to enlarge the scope of the contribution of lifelong

learning to address identity and values formation, promote citizenship

education, facilitate democratic participation and help in conflict

resolution. A s our region is confronting political strife, low political

participation, various forms of gender marginalization and oppression

and host of other non-economic problems, it is urgent to address the

non-economic dimensions of lifelong learning so that it could genuinely

contribute to the transformation of individuals, relationships,

communities and societies.

Is policy advocacy for lifelong learning still necessary?

In a region where m a n y countries put a premium on learning and

education, is it still necessary to advocate for policies of lifelong learning

in Asia¿ The legal framework is critical in providing impetus and resources

for any societal endeavor, education included. A cursory review of some

6

of these shows that in fact there are four kinds of laws/policies in sup­

port of lifelong learning. First is the one that promotes wider access to

education which usually refers to provision through schools. T h e 1997

Constitution of Thailand for example affirms educational equality for

both sexes and provides for the right of citizens to basic education for 12

years for free. In Malaysia, lengthening basic education from 9 to 11 years

and democratization of secondary education were already in place in the

1980s. A clear difference here is that the Thai provision specifies gender

equality for educational access.

There is also that law/policy which provides for the recognition and

promotion of other forms of education other than that of formal educa­

tion. Article Xiy Section 2 (4) of the 1987 Philippine Constitution, for

instance, declares "The State shall encourage non-formal, informal and

indigenous learning systems, as well as self-learning independent and out

of school study programmes particularly those that respond to c o m m u ­

nity needs". This is further operationalized in the Education for All Phil­

ippine Plan of Action 2000 which emphasizes the need to develop non-

formal literacy and continuing education programs especially to meet

the educational needs of the poor and under-served communities. The

Lifelong Education Act of South Korea promulgated in 1999 likewise pro­

motes out of school education, non-regular school education and adult

and continuing education. In China, the 1995 Education L a w encourages

all kinds of adult learning to allow citizens to have access training to

programmes in the areas of political studies, economics, culture, tech­

nologies, specialized education and lifelong education. The Ministry of

Education of China has also listed the promotion of national lifelong

learning system as top priority for educational development, with inten­

sive investment in distance learning throughout the country.

T h e third kind goes beyond recognition of other forms of education

by promoting the integration of all types of education. For example, Thai­

land's Education Act of 1999 commits to providing literacy services and

institutionalization of credit transferring for formal, non-formal, and in­

formal education where lifelong education is seen as the promoter of the

integration of such types of education.

7

The final type is one that provides the framework for setting up

specific structures in support of lifelong learning. In Japan, as lifelong

learning has become a key priority, the Bureau of Social Education which

had a low profile in the Ministry of Education was changed to the B u ­

reau of Lifelong Learning, which assumed greater importance. South Korea

meanwhile has the Lifelong Learning Policy Division under Ministry of

Education, which works closely with the National Center for Lifelong

Education under the Korean Education Development Institute (KEDI).

The legal and institutional framework for lifelong learning varies from

country to country and is heavily influenced by a range of factors a m o n g

which are the leadership's perspective and vision of lifelong learning, the

existing educational needs and the educational infrastructure, the re­

sources available and even, access to existing good practices lifelong learn­

ing in the region or in other parts of the world.

A s the legal and institutional framework is key in providing a

facultative environment for the implementation of lifelong learning, it is

imperative that laws and policies are put in place. Ensuring broad access

to education, recognizing other forms of education other than the for­

mal type, promoting the integration of all forms of learning and setting

up structures are critical elements of a ''lifelong learning friendly" policy.

The challenge in the realm of policy advocacy is to hold policy

dialogues with the broadest possible number of stakeholders to ensure

that different concerns are taken into consideration. To broaden

indicates reaching out to the previously unreached like w o m e n , poor

sectors of society, indigenous communities, and students with special

needs. Broadening here also implies having discussions with government,

N G O s , private sectors, and multilateral agencies. It also means going

beyond those in the education sector as lifelong learning also takes place

in ministries of labor, social development, environment, agriculture, and

so on. The articulation of current educational systems should be matched

by the incorporation of a lifelong learning perspective in the non-education

sectors.

The Japanese N G O s work is illustrative of the last point. The Japan

8

N G O Forum on the Asian Development Bank (ADB) initiated a policy

dialogue with A D B in relation to adult education and lifelong learning.

A m o n g its recommendations are the following: 1) educational needs

should be addressed in all ADB-funded projects and programs where guide­

lines for adult education and training and a mechanism to allocate ap­

propriate budgets are in place; 2) A D B should not only give priorities to

adult education as practiced both in the formal and non-formal sectors

as part of its policies to facilitate h u m a n development, but also encour­

age recipient countries to emphasize projects in the education sector; 3)

A D B should extend its support for capacity building activities from the

government level to the local government; and 4) as adult and/or lifelong

education projects do not immediately produce economic returns for in­

vestments, special grants rather than loans should be approved to sup­

port educational aspects of development.

H o w do w e bridge the gap between formal and non-formal education?

In all Asian societies, formal education is still considered the primary

and most important means of education. In m a n y cases, non-formal edu­

cation is not considered as education at all. The marginalization of the

non-formal system goes against the grain of the educational principle of

lifelong learning, where schools are considered to be only one of the pos­

sible sites of learning and education. If societies are to shift to a truly

lifelong learning perspective in education, there must be a recognition

that other sectors equally matter and therefore should be allocated ap­

propriate resources. To bridge the gap between the formal and non-for­

mal system, the first step is to recognize the key role of the non-formal,

whether it be in providing for literacy classes or in continuing education.

The second phase is to strengthen non-formal education so it does not

continue to be a weak partner of formal education but instead functions

as its equal.

In South Korea, the Credit Bank System (CBS) was established in

1998 as a means of providing all citizens with greater access to various

9

educational opportunities and to foster a lifetime of learning. In the C B S ,

the students acquire credits by accomplishing programs at educational

and vocational training institutions, enrolling as part-time students in

colleges or universities, acquiring various national certificates, and pass­

ing the bachelor degree examination program for the self-educated. The

long-term goal of the C B S is to raise the overall standards and status of

the non-formal education sector as a vital means for promoting educa­

tional self-achievement and guaranteeing the global competitiveness of

the South Korean population. It is important to point out that South

Korea has one of the highest attendance rates for tertiary education in

the region, yet the government has decided to embark on this program as

a concrete w a y of realizing its vision of open and lifelong learning.

In contrast to the C B S which caters to the tertiary level of educa­

tion, the Philippine example is addressed to the elementary and second­

ary levels. The Non-Formal Education (NFE) Accreditation and Equiva­

lency (A&E) system was launched in 1999 as an alternative means of

certification of learning to those w h o are unable to avail of formal school

system or those w h o have dropped out of elementary and secondary

school. Developed by the Bureau of Non-Formal Education (BNFE) as an

alternative learning system (ALS), one of its challenges is to overcome

the social bias so deeply rooted in Filipino culture that any learning expe­

rience, opportunity and pathway outside of the formal school system is

considered second class, inferior or inadequate.

The N F E A & E system has four core components — the curriculum

framework, learning materials, learning support delivery system, and ac­

creditation and equivalency testing. The curriculum framework contains

a learning continuum of essential skills, knowledge, attitudes, and values

desired for non-formal basic education, which are designed to be compa­

rable to the formal school system. The learning materials are based on

the curriculum framework, designed to provide learning support to the

learners. There are presently 152 learning modules, facilitators guides, 10

audio tapes and print and non-print supplementary materials for elemen­

tary and secondary levels. The learning support delivery system includes

utilization of N F E materials and a range of learning support strategies,

10

structures and delivery modes, such as instructional managers, learning

group sessions, peer learning, learning centers, among others, in prepara­

tion of taking the N F E A & E tests. Finally, the accreditation and equiva­

lency testing, based on the curriculum framework, is designed to provide

two levels of certification of learning achievements comparable to el­

ementary and secondary system. Once a learner successfully passes the

test, he/she will receive an elementary or secondary certificate.

Another system of accreditation is that of the Philippine Technical

Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) equivalency pro­

gram. It provides a system for assessing competencies gained from life

experiences, work experiences, self-study, and other means related to cor­

responding equivalents in formal technical education and skills develop­

ment programs. By doing so, it provides an alternative for out-of-school

youth and adults to earn an educational qualification comparable to post

secondary level system, and enables its graduates to gain access to higher

education program equivalents. Under a M e m o r a n d u m of Understand­

ing ( M O U ) , T E S D A and B N F E allow holders of secondary certificates

obtained through the N F E and A & E to enroll in T E S D programs and

acquire technical qualifications for career development.

Meanwhile in Thailand, the Education Act of 1999 paved the w a y

for the establishment of an equivalency system which addresses primary

compulsory education up to the university level. It stipulated that "cred­

its accumulated by learners shall be transferable within the same type or

between different types of education, regardless of whether the credits

have been accumulated from the same or different educational institu­

tion, including learning from non-formal or informal education, voca­

tional training and from work experience".

The recognition and accreditation of prior learning (RPL, APL) , as a

strategy for bridging the gap between the formal and non-formal sector,

needs to be monitored and evaluated. Even as it is a recent development

in the countries mentioned, there are already concerns raised in its im­

plementation — e.g. that it is simply the formalization of non-formal

education, that quality of education is difficult to guarantee, that it is

trying to promote mass education without the infrastructure of the school

11

system, and so on. A s the notions of R P L and A P L are gaining ground in

the region, it is important that lessons from their implementation are

collected, analyzed, and disseminated.

Another w a y of bridging the gap between the formal and non-for­

mal system is exemplified by the work of the Department of Non-For­

mal Education (DNFE) of Thailand. O n e of its tasks is to cooperate and

render support to the formal schooling system by providing learning and

teaching activities for those attending the formal schools in terms of

educational technologies, such as educational radio and television pro­

grammes, satellite distance education programmes, as well as exhibitions

of science and technology.

The Chinese government, as early as the 1980s was implementing

the "integrated development of agriculture, science/technology and edu­

cation", which, in simplest terms, meant disseminating relevant scien­

tific knowledge and productive technologies among rural community

members, especially to those educated youths, by all means of educa­

tion, either formally, non-formally or informally.

In the end, most countries in the region place heavy emphasis on

formal education since learning and education are widely believed to be

taking place mostly in schools. Consequently the value of non-formal

education remains underestimated and the learning of the people in dif­

ferent fields, unrecognized. The challenge in bridging the gap between

the formal and non-formal system is to encourage more dialogues be­

tween the sectors where marginalization of the non-format has to be

addressed. In our present times of competing resources, this is not ex­

actly an easy task but it is a necessary step for the process of integration

to slowly begin.

H o w about informal learning?

The Thai government has one of the most explicit pronouncements

about the importance of informal learning in the perspective of lifelong

learning. Informal education opportunities for self learning are available

12

in institutional learning centers (e.g. libraries, museums , science and tech­

nology centers, community learning centers, agricultural offices, health

offices), cultural learning resources (temples, local wisdoms, local and

folk media, parks), mass media (radio, television, newspapers, books) and

social activity (learning from families, friends and societies).

The Department of Non-Formal Education is specifically assigned to

promote the above informal education activities. Under this task, the

D N F E encourages the people to learn by themselves continuously by

visiting these different sites of education. A m o n g the operational units

of the D N F E is the Informal Education Promotion Center which ensures

that informal learning is easily accessible to the people and their

communities.

Meanwhile Japanese N G O s assert that they provide unique infor­

mal learning opportunities. There are possibilities to learn about social

issues (which are not taught in the schools or community centers) where

the methodologies are more participatory. In fact, the Education Minis­

try has included N G O s in the "fourth space" in reference to its role in

providing learning opportunities (the first space is the family, the second

is the community, and the third is schools).

While informal learning is the least subsidized by governments, it

might be in fact the most dominant space for learning. In this age of easy

access to information and communication technology, the young people

of today are spending more and more hours watching television and us­

ing computers. The same can be said for adults especially in urban areas.

As the government of Thailand recognizes that in the 21ST century

, self-learning through informal education is going to be more important

than the other types of learning, they are providing basic education skills,

training and up to date information for both in and out of school people

to provide the foundation for the people to learn continuously on their

own.

The challenge ahead is to firmly establish the interconnections of

informal education with formal and non-formal education by consid­

ering how the former could complément and strengthen existing learn-

13

ing opportunities. Given its accessibility, informal learning should be

utilized to bridge the learning divide by providing opportunities to the

broadest population.

W h y are learners receiving so m u c h attention?

It is said that one of the implications of the change of the term from

lifelong education to lifelong learning is the shift of focus on the learner

and the learning process. Students have been replaced with learners; and

teachers with facilitators of learning. Instead of learning to follow the

teacher, there is n o w more focus on learning to learn. The L E A R N E R

occupies center stage as the rest are seen to be supportive of the process

the learner chooses to undertake. T h e learner is an autonomous subject

w h o can choose what he/she wants to learn and h o w he/she will learn.

W h a t has to be learned^ To be able to function in society, a learner

needs a range of skills and competencies. These necessary skills vary from

one society to another, from one community to another. It is also time

bound. In the Philippines, the B N F E for example, promotes the idea that

that the Filipinos need the following skills in the 21ST century: 1) c o m ­

munication skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing from print and

electronic media); 2) problem solving and critical thinking (including

numeracy in scientific thinking); 3) sustainable use of resources/produc­

tivity (including ability to earn a living as an employed or self-employed

person, sustainable resources and productivity); 4) development of self

and a sense of community (including self-development, a sense of per­

sonal and national history and identity, cultural pride, and recognition

and understanding of civil and political rights); and 5) expanding one's

world vision (including knowledge, respect and appreciation for diver­

sity, peace and non-violent resolution of conflicts and global awareness

and solidarity).

Different learners have different learning processes and require a range

of timely and appropriate support systems. A n underlying goal of the

N F E A & E system, for example is to assist learners to m o v e along a learning

continuum where they are empowered to take more control of their o w n

14

learning. A s they master n e w skills and competencies and develop

confidence in learning to learn, they become less dependent on facilitators

and more responsible for learning independently. In this system, learners

are given as m u c h control as possible over what, w h e n , where and h o w

they learn within the constraints of limited resources. Through multiple

entry and exit points, multiple delivery modes and flexible curriculum

options, the learner's goals and needs could be addressed.

The feminist thinking on the learning process (i.e. it should take into

account different ways of learning like situated and contextualized learn­

ing) has also shaped the discussion on the learning processes. T h e articu­

lation of a feminist pedagogy — commonly seen in w o m e n ' s groups —

has resulted to an appreciation of the individual learner with specific

realities and special needs. The slogan — personal is political — has helped

focused on the need to look at individual lives of w o m e n . Feminist peda­

gogy also advocates for learning with cognitive and emotional capacities

where the learning experience is a process which helps the learner under­

stand himself/herself and could lead to self-actualization.

The shift on the learner, while important — as it recognizes the

potential of the individual — could also be carried to the extreme where

the heavy burden of functioning and of adapting in society is placed on

the individual. By over emphasizing the learner's capabilities, the

government is liberated from its responsibilities to provide. The challenge

is to recognize the learners' potentials and capacities at the same that

one considers the societal factors under which the individuals learn.

The focus on the learner should not unduly lead to a narrow view of

individuals needing to learn so that they could survive. This should be

matched by a discussion on social, political and economic structural

changes that have to be addressed so that the individual learner could

truly be unencumbered in the learning process. The dynamic interaction

of the learners and the environments under which they live has to be

carefully examined to provide a realistic picture of a truly empowering

learning process.

15

Are communities then, still important? Given the pivotal role of the individual learner, does this m e a n that

communities are becoming less important for lifelong learning«?- O n the

contrary, in Asia community-based lifelong learning practices provide the

most innovative strategies. T h e community learning center (CLC) in

Thailand, for instance is recognized as a key mechanism for lifelong edu­

cation, organized by the community and for the community. The com­

munity itself is the school, providing education for its members where

all have access (education for all), all participate in organizing education

(all for education), and all develop lifelong education processes. Given

the diversity of its constituency, the C L C organizes a range of educa­

tional activities from basic education to vocational education to educa­

tion for up-to-date knowledge and information. With the principle of

the community as a learning base, the C L C integrates education with

the community w a y of life (e.g. learning from actual situations in the

community or learning from local wisdom)-.

A s a space designated for all kinds of learning activities in the com­

munity, the C L C in Thailand has the following functions: to collect all

types of learning materials within the community; to organize all kinds

of non-formal education; to coordinate all community development ac­

tivities; and to network with government, N G O s , and local entrepre­

neur in organizing learning activities. Usually there is a C L C teacher w h o

organizes and/or coordinates learning activities. C L C s are administra­

tively under the Department of Non-Formal Education.

Meanwhile in Malaysia, there are four types of CLCs : 1) government

funded (by Ministry of Rural Development); 2) N G O initiated

(e.g.Amanah Ikhtiar Malaysia, A I M ) ; 3) Private sector sponsored (e.g.

Philips); and 4) community institution driven e.g village development

and security committees, mosques.

Another example of a community-based approach is that of the

Beijing Agricultural School (BAS) work with the rural villages of Fangshan.

In designing their programmes for the village, five broad objectives were

identified: 1) to help the village to develop an implementation plan in

16

close response to the local resources; 2) to upgrade the technological c o m ­

petencies of farmers through formal and non-formal training programmes;

3) to disseminate a series of n e w agro-technologies among the villagers;

4) to promote village-based collective production of at least one product

as effective income source; and 5) to strengthen the village leadership for

effective involvement of villagers in the proposed project.

To obtain the above objectives, B A S developed three education

scnemes. First, the villagers could enroll as students of the school for spare

time learning with the combination of distance learning and lecturing.

The graduates w h o achieved qualifications could then be granted a di­

ploma after 3-year study. Then, there are also leadership courses, lasting

from 3 days to 2 weeks which are meant to create a supportive leader­

ship at village level. Every year a total number of 1,200 village leaders are

enrolled in these intensive courses. Finally, technician training has been

operated mainly through B A S regular formal programmes. Each year about

1000 graduates return to their o w n villages to practice their newly ob­

tained skills.

As part of local capacity-building, the B A S also established a net­

work of 37 practice bases in rural communities for plantation and live­

stock. These bases were normally started as pilot project sites and, with

B A S interventions, n o w serve as experiment demonstration and training

places both for the students and community members.

In the process of their work in the villages, B A S has broadened the

school curriculum and has become more responsive to the current needs

of rural population. Meanwhile the B A S staff development has been en­

hanced with their involvement in village programmes. In this partner­

ship, the communities have obtained n e w expertise for more production

while the B A S has acquired an additional role, to act as a community

resource center.

The above examples demonstrate h o w the communities have been

active in shaping their o w n learning agenda and h o w these could be fa­

cilitated either by government or by an educational institution. The c o m ­

munity as a school, the community as a site of learning, the community

17

as learning base are powerful metaphors that have been realized in m a n y

Asian villages. The challenge is to expand these learning communities

by tapping the potential of other "learning agencies" within the com­

munity such as local village councils, local health centers, and so on.

C o m m u n i t y initiatives need to s h o w the range of learning benefits

(whether it be for health, environmental protection, and even security)

so that more and more members could be encouraged to participate.

W h a t steps have to be taken to ensure that lifelong learning remains relevant to Asia?

Establishing learning interconnections of formal, non-formal and

informal learning is an important task given that most of the educational

systems in the region, remain largely compartmentalized, with the formal

schools, getting the bulk of the resources. The heavy emphasis placed on

schools has unfortunately meant the marginalization of non-formal

learning. Meanwhile, the increasing importance of informal learning has

posed a challenge to the formal sector, w h o feel that their students are

spending more time viewing T V , watching movies and interacting with

the computer. The idea of learning throughout life should be matched by

the idea of learning in different sites (at home, at school, in the community,

in the workplace, mass media, religious gatherings, and so on). The main

advantage of formal education is that it is able to put value and credit to

what people are learning. This is slowly being matched by the non-formal

sector with their accreditation and equivalency programs. Perhaps there

should also be a shift in the mindset that not all learning could be measured

and quantified. That not all learning could be reflected in certificates or

diplomas. That learning could also be observed in a peasant w o m a n , w h o

after taking literacy classes, is beaming with self-confidence.

The building of a culture of lifelong learning, in fact also means

unlearning. There is a need to unlearn prioritization for those w h o can

pay; and learn that those w h o cannot pay are in fact the ones w h o need

the most support. Building a culture of lifelong learning means providing

the necessary opportunities and infrastructures for those w h o are often

18

marginalized. Providing education for all entails equipping the people

with a strong foundation in basic skills. In Asia, the promotion of life­

long learning should be tied to the achievement of the E F A goals. Basic

education is part of lifelong learning, as it provides the basis for lifelong

learning.

The shifting of mindsets should also be accompanied by appropriate

allocation of h u m a n , technical and financial resources. Even as the idea

of the autonomous learner is promoted, teachers and other people w h o

could facilitate this process need to be identified. Support for the training

of such educators has to be assured. Infrastructure has likewise to be

provided whether it be in the form of buildings, equipment or technology.

Given the scope of lifelong learning, corresponding financial resources

should be allocated to the priority population, those previously

marginalized, a m o n g them, the poor, the w o m e n and indigenous

communities.

The role of research cannot be underestimated. There is no data avail­

able to track d o w n the learning possibilities both in the education and

non-education sectors of the society. Because of our preoccupation with

formal schooling, w e do not have figures on the non-formal sector, which

contributes to their further marginalization. The nature and the scope of

lifelong learning have m a d e it difficult to obtain a lifelong learning m a p

even at the community level. Research frameworks need to be adjusted

to take into consideration the lifelong and lifewide dimensions of life­

long learning. This also entails unlearning our bias towards quantitative

methods and learning that triangulation — combining quantitative and

qualitative — can provide us a more nuanced lifelong learning landscape.

Indeed more types of research should be undertaken — whether it be in

the form of collection of good practices or monitoring and evaluation of

existing practices.

To be able to rise to the enormous challenges posed by lifelong learn­

ing, establishing linkages and forging partnerships are critical. Bringing

together government, N G O s , the private sector, communities, and other

stakeholders is a daunting but necessary task. T h e convergence of ac­

tions and strategic partnerships could pave the w a y for more effective

19

lifelong learning responses. For example, T E S D A has brought together

various partners — local government units, N G O s , corporate/business,

academe, labor sector and other government organizations — in the crea­

tion of a framework where the concepts and principles of lifelong learn­

ing and multiple intelligences could be integrated to serve as foundation

in building a total quality technical-vocational education and training.

Another example is that of the Changyang Township Government and

Beijing Agricultural School w h o have jointly agreed to cooperate on the

promotion of the application of n e w technologies for higher productiv­

ity and income generation, where B A S instructors are required to offer

technical consultancy services for farmers.

In the 21ST century, one cannot avoid but talk about the role of ICTs

in lifelong learning. Information and communication technologies con­

stitute both an arena and a means for learning. As a means for learning, it

is able to facilitate the transfer of information and skills. The horizontal

learning possible with ICTs should however be complemented by critical

thinking. People should be able to discern which information will be most

useful, instead of simply consuming and accepting all information given

to them.

The transformatory potential of lifelong learning cannot be denied.

The w o m e n ' s empowerment programmes initiated by the Thai govern­

ment needs to be examined to unpack the complex process of learning

and empowermen t . Changing power relations is part and parcel of

transformatory lifelong learning. Millions and millions of Asians, major­

ity of them w o m e n , remain powerless — without access to land, to jobs

and to learning opportunities. To be truly relevant to these marginalized

and powerless sectors, m a n y have to learn and unlearn modes of think­

ing, feeling and acting that permit such marginalization to continue. •

20

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