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Predicting Preservice Teachers' Self-Efficacy to Resolvea Cultural Conflict Involving an African AmericanStudentKamau Oginga Siwatu a & Tehia V. Starker ba Texas Tech University ,b The University of North Carolina , CharlottePublished online: 18 Mar 2010.

To cite this article: Kamau Oginga Siwatu & Tehia V. Starker (2010) Predicting Preservice Teachers' Self-Efficacyto Resolve a Cultural Conflict Involving an African American Student, Multicultural Perspectives, 12:1, 10-17, DOI:10.1080/15210961003641302

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Multicultural Perspectives, 12(1), 10–17Copyright C© 2010 by the National Association for Multicultural EducationISSN: 1521-0960 print / 1532-7892DOI: 10.1080/15210961003641302

Predicting Preservice Teachers’ Self-Efficacy to Resolve a CulturalConflict Involving an African American Student

Kamau Oginga SiwatuTexas Tech University

Tehia V. StarkerThe University of North Carolina at Charlotte

This study examined preservice teachers’ (1) senseof efficacy to resolve a cultural conflict involving anAfrican American student, (2) sense of prepared-ness to effectively handle cultural conflicts, and (3)culturally responsive teaching self-efficacy beliefs.After reading a case study describing a teacherworking with an African American male student,participants (n = 84) were asked to indicate how ef-ficacious they were in resolving the conflict and howprepared they were to do so. The findings suggestthat preservice teachers’ sense of preparedness andthe strength of their culturally responsive teachingself-efficacy beliefs contribute to the prediction oftheir sense of efficacy to resolve the conflict pre-sented in the case study. The implications of thesefindings are discussed.

The disproportionate number of African Americanchildren in special education and the differential adminis-tration of discipline involving African American childrenhave been well documented (Skiba, Michael, Nardo,& Peterson, 2000). Unfortunately, despite the amountof discussion addressing these issues, the problem ofdisproportionality (Salend & Duhaney, 2005) and thedifferential administration of discipline involving AfricanAmerican children remain. The longevity of these issueshas prompted members of the educational research com-munity to question special education referral policy andpractices, school disciplinary practices, and the factorsthat lead to these actions (Artiles, Harry, Reschly, &Chinn, 2002).

Researchers have postulated many reasons that con-tribute to the overrepresentation of African Americanstudents in special education (Shealey & Lue, 2006;

Correspondence should be sent to Kamau Oginga Siwatu, Collegeof Education, Box 41071, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409.E-mail: kamau.siwatu@ttu.edu

Townsend, 2000). For some researchers, the dispro-portionate number of African American students inspecial education may stem from cultural conflicts inthe classroom. In culturally diverse classrooms, culturalconflicts may arise when a student’s culture differsfrom the teacher and/or school’s culture. A teacher’sfailure to acknowledge these differences may result inmiscommunication between the student and his or herteacher, student withdrawal, low academic achievement,and disruption of the learning environment (Bondy, Ross,Gallingane, & Hambacher, 2007). Teachers who do notrecognize the relationship between culture and class-room behavior may not implement culturally responsiveteaching and classroom management strategies that mayenhance the educational quality of African Americanstudents (Gay, 2000).

Other researchers who are concerned about theoverrepresentation of African American students inspecial education have examined the influence ofteachers’ beliefs on decision-making (Pajares, 1992).For example Meijer and Foster (1988) and Soodakand Podell (1998) have conducted studies designed toexamine the relationship between teachers’ self-efficacybeliefs, special education referrals, and strategies forworking with “difficult-to-teach” students. These studiessuggest that a teacher’s self-efficacy beliefs are related todecisions to refer a student to special education.

Given the data documenting the growing populationof students from culturally and linguistically diversebackgrounds (Strizek, Pittsonberger, Riordan, Lyter, &Orlofsky, 2006), the likelihood of cultural conflicts in theclassroom seems inevitable (Gay, 1981). The probabilityof these cultural conflicts means that teachers mayencounter students from diverse cultural backgroundswho they perceive, albeit incorrectly, to be difficult toteach. Undeservingly, this label of “difficult-to-teach”is often given to students whose classroom behavior,although consistent with cultural norms, is viewed through

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the eyes of a teacher as disruptive and counterproductive.Difficulty teaching these students may arise when theteacher fails to understand the relationship betweenculture and classroom behavior and thus implementstraditional instructional and classroom managementapproaches that may be ineffective when working withculturally and linguistically diverse students.

In lieu of the potential for culturalconflicts in today’s classrooms, itbecomes increasingly importantto nurture the development ofpreservice teachers whounderstand the relationshipbetween culture and classroombehavior and who are efficaciousin their ability to resolve culturalconflicts in the classroom.

In lieu of the potential for cultural conflicts in today’sclassrooms, it becomes increasingly important to nurturethe development of preservice teachers who understandthe relationship between culture and classroom behaviorand who are efficacious in their ability to resolve culturalconflicts in the classroom. The purpose of this study wasto examine the variables that contribute to the predictionof preservice teachers’ self-efficacy to resolve a culturalconflict involving an African American student.

Conceptual Framework

Culturally Responsive Teaching

For the past 25 years, researchers and teachershave advocated for the implementation of teachingpractices that are culturally responsive (Gay, 2000;Ladson-Billings, 1995). Gay (2000) defines culturallyresponsive teaching as, “using the cultural knowledge,prior experiences, frames of reference, and performancestyles of ethnically diverse students to make learningencounters more relevant to and effective for them”(p. 29). In a recent review of literature examining the keycompetencies of culturally responsive teachers, Siwatu(2007a) concluded that culturally responsive teachersdevelop a rich knowledge base of their students’ culturalbackground and home life. Culturally responsive teachersunderstand that all students bring to school a set ofcultural practices, norms, and preferences that influenceclassroom behavior and the teaching-learning process. In

addition, culturally responsive teachers understand thatstudents’ cultural practices may not be in harmony withthe school’s culture (Irvine, 1990).

When teachers do not understand the cultural basisof students’ classroom behavior, cultural conflictscan arise (Delpit, 1995; Irvine, 1990). Weinstein,Tomlinson-Clarke, and Curran (2004) believe that thesecultural conflicts may lead to the misinterpretationof a child’s classroom behavior, thus resulting inunnecessary disciplinary action or referral to specialeducation. According to Monroe and Obidah (2004),African American students are often the recipients ofunnecessary discipline for behaviors that may actually beappropriate (or normal) when viewed through a culturallens. Gouldner (1978) contends that often times the“inappropriate” behaviors exhibited by African Americanstudents are not intended to be disruptive.

Monroe and Obidah (2004) emphasize the importanceof preservice and inservice teachers understandingthe cultural context of classroom behavior. Althoughmany preservice teachers foresee working with studentsfrom culturally diverse backgrounds, they possess littleknowledge about the cultural background of their would-be students (Sleeter, 2001). Developing an understandingof the cultural context of classroom behavior maypotentially minimize the occurrence of cultural conflictsin the classroom (Gay, 1981). According to Bandura(1997) however, this understanding may not predictpreservice teachers’ classroom behavior if they are notefficacious in their ability to execute the tasks neededto resolve cultural conflicts involving students fromculturally diverse backgrounds. Therefore, it is equallyimportant to consider the role of teachers’ sense ofefficacy and preparation to resolve cultural conflictsinvolving students from diverse cultural backgrounds.

Teacher Efficacy Research

Empirical studies of preservice and inservice teachers’sense of efficacy have continued to grow since theconstruct’s introduction to the educational researchcommunity over 30 years ago (Tschannen-Moran &Woolfolk Hoy, 2001). Contributing to the popularityof teacher efficacy research is the construct’s ability topredict teachers’ future classroom behavior (Bandura,1997) and its relationship with positive teacher andstudent outcomes (Woolfolk Hoy & Davis, 2006).Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk Hoy, and Hoy (1998)defined teacher efficacy as, “a teacher’s belief in her orhis ability to organize and execute the courses of actionrequired to successfully accomplish a specific teachingtask in a particular context” (p. 117).

One area of teacher efficacy research has examinedteachers’ sense of efficacy within the domain of classroom

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management (e.g., Emmer & Hickman, 1990; Woolfolk,Rosoff, & Hoy, 1990). The results from this line ofresearch suggest that when efficacious teachers encounterclassroom management problems they are more likelyto implement solutions designed to increase desirablestudent behavior (Emmer & Hickman, 1990). Whenteachers’ classroom management and teacher self-efficacy beliefs are examined in the context of workingwith “difficult-to-teach” students, researchers have foundthat (1) a teacher’s sense of efficacy is related to specialeducation referral decisions, (2) decisions to refer alow SES student to special education differs amongteachers with high and low efficacy beliefs, and (3) highlyefficacious teachers offer more teacher-based suggestionsto address problems working with “difficult-to-teach”students (Soodak & Podell, 1998).

Summary and Research Questions

The current review of literature highlighted the factorsthat may contribute to the overrepresentation of AfricanAmerican students in special education. Researcherswho attributed the phenomenon to cultural conflictsin the classroom advocate for the implementation ofculturally responsive teaching and classroom manage-ment approaches in culturally and linguistically diverseclassrooms. On the other hand, educational researchershave uncovered the relationship between a teacher’ssense of efficacy, classroom management practices, andspecial education referrals. Soodak and Podell’s (1998)program of research speaks to the importance of helpingteachers develop the skills and strategies to work with“difficult-to-teach” students, while building their senseof efficacy to execute these strategies.

In light of the implications of the above studiesand given the likelihood that prospective teachers willinteract with culturally diverse students (Sleeter, 2001),it is important to examine preservice teachers’ sense ofefficacy to resolve a cultural conflict involving an AfricanAmerican student. The current study was designed toanswer the following research questions:

What is the nature of preservice teachers’ (1) senseof efficacy to resolve a cultural conflict involving anAfrican American student, (2) sense of preparedness toeffectively handle cultural conflicts, and (3) culturallyresponsive teaching self-efficacy (CRTSE) beliefs?

What is the relationship between preservice teachers’sense of efficacy to resolve a cultural conflict in-volving an African American student, and sense ofpreparedness to effectively handle problems, CRTSEbeliefs, number of teacher education courses taken thataddressed issues of cultural diversity in the classroom,and perceptions of the effectiveness of coursework to

prepare them to teach students from culturally diversebackgrounds?

What factors contribute to the prediction of preserviceteachers’ sense of efficacy to resolve a cultural conflictinvolving an African American student?

Methods

Participants

The data for this study were drawn from a populationof preservice teachers enrolled in a teacher educationprogram located in the southwest. Of the total sample(n = 84), 66 (79%) were female and 18 (21%) were male.Participants were asked to indicate their race/ethnicity:76 (90%) indicated that they were White and 8 (10%)were non-white (e.g., Native Hawaiian, Asian-American,Mexican American, and African American). The sampleof preservice teachers had a mean age of 21.98 (SD =2.85). The sample consisted of 9 (11%) sophomores, 29(34%) juniors, 43 (51%) seniors, and 3 (4%) studentsenrolled in a post bachelor teacher education program.The sample consisted of 10 (12%) prospective preschooland kindergarten, 33 (40%) elementary, 18 (21%) middle,and 23 (27%) high school teachers.

Measures

Academic and Demographic Background Question-naire. The Academic and Demographic BackgroundQuestionnaire was used to obtain information from pre-service teachers’ academic and demographic background.Participants were asked to indicate the number of teachereducation courses they have taken that addressed issuescultural diversity in the classroom. Using a scale rangingfrom 0 (not effective at all) to 10 (extremely effective),participants were asked to rate the effectiveness of thesecourses to prepare them to effectively teach students fromculturally diverse backgrounds.

Culturally Responsive Teaching Self-Efficacy Scale.The Culturally Responsive Teaching Self-Efficacy Scale(Siwatu, 2007b) was used to elicit information frompreservice teachers regarding their self-efficacy toexecute specific teaching practices and tasks that areassociated with teachers who have adopted a culturallyresponsive pedagogy. The scale consists of 40 itemsin which participants were asked to rate how confidentthey were in their ability to engage in specific culturallyresponsive teaching practices (e.g., I am able to identifythe diverse needs of my students) by indicating a degreeof confidence ranging from 0 (no confidence at all) to100 (completely confident). Responses to each item weresummed and divided by the total number of items togenerate a CRTSE strength index. This index, which may

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range from 0 to 100 is a quantitative indicator of thestrength of each preservice teacher’s CRTSE beliefs (seeLee & Bobko, 1994). Internal reliability for the 40-itemmeasure is .96.

Case study. Participants read a 300-word case studywritten from the perspective of a White American,seventh-grade math teacher working with an AfricanAmerican male student. After describing the student’sclassroom behavior (e.g., disruptive in class; speakingwithout permission; slow in completing assignments),the teacher discusses her instructional approach andclassroom policies. The case study concludes with theteacher asking for advice from fellow teachers in how toresolve the cultural conflict involving who she perceivesto be a “difficult-to-teach” student. After reading the casestudy, participants responded to the following questions:

Using a scale ranging from 0 (no confidence at all) to 100(completely confident) rate how confident you are inyour abilities as a teacher to resolve this conflict (thisvariable is referred to as “case study self-efficacy”).

Using a scale ranging from 0 (very poorly prepared)to 100 (very well prepared), rate how prepared youare to effectively handle problems (i.e., culturalconflicts) with culturally diverse, “difficult-to-teach”students (this variable is referred to as “sense ofpreparedness”).

Procedures

After granting their consent, participants providedsome information regarding their academic and demo-graphic background. After completing this questionnaire,the participants read the case study, provided answersfor the two case study questions, and completed theCulturally Responsive Teaching Self-Efficacy Scale.

Results

Descriptive Analysis

Coursework and perceptions of its effectiveness.This sample of preservice teachers reported taking anaverage of 2.79 (SD = 1.45) courses that addressedissues of cultural diversity in the classroom. Some ofthe reported courses dealt exclusively with the topicof cultural diversity whereas for others the coveragewas minimal (e.g., a chapter on the topic). The meanrating of the effectiveness of these courses to preparepreservice teachers to teach students from culturallydiverse backgrounds was 6.98 (SD = 1.78), on a scaleranging from 0 (not effective at all) to 10 (extremelyeffective) (see Table 1).

Culturally responsive teaching self-efficacy. Thesample of preservice teachers’ self-efficacy strengthindexes ranged from 11.13 (less efficacious) to 100.00(highly efficacious) with a mean of 78.87 (SD = 13.06).To identify the tasks in which participants felt more orless efficacious in their ability to execute, item specificmeans were divided into quartiles. The upper quartileincluded items with means that ranged from 83.42 to88.70 and reflected those aspects of culturally responsiveteaching that preservice teachers were most efficacious inaccomplishing. In the lower quartile, item specific meansranged from 56.53 to 76.92. As depicted in Figure 1,items falling within this range are those tasks in whichparticipants felt less efficacious.

Case study self-efficacy and sense of preparedness.On average, participants felt moderately efficacious(M = 70.60, SD = 16.48) in resolving the conflictinvolving the African American student. Participants feltmoderately prepared (M = 69.63, SD = 18.84) to handlecultural conflicts that may arise in culturally diverseclassrooms.

Table 1. Disaggregated means and standard deviations for key independent and dependent variables

Number of courses addressingissues of cultural diversity

Ratings of the effectivenessof coursework

CRTSE strengthindex

Case studyself-efficacy

Sense ofpreparedness

GenderFemale (n = 66) 2.64 (1.24) 6.91 (1.92) 79.33 (13.57) 69.32 (16.36) 68.39 (20.05)Male (n = 18) 3.39 (2.00) 7.28 (1.13) 77.18 (11.19) 75.33 (16.52) 74.16 (13.03)

Academic ClassificationSophomore (n = 9) 2.56 (0.88) 8.11 (1.36) 85.84 (9.35) 74.44 (17.58) 77.78 (16.22)Junior (n = 29) 2.79 (1.24) 7.34 (2.21) 81.68 (10.62) 73.10 (14.78) 72.21 (21.30)Senior (n = 40) 2.74 (1.53) 6.47 (1.40) 75.79 (14.67) 68.86 (17.30) 66.28 (17.78)Post Bac (n = 3) 4.33 (3.21) 7.67 (0.58) 75.08 (8.76) 60.00 (17.32) 68.33 (7.64)

Prospective TeachersPreK-K (n = 10) 3.00 (1.49) 7.50 (2.17) 77.46 (8.59) 69.00 (15.95) 70.50 (13.43)Elementary (n = 33) 2.70 (1.02) 7.21 (1.58) 81.30 (11.36) 69.09 (15.59) 70.61 (20.87)Middle School (n = 18) 3.17 (2.28) 6.72 (2.34) 78.02 (11.02) 73.06 (16.19) 70.28 (17.61)High School (n = 23) 2.57 (1.17) 6.65 (1.27) 76.67 (17.80) 71.57 (18.83) 67.35 (19.64)

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Preservice teachers were most efficacious in their ability to execute the following tasks:develop a personal relationship with my studentsimplement cooperative learning activities for those students who like to work in groupsuse the interests of my students to make learning meaningful for thembuild a sense of trust in my studentshelp students feel like important members of the classroomexplain new concepts using examples that are taken from my students’ everyday livesdetermine whether my students like to work alone or in a groupobtain information regarding my students’ academic interestsuse a variety of teaching methodscommunicate with parents regarding their child’s educational progress

Preservice teachers were less efficacious in their ability to execute the following tasks:use examples that are familiar to students from diverse cultural backgroundsidentify ways that standardized tests may be biased towards culturally diverse studentsidentify ways that standardized tests may be biased towards linguistically diverse studentsmodel classroom tasks to enhance English Language Learner’s understandingimplement strategies to minimize the effects of the mismatch between my students’ home culture and the school culturedesign a lesson that shows how other cultural groups have made use of mathematicsteach students about their cultures’ contributions to sciencecommunicate with the parents of English Language Learners regarding their child’s achievementgreet English Language Learners with a phrase in their native languagepraise English Language Learners for their accomplishments using a phrase in their native language

Figure 1. Preservice teachers’ culturally responsive teaching self-efficacy beliefs

Correlational Analyses

In the second phase of data analysis, correlationcoefficients were computed among the five variablesunder investigation: number of courses addressing issuesof cultural diversity, ratings of the effectiveness ofcoursework, CRTSE strength index, case study self-efficacy, and sense of preparedness. Using the Bonferroniapproach to control for Type 1 error across the 10correlations, a p-value of less than .005 (.05/10 =.005) was required for significance. The results of thecorrelational analyses presented in Table 2 show that fourout of the 10 correlations were statistically significantand were greater than or equal to .28. Preservice teachers’sense of preparedness to handle problems and CRTSEbeliefs were positively related to their case study self-efficacy beliefs. Preservice teachers’ ratings of theeffectiveness of their coursework to prepare them toteach students from culturally diverse backgrounds waspositively related to case study self-efficacy, sense ofpreparedness, and CRTSE beliefs.

Multiple Regression Analysis

To better understand the relationship between thepredictor and criterion variables, and to further examinevariables that contribute to the prediction of preserviceteachers’ case study self-efficacy beliefs, a standardmultiple regression analysis was conducted. For thisanalysis, the predictor variables included the number ofcourses addressing issues of cultural diversity, ratings ofthe effectiveness of coursework, CRTSE strength index,and sense of preparedness. The criterion variable in the

analysis was preservice teachers’ case study self-efficacybeliefs. Using the enter method, a significant modelemerged (F (4, 83) = 18.68, p < .001). The samplemultiple correlation coefficient was .69, indicating thatapproximately 48% of the variance in preservice teachers’case study self-efficacy beliefs can be accounted for bythe linear combination of the four predictor variables.

Another interesting observationwas the relationship betweenteachers’ case study self-efficacyand culturally responsive teachingself-efficacy (CRTSE) beliefs. Thedirection of this relationshipsuggests that as the strength ofpreservice teachers’ CRTSE beliefsincrease, so does their confidenceto resolve a cultural conflictinvolving an African Americanstudent.

The researcher was also interested in examining theBeta coefficients to identify the variables that made thestrongest contribution to explaining the dependent vari-able, when the variance explained by all other variablesin the model were controlled. An examination of theBeta coefficients suggests that preservice teachers’ senseof preparedness and CRTSE beliefs, with coefficients

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Table 2. Correlations between predictor and criterion variables(n = 84)

Variables 1 2 3 4 5

Number of courses addressing issuesof cultural diversity

1

Ratings of the effectiveness ofcoursework

.21 1

CRTSE strength index –.01 .21 1Case study self-efficacy –.05 .25 .54∗ 1Sense of preparedness .10 .47∗ .28∗ .55∗ 1

equaling .46 and .42 respectively, made the strongestcontribution to explaining the dependent variable.Both of these variables (p < .001) made a statisticallysignificant unique contribution to the prediction ofpreservice teachers’ case study self-efficacy beliefs.

Discussion

The current study examined preservice teachers’ senseof efficacy to resolve a cultural conflict involving anAfrican American student and the factors that contributeto the prediction of these beliefs. This study revealed sev-eral interesting findings. In this study, preservice teachersfelt moderately efficacious in their ability to resolvethe cultural conflict. Bandura (1997) would suggest thatpreservice teachers who are less efficacious in their abilityto resolve the case study conflict may be less likely to putforth the effort to resolve the cultural conflict. This pos-sibility may lead to the solicitation of outside help whenencountering problems with students whom they perceiveto be “difficult-to-teach” (Soodak & Podell, 1998).

Another interesting observation was the relationshipbetween teachers’ case study self-efficacy and CRTSEbeliefs. The direction of this relationship suggests thatas the strength of preservice teachers’ CRTSE beliefsincrease, so does their confidence to resolve a culturalconflict involving an African American student. Sinceself-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of howindividuals will behave, this finding is encouraging forthose who believe that the implementation of culturallyresponsive teaching practices may minimize culturalconflicts in the classroom. In light of the findings fromSoodak and Podell’s (1998) program of research, CRTSEbeliefs may influence the decision making of theseprospective teachers’ when they encounter a culturalconflict involving culturally diverse students.

In analyzing the relationship between case studyself-efficacy and CRTSE beliefs, the researcher was leftto wonder whether this relationship would still exist ifa more common teacher self-efficacy instrument wasused in this study (e.g., Tschannen-Moran & WoolfolkHoy, 2001). Many teacher self-efficacy instrumentsdo not assess teachers’ sense of efficacy to teach in

culturally and linguistically diverse educational settingsand execute specific teaching practices that have beenfound to be effective when teaching culturally andlinguistically diverse students. Therefore, an individualwho is found to be highly efficacious using the TeacherSelf-Efficacy Scale (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy,2001) may not feel efficacious in resolving a culturalconflict involving a culturally diverse student. On theother hand, a person who is efficacious in executinga variety of culturally responsive teaching practicesmay transfer these feelings when assessing his or herability to resolve a cultural conflict involving culturallydiverse students. This transfer of self-efficacy beliefsmay occur because the tasks associated with resolvingcultural conflicts are similar to many of the practices thatunderlie culturally responsive teaching. A future studyshould examine whether general teaching self-efficacybeliefs and CRTSE beliefs contribute to the predictionof preservice teachers’ sense of efficacy to resolve thecultural conflict presented in the case study and which ofthese two variables makes the strongest contribution.

Preservice teachers should alsodevelop the necessary strategiesto resolve cultural conflictsinvolving culturally diversestudents. The teaching of thesestrategies should be accompaniedwith efficacy-building activities.

A third observation was the relationship between thenumber of teacher education courses taken that addressedissues of cultural diversity in the classroom and the otherkey variables in this study. The results of the correlationalanalysis suggest that the number of courses taken was notrelated to any of the key variables in this study. In addition,the results of the multiple regression analysis revealed thatthe number of courses do not contribute to the predictionof preservice teachers’ efficacy to resolve the culturalconflict involving an African American student. Thenature of the relationship between preservice teachers’sense of preparedness, the number of courses addressingissues of cultural diversity and their perceptions of theeffectiveness of these courses to prepare them to teachstudents from culturally diverse backgrounds was alsosurprising. The relationship between these variablessuggests that preservice teachers perceptions of theirpreparedness to effectively handle cultural conflicts wasnot related to the number of teacher education coursestaken that addressed issues of cultural diversity in theclassroom. Instead, sense of preparedness was related to

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preservice teachers’ perceptions of the effectiveness ofthese courses to prepare them to teach culturally diversestudents.

The above findings serve as a reminder that it isnot the quantity but the quality of the courses that aredesigned to prepare teachers for diversity. In past studiesand commentaries, educational researchers (e.g., Wideen,Mayer-Smith, & Moon, 1998) have concluded thatadditional multicultural education coursework may notnecessarily result in the enhanced preparation of teachersto teach students from culturally diverse backgrounds.Enhancing the quality of existing courses may consist ofrestructuring field experiences, incorporating self-efficacybuilding activities, and recruiting teacher educators whohave been successful teaching students from culturallydiverse backgrounds.

Limitations

In light of these results, several limitations should beconsidered in the interpretation and generalization of thefindings. First, this study was non-experimental, thereforeno casual conclusions can be drawn using the results.Second, the data collected from this study represent amostly White-American, female sample of preserviceteachers in the southwest. A study of this nature wouldbe more effective if the sample included more preserviceteachers from culturally and linguistically diversebackgrounds. Third, since preservice teachers often lackexperience in the classroom prior to student teaching,using the case study approach, we tried to paint a realisticpicture of a teacher experiencing difficulty teaching anAfrican American male student. In designing the casestudy, we recognized that teaching is multidimensionaland a written case study is limited in its ability to capturethe numerous school- and classroom-related variables,which may influence the way a teacher behaves andinteracts with his or her students. Fourth, this study didnot use scenarios involving students from other culturalbackgrounds who may be perceived to be “difficult-to-teach.” Therefore, caution should be taken in generalizingthe results of this study.

Implications for Teacher Education

As the number of culturally and linguistically diversestudents continues to increase (Strizek et al., 2006), itis important that teacher education programs prepareprospective teachers to handle classroom problems thatmay stem from cultural conflicts. A starting point in thispreparation is assisting preservice teachers in developingthe various competencies of culturally responsiveteachers, as described by Siwatu (2007a). Assisting

preservice teachers in developing a culturally diverseknowledge base will go a long way in preparing them toeffectively resolve cultural conflicts involving culturallydiverse students. The development of this knowledgebase may assist future teachers in understanding thatstudents’ behavior in the classroom may be a reflection ofcultural norms and may differ from the behavioral normsin traditional classrooms (Monroe & Obidah, 2004). Itis important that preservice teachers are taught how toidentify ways in which the school culture conflicts with astudent’s home culture and the potential consequences ofthese conflicts.

Preservice teachers should also develop the necessarystrategies to resolve cultural conflicts involving culturallydiverse students. The teaching of these strategiesshould be accompanied with efficacy-building activities.For example, preservice teachers should be providedopportunities to observe master teachers handle problemsworking with culturally diverse students. In addition,preservice teachers should be given chances to handlesimilar problems on their own while simultaneouslyexecuting the strategies they were taught.

Helping preservice teachers develop a culturallydiverse knowledge base, and assisting them in developingthe skills needed to identify a cultural mismatch andthe strategies to resolve these conflicts may go a longway in increasing their sense of efficacy to resolvecultural conflicts involving students from diverse culturalbackgrounds. Combined with the knowledge of thesestrategies and high feelings of efficacy, prospectiveteachers may resort to more constructive ways of workingwith students from diverse cultural backgrounds.

References

Artiles, A. J., Harry, B., Reschly, D. J., & Chinn, P. C. (2002).Overidentification of students of color in special education.Multicultural Perspectives, 4(1), 3–10.

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York:W. H. Freeman & Company.

Bondy, E., Ross, D. D., Gallingane, C., & Hambacher, E. (2007).Creating environments of success and resilience. Urban Education,42(4), 326–348.

Delpit, L. (1995). Other people’s children: Cultural conflict in theclassroom. New York: New Press.

Emmer, E. T., & Hickman, J. (1990). Teacher efficacy in classroommanagement and discipline. Educational and PsychologicalMeasurement, 51, 755–765.

Gay, G. (1981). Interaction in culturally pluralistic classrooms.In J. Banks (Ed.), Education in the 80s: Multiethnic edu-cation (pp. 42–53). Washington, D. C.: National EducationAssociation.

Gay, G. (2000). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, andpractice. New York: Teachers College Press.

Gouldner, H. (1978). Teachers’ pets, troublemakers, and nobodies:Black children in elementary school. Westport, CT: Greenwood.

Irvine, J. J. (1990). Black students and school failure. New York:Greenwood Press.

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