AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 78:575-594 (1989)

Prehistoric"Fish-Eaters"Along the Eastern Arabian Coasts:Oental Variation, Morphology,and arai Health in theRa's al-Hamra Community (Qurum, Sultanate of Oman,5th-4th Millennia sc)

ROBERTO MACCHIARELLISoprintendenza Speciale al Museo Nazionale Preistorico-Etnografico,"L Pigorini" - Sezione di Antropologia, 00144 Rome, Italy

KEY WORDSHamra

Dental anthropology, Prehistoric Arabia, Ra's al-

ABSTRACT The Ra's al-Hamra prehistoric fishermen lived in isolation onthe Qurum rocky promontorium in Oman during the 5th-4th millenni a BC.Todate, they represent the most ancient and numerous human fossil groupexcavated from the Arabian peninsula. Like other contemporaneous archaeo-logicalIy documented small communities along the desert Arabian coasts, theyintensively exploited ocean resources and colIected molIuscs from nearby man-grove swamps. The present study analyzes aspects of dental anthropology(including crown variation, morphology, dental wear, and orai he13.lth),in 600permanent teeth from 49 individuais ofboth sexes excavated at the MesolithicRH5-site by the Italian Archaeological Mission in Oman from 1981 to 1985. Inassociation with a generaIlow degree of morphometric variation, the Ra's al-Hamra dentai crowns show Iow sexual dimorphism and are consistently re-duced in size. These features are unexpected in a preagricuiturai popuiation,especialIy when these data are compared to other eastern African and nearMiddle Eastern prehistoric popuiations. These data are discussed within thegeneraI context of human dentai structural reduction occurring during thepost-Pleistocene and are interpreted according to the "increasing popuiationdensity effect" model. There are other significant differences that characterizethe Ra's al-Hamra dentitions with respect to both eastern and western prehis-toric human groups. The frequency of numerous nonmetric crown traits sup-ports the hypothesis that a microdifferentiation phenomenon occurred in thismarginaI area. The preliminary skeIetal anaIysis and the palaeodemographicprofile show that the Omani prehistoric fishermen were affected by geneticisolation and inbreeding as well as strong environmentai stress. Because ofthe grit assimilated with dried fish and the high shelIfish consumption, dentalwear was extreme in alI age groups at Ra's al-Hamra and occasionally wasresponsibie for serious hematogenously spread infections. In spite of the greatanthropological importance of ancient Arabian populations, very few studieson skeletal and dental samples have been compieted. The present paper offersan odontoiogicai data set for future comparative research in the area.

The first historical records of fishing andmolIusc-gathering communities dispersedalong the desert coasts encircling the Ery-threan sea come from Herodotus. Since pre-historic times, though, the "fish-eaters"experimented with new alternative adaptivestrategies and had an important role in con-

quering the sea joining the great centers ofeastern civilization (Biagi et al., 1984). How-ever, Middie Eastern prehistoric archaeologyhas traditionalIy paid Iittle (or no) attentionto those regions and cultures not primarily

Received July lO, 1987; accepted June 13, 1988.

@ 1989 ALAN R. LISS, INC.

576 R. MACCHIARELLI

involved in the earIy development of agricul-ture. The Arabian coasts have been com-pletely ignored, although these have beenstrategicaIly relevant at least since the 4thmiIliennium BC.

In his recent review on prehistoric Arabia,Tosi (1986) rightly noted that predesertsteppe exploitation, like maritime and moUll-tain adaptations, has remained stronglyunderestimated. As a result, an area of sub-continental magnitude like Arabia was putin the role of a passive recipient. Unfortu-nately, studies on occasionaI skeletal seriesfoIlowing the so-called "racial analytic para-digm" (Lukacs, 1983a) failed to draw out pos-sible relationships with either Arabianhistorical -archaeological or environmentalvariables. Our knowledge at the regionallevel has remained inadequate. On the otherhand, the archaeological and anthropologicalinvestigations in the Mediterranean Levantdemonstrate what a more solidly based re-search program could provide (Bar-Yosef,1980).

It was with such an aim that a researchprogram on earIy mariti me adaptations wasbegun for northern Oman (IsMEO Activities,1981; Tosi, 1975, 1986). This study took partwithin a more generaI program on the rele-vance of prehistoric nonfarming economiesin the formative process of Asian civiliza-tions (Tosi, 1983). The research was con-ducted by the Istituto UniversitarioOrientale of Naples, the Istituto Italiano peril Medio ed Estremo Oriente (IsMEO) ofRome, the Centro Studi e Ricerche LigabueofVenice, and the Department of Antiquitiesof the Ministry of National Heritage andCulture of the Sultanate of Oman. An impor-tant prehistoric deposit at Qurum (Muscat),on the Ra's al-Hamra rocky promontorium,was soon discovered (Durante and Tosi, 1977).Systematic excavations of the aceramic set-tlement (Biagi and Nisbet, 1986) and thegraveyard at the RH5 site (Biagi and Salva-tori, 1986; Coppa et al., 1985) began in 1981.The graveyard has been radiocarbon datedto the 5th-4th miIlennia BC (Biagi et al.,1984).

The area called Ra's al-Hamra is a trian-gular zone of blackish earth, very apt as afishermen's site. It sits in proximal control ofthree ecosystems, which were intensively ex-ploited by the prehistoric community: theshaIlow coastal waters, the tidal flats, andthe mangrove swamps (IsMEO Activities,1981).

The RH5 cemetery area lies in the easternpart of the archaeological deposit and is char-acterized by a fairly compact bed containingfish remains, sheIls, and crushed stones asweIl as chipped stone tools and periodotitepebbles used as hammers or side-notchedweights for nets (Coppa et al., 1985; IsMEOActivities, 1982). Because the site is exposedto strong erosion, and because of the peculiarspatial disposition of numerous individuaIand collective secondary graves, the humanremains (occasionaIly fired) were not weIlpreserved. Despite these difficulties (Coppaet al., 1985; Danubio and Coppa, 1984; Gril-letto, 1982; MacchiareIIi and Coppa, 1983),preliminary studies were made on the dentalremains of the sample, which is the mostnumerous and ancient collection from theArabian peninsula (MacchiareIIi, 1984, 1985;MacchiareIIi and Frohlich, 1986). Further-more, earIy results of the systematic anthro-pological field work suggested the foIlowinghypotheses: 1) the community suffered a pos-sibly marked genetic isiolatipn; 2) the popu-lation was strongly stressed by multipleenvironmental factors; 3) since "death is theultimate measure of maladaptation in bio-logical populations" (Armelagos et al., 1981),it is reasonable to postulate that the com-munity suffered an Ullsuccessful adaptation,possibly an inadequate compensation of the"profits" and "disadvantages" intimately re-lated to a prehistoric sedentary coastal life.

In this context, the main aim ofthe presentstudy is to contribute, by means of dentalanthropology, to the interpretation ofthe bio-logical history of the Ra's al-Hamra commu-nity. At the same time, a data set is providedfor future comparative research.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The data set is composed of 600 permanentteeth, belonging to 20 males (n = 311), 17females (n = 216), and 12 individuals of un-known sex (n = 73). Preliminarily, sex andage attributions were performed in situ, dur-ing three field campaigns and reevaluated inthe laboratory after accurate restoration(MacchiareIIi and Coppa, 1983). Sex deter-mination criteria basicaIly foIlowed Acsàdiand Nemeskéri (1970). Whenever possible,the "M" sexualization coefficient was alsocalculated using the morphological charac-teristics of the skuIl, the mandible, and theinnominate bones. The ages at death wereassessed by the "combined method" (Nemes-

PREHISTORIC DENTAL ANALYSIS FROM RA'S AL-HAMRA 577

kéri et al., 1960), which was integrated withthe recommendations of Ferembach et al.(1979)and corroborated by radiographic eval-uation of the spongy and cortical bonechanges in the available proximal humeraland femoral heads.

Mesiodistal (M-D) and buccolingual (B-L)crown diameters were measured by a verniercaliper to the nearest 0.1 mm according toGoose (1963). For comparative purposes,crown areas were also calculated to approxi-mate chewing surface (Garn et al., 1977).Per-cent sexualdimorphism was determinedaccording to Perzigian (1976), and dentalasymmetry C'd" values) in each availablepair of antimeres was also estimated (Garnet al., 1966b).

Because of the heavy wear affecting thecrowns, a limited set of nonmetric traits wasrecorded, folIowing Scott and Dahlberg (1982)and Scott and coworkers (1983).To reduce thelikelihood of misclassifications, alI the vari-ables, with the exception of cusp number andgroove pattern, were dischotomized and theresults considered in combined sexes (Coppaand Macchiarelli, 1982).

The form of the occlusal surfaces of alI theteeth and degree of wear of incisors, canines,and premolars were investigated using thestandardizations proposed by Molnar (1971);wear rates in molars were assessed by Scott'stechnique (1979). In fact, the division of thesurface into four separately interpretedquadrants, using an ordinaI scale rangingfrom 1 to lO, seems to provide informationconcerning the various tooth regions that isboth synthetic and analytical (Macchiarelliand Salvadei, 1985).

RESULTSMetric traits

Descriptive statistics, including sample size(N), mean values (x), standard deviations(s.d.), and coefficients of variation (c.v.) ofcrown diameters (M-D and B-L) and dentalareas are presented in Tables 1 and 2 formales and females, respectively. On thewhole, the sample is characterized by a lowrange of variation, harmonicalIy distributedin both the upper and lower arches, as indi-cated by a great homogeneity within sexes ofthe average c.v. values. Females appear morevariable than males in 62.50%of the lineardimensions and in 68.75% ofthe areas. Withregard to an expected gradient of variation,females more frequently and consistenlyshow a "mosaic pattern," especialIy in upper

B-L breadths, with anchor teeth (Dahlberg,1945) less stable than distaI teeth. Samplesize and errors from the strong wear cer-tainly could be considered as responsible forlocal anomalies in the variability distribu-tion. However, the greater deviation with re-spect to the "field" and a notably greatervariation of the teeth systematicalIy ob-served in females have to be considered. Ac-cording to Garn and coworkers (1968), aslightly greater metric variation is a com-mon feature in females, but, in the presentsample, statisticalIy significant differencesbetween the sexes, according to the F test ofthe variances, were recorded for upper M2 (F= 3.74)and lowerP4 (F =3.12) B = L diam-terso Moreover, other diameters, such as M-D in both the mandibular incisors and B-L inlower P4, show remarkable differences in thec.v. values.

Table 3 refers to the total sample available,including the unsexed specimens. When com-bined sexes were considered, anomalies per-sist in the variability distribution bymorphological class. In the upper dentition,the centraI incisor is constantll more stablethan the lateral, but this does not occur inpremolars and the last two molars for B-Lbreadth and areas. The first molar is theleast variable tooth, and the canine, supris-ingly, shows a higher variability than M3 inB-L diameter. In the IO'Yer dentition, themean c.v. values perfectly overlap those ofthe upper dentition, but again discrepanciesare evident. In fact, the lateral incisor anchortooth is always more variable than Il, whileP3 is more stable than P4. With the last twomolars, anomalies exist for M-D diameterand areas.

Both upper P3 diameters exceed P4 valuesin males; this occurs in females for the lengthonly. In the lower dentition, P4 is systemati-calIy larger than P3. A clear progressive sizereduction in M-D direction can be observedin molars. Females have higher values thanmales in both upper M3 diameters as welI asin lower B-L breadth.

Size differences between sexes were sub-jected to a t test for the means. Only compar-isons alIowing the hypothesis of equality ofthe variances were taken into consideration.In utilizing M-D lengths, B-L breadths, anddental areas as variables, 11 of 23 compari-sons considered for upper teeth showed sig-nificant differences at least at the 0.05 levelfor mean dimensions. They include two M-Ddiameters (Il and MI), four B-L breadths (Il,

TABLE 1. Descriptive statistics of mesio-distal (M-D) and bucco-lingual (B-L) diameters and dental areas in maxillary (upper) and mandibular (lower) teeth,in males. The values are in millimeters for the diameters and in square millimeters for the areas

M-D diameter B-L diameter Dental areasN x s.d. c.v. N x s.d. c.v. N x s.d. c.v.

MaxillaryIl 12 8.28 0.38 4.59 12 7.28 0.39 5.36 12 60.44 5.79 9.5812 17 6.76 0.54 7.99 17 6.42 0.34 5.30 17 43.44 4.87 11.21C 17 7.62 0.49 6.43 20 8.27 0.58 7.01 17 63.89 7.38 11.55P3 15 6.86 0.29 4.23 15 9.13 0.41 4.49 15 62.65 4.44 7.09P4 14 6.70 0.45 6.72 14 9.11 0.53 5.82 14 61.14 6.19 10.01MI 16 10.52 0.35 3.33 14 11.67 0.39 3.34 14 123.09 6.82 5.54M2 20 9.64 0.58 6.02 20 11.56 0.61 5.28 20 111.63 10.37 9.29M3 12 8.48 0.54 6.37 14 9.89 0.71 7.18 12 85.33 5.87 6.88

MandibularIl 4 5.17 0.15 2.90 14 6.23 0.28 4.49 4 32.22 1.10 3.4112 lO 5.72 0.27 4.72 16 6.49 0.31 4.78 lO 37.29 3.56 9.55C' 12 6.93 0.37 5.34 14 7.90 0.49 6.20 11 55.42 5.99 10.81P3 18 6.72 0.28 4.17 18 7.64 0.39 5.10 18 51.42 3.88 7.54P4 17 6.91 0.45 6.51 16 8.06 0.47 5.83 15 56.00 6.45 11.52MI 19 10.97 0.40 3.65 17 11.15 0.53 4.75 17 122.10 8.69 7.12M2 22 10.70 0.74 6.92 22 10.57 0.59 5.58 22 113.47 13.20 11.63M3 20 9.86 0.68 6.90 20 9.69 0.59 6.09 20 95.84 11.04 11.52

..

..

TABLE 2. Descriptiue statistics ofmesio-distal (M-D) and bucco-lingual (E-L) diameters and dental areas in maxillary (upper) and mandibular (lower) teeth,in females. The ualues are in millimeters for the diameters and in square millimeters for the areas

M-D diameter B-L diameter Dental areasN il s.d. c.v. N il s.d. c.v. N il s.d. c.v.

MaxillaryIl 9 7.98 0.50 6.27 9 6.90 0.36 5.22 7 54.61 6.01 11.0012 8 6.11 0.38 6.22 8 6.02 0.34 5.65 8 36.89 4.05 10.98C 17 7.43 0.44 5.92 18 8.09 0.52 6.43 17 60.41 6.46 10.69P3 15 6.76 0.41 6.06 15 8.59 0.51 5.94 15 58.24 6.59 11.31P4 15 6.67 0.31 4.65 15 8.82 0.49 5.56 15 58.89 5.37 9.12MI 13 10.21 0.36 3.53 14 11.30 0.45 3.98 12 115.63 7.77 6.72M2 16 9.60 0.86 8.96 16 10.27 1.18 11.49 15 97.50 11.73 12.03M3 4 9.17 0.92 10.03 4 10.27 0.22 2.14 4 94.39 10.96 11.61

MandibularIl 11 5.15 0.38 7.38 13 5.90 0.25 4.24 11 30.48 2.96 9.7112 lO 5.54 0.54 9.75 lO 6.25 0.36 5.76 9 34.01 2.65 7.79C lO 6.27 0.37 5.90 8 7.11 0.60 8.44 8 44.42 6.35 14.29P3 9 6.51 0.30 4.61 9 7.33 0.43 5.87 9 47.83 4.79 10.01P4 15 6.63 0.38 5.73 15 7.75 0.83 10.71 15 51.52 7.29 14.15MI 16 10.60 0.59 5.57 15 10.43 0.48 4.60 14 110.05 9.38 8.52M2 14 10.08 0.49 4.86 14 10.03 0.58 5.78 14 101.25 9.79 9.67M3 6 9.73 0.53 5.45 6 9.75 0.87 8.92 6 95.27 13.32 13.98

TABLE 3. Descriptiue statistics of mesio-distal (M-D) and bucco-lingual (8-L) diameters and dental areas in maxillary (upper) and mandibular (lower) teeth,in the total sample. The ualues are in millimeters for the diameters and in square millimeters for the areas

M-D diameter H-L diameter Dental areasN x s.d. c.v. N x s.d. c.v. N x s.d. c.v.

MaxillaryIl 26 8.10 0.42 5.18 26 7.06 0.40 5.67 24 57.35 6.06 10.5712 28 6.51 0.56 8.60 28 6.26 0.37 5.91 28 40.88 5.38 13.16C 40 ,7.57 0.45 5.94 44 8.22 0.53 6.45 40 62.72 6.77 10.79P3 35 6.81 0.33 4.85 35 8.83 0.51 5.78 35 60.26 5.66 9.39P4 34 6.65 0.36 5.41 34 8.91 0.50 5.61 34 59.39 5.57 9.38MI 36 10.39 0.35 3.37 35 11.39 0.47 4.13 33 118.61 7.79 6.57M2 41 9.60 0.67 6.98 41 10.93 1.04 9.51 40 105.18 12.15 11.55M3 19 8.73 0.66 7.56 21 10.00 0.60 6.00 19 88.43 7.68 8.68MandibularIl 19 5.24 0.34 6.49 31 6.07 0.29 4.78 19 31.56 2.69 8.5212 24 5.71 0.43 7.53 30 6.36 0.33 5.19 23 36.04 3.26 9.04C 26 6.67 0.46 6.90 26 7.63 0.60 7.86 23 51.17 7.49 14.64P3 31 6.63 0.29 4.37 31 7.52 0.40 5.32 31 49.95 4.23 8.47P4 37 6.80 0.41 6.03 36 7.90 0.64 8.10 35 53.86 6.74 12.51MI 41 10.77 0.50 5.66 38 10.78 0.61 5.66 37 115.89 10.09 8.71M2 40 10.43 0.68 6.52 40 10.37 0.60 5.79 40 108.50 12.61 11.62M3 29 9.78 0.62 6.34 29 9.67 0.62 6.41 29 94.98 10.92 11.50

..

12, P3, and MI), and five areas (12, P3, MI,M2, and M3). In the lower dentition, threeM-D diameters (C, MI, and M2), four B-Lbreadths al, C, MI, and M2), and five areas(12, C, P3, MI, and M2) were significantlydifferent (12 comparisons of 23 taken intoconsideration).

Differences in B-L diameter between thesexes were more consistent than in M.D. Nodifference was recorded between the uppercanines in spite of the significant differencesnoted in the mandibular canines.

Sexual dimorphism was universally low, apartially unexpected result in a preagricultu-ral population (but see Frayer and Wolpoff,1985). The values shown in Table 4 incipi-ently overlap those of living populations(Garn et al., 1967; Hanihara, 1978) andstrongly contrast with evidence collected onother prehistoric samples (Brace and Ryan,1980; Frayer, 1980). The mandibular denti-tion shows a slightly greater average di-morphism in both the diameters, and thelower canine was the most dimorphic tooth.Conversely, the maxillary canine in B-Lbreadths and areas shows little differencebetween the sexes. The mean value of theupper M-D diameter (including the negativevalue of 8.14% recorded for M3) is the lowest(x = 1.61%). As was observed by numerousauthors, sexual dimorphism is greater in B-L diameters, and, according to the resultsoffered by Garn and coworkers (1966a), upperP4 is much less dimorphic than P3.

In spite of the small sample, and of somedoubts about the biological meaning of anti-meric variation (Friedlaender, 1975; 189-190), nondirectional dental asymmetry wasevaluated in all the available antimericpairs. Differences "d" (Garn et al., 1966b)between the sexes were not evaluated, but,with only a few exceptions, the total sample

presents low values for both diameters. In54.17% of the cases, right antimers exceedlefi. In the upper dentition, MI is the leastasymmetric tooth in M-D diameter, whereasM3 and P4 show highest values. In the caseof B-L breadth, Il is the least asymmetric,M2, MI, and the upper canine showing thehighest values. Specifically, the M2 value isthe highest (x = -0.19; srd. = 0.52). In thelower dentition, Il for M-D and P4 for B-Lpresent the lowest values and M2 and M3the highest.

Nonmetric traits

Without any distinction with regard to sex,frequencies of the dichotomized nonmetriccrown traits, and molar cusps number andgroove pattern, are given in Tables 5 and 6for the upper and lower dentition, respec-tively.

Upper incisors displayed neither cingulumformations nor palatine invagination result-ing in shovelling, but they did show modestocclusal curvature (Dahlberg plaque series,type 1). Commonly, there is a high associa-tion between lingual tubercles on the maxil-lary centraI incisors and canines (Scott, 1977).However, in the Ra's al-Hamra sample, anenamel overstructure in the form of a veryslight tubercle formation frequently can befound (35.71%) on the basaI cingulum of theupper canines. Molar teeth showed a clearpattern of hypocone reduction in M-D direc-tion. The last molar was the most variable incusp number. Upper MI displayed four cuspsin 90.48% of cases; hypocone absence on M3was recorded in 41.18% of cases. Extra lin-guaI cusps were never noted on premolars.In one isolated upper MI, slight grooves onthe lingual aspect of the mesiolingual cuspwere interpreted as a Carabelli's trait.

PREHISTOR1CDENTALANALYS1SFROM RA'S AL.HAMRA 581

TABLE 4. Percentage or sexual dimorphism in maxillary (left) and mandibular (right) teeth

Maxillary MandibularM-D B-L Area M-D B-L Area

Il + 3.62 + 5.22 + 9.65 Il + 0.39 + 5.30 + 5.4012 + 9.61 + 6.23 + 15.08 12 + 3.15 + 3.70 + 8.80C + 2.49 + 2.18 + 5.45 C + 9.52 + 10.00 + 19.85Pa + 1.46 + 5.91 + 7.04 P3 + 3.12 + 4.06 + 6.98P4 + 0.45 + 3.18 + 3.68 P4 + 4.05 + 3.85 + 8.00MI . + 2.95 + 3.17 + 6.06 MI + 3.37 + 6.46 + 9.87MI + 0.41 + 11.16 + 12.66 M2 + 5.79 + 5.11 + 10.77M3 - 8.14 - 3.84 - 10.62 M3 + 1.32 - 0.62 + 0.59

x + 1.61 + 4.15 + 6.12 x + 3.84 + 4.73 + 8.78

582 R. MACCHIARELLI

TABLE 5. Nonmetric maxillary dental traits frequencies, in both sexes

Trait

Shovel shape IlShovel shape 12Canine tubercleCusp number

M14+M14M24M24-M23M34M34-M33+M33

Carabelli's cuspMIM2M3

N

292542

21

29

283318

17

In the lower dentition, canines did not showridges or basaI enamel formations. The lastmolar was again the most variable tooth incusp number; MI and M2 more commonlyhad five and four cusps, respectively. Thehypoconulid was never noted on second mo-lars and only rarely occurred on third molars(9.09%). No molar showed clear evidence ofentoconulid and metaconulid supernumer-ary cusps.

The groove pattern on mandibular molarswas clearly observed in a limited number ofcases only. The most common feature resultsfrom the contact between metaconid (mesio-lingua!) and hypoconid (distobuccal) cusps(Jorgensen, 1955), but contact among alI the

cusps was recorded on M2 in 20% of cases. Inaccordance with the expectations derivedfrom Scott's study (1978), concerning the pos-sible relationship between upper and lowermolar accessory traits, no evidence of protos-tylid was recorded. ..

Dental wear and aral health

The Ra's al-Hamra dentitions were char-acterized by extremely heavy dental wear inboth sexes (Fig. 1), especialIy ifthelow meanage at death is considered. Even in youngaduUs, the teeth appear to have suffered tre-mendous stresses, with radical alterations ofthe normal occlusal patterns (Corruccini andMacchiarelli, 1987). Contrary to Lovejoy'swork on the Libben dental material (1985),in which he found wear to be "extraordinar-ily regular in form and rate," wear at Ra'sal,Hamraproved to be inconsistent and un-correlated with age. For example, an experi-mental attempt at individuaI relative ageattribution, originalIy performed in situ, gaveoften poor results when compared to skeletalindicators of age at death. In fact, not rarely,15-18-years-old individuals and full adultsshowed comparable wear patterns.

Occlusal surface forms and the quantity ofremoved enamel (or emerging dentine) arebasicalIy the products of complex interac-tions over time between individuals and theirenvironment, which relate to different habitsand cultural attitudes (Dahlberg, 1963; Mol-nar, 1972). In the present sample, the gritinvoluntarily assimilated with dried fish, andthe high shelIfish consumption, were proba-bly the main mechanical stresses on thedentitions. The anterior arches were also

+ %- -- -15 35.71

2 9.5219 90.4811 37.9314 48.284 13.792 11.762 11.766 35.297 41.18

1 3.57

TABLE 6. Nonmetric mandibular dental traitsfrequencies, in both sexes

Trait N + %

Canine tubercle 23 -Cusp number

M15 22 12 54.54M14+ 2 9.09M14 8 36.36M24+ 33 5 15.15M24 24 72.73M24- 4 12.12M35 22 .2 9.09M34+ 4 18.18M34 11 50.00M33+ 3 13.64M33 2 9.09

Groove patternM1Y 16 16 100M2Y 25 20 80.00M2+ 5 20.00

Protosty lidMI 28M2 33

PREHISTORIC DENTAL ANALYSIS FROM RA'S AL.HAMRA 583

Fig. 1. RH5-G-221, adult male. Left lateral view ofthe articulated maxilla and mandible showing extremedental wear on premolars and molars, upper and lower

probably employed in some manipulative ac-tivites (Macèhiarelli, 1984; Macchiarelli andFrohlich, 1986). The synergistic action ofthese factors rapidly resulted in dramatic ef-fects on dental health status. In some in-dividuals, these factors were probably re-sponsible for serious hematogenously spreadinfections.

In a study focused on dental health ana-lyzed in 12 successive samples from the 7thmillennium BC in the eastern Mediterra-nean, Angel (1974) discussed possible reper-cussions on generaI health, concluding that"the data in this paper tend to negate thatidea." However, among the prehistoric fish-ermen under study, the individuaI deleteri-ous potential action of pyogenic agents,spread into the organism by multiple largealveolar abscesses (in some cases 'even con-

f

periapical lithic lesions, and characteristic orientationplanes in molars.

necting the hard paIate to the maxillary si-nuses), certainly cannot be underrated.

Periapical lytic lesions in association witha generally heavier mandibular dental wearwere recorded mainly from around inferiormolar and premolar roots. Notwithstandingfrequent root exposure, very few teeth permouth were lost intra vitam. This fact isprobably related to the low mean age atdeath. As in a previous study on a smallerdental sample belonging to the same grave-yard (Grilletto, 1982), no carious lesions werefound.

Wear rates (Tables 7 and 8) were estimatedby employing different record scales for inci-sors, canines, premolars (Molnar, 1971), andmolar teeth (Scott, 1979); occlusal form wasassessed in all the crowns according to Mol-nar's classification (1971). Consistent crown

..

TABLE Z Degree or dental wear in maxillary (upper) and mandibular (lower) teeth (molars not included), in the total sample'

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N %

MaxillaryI - - 1 3.23 4 12.90 6 19.35 6 19.35 10 32.26 2 6.45 2 6.4512 - - 6 18.18 3 9.09 10 30.30 8 24.24 4 12.12 2 6.06C - - 3 6.82 2 4.54 12 27.27 11 25.00 14 31.82 2 4.54P3 - - 4 10.53 11 28.95 7 18.42 6 15.79 6 15.79 1 2.63 3 7.89P4 2 5.26 3 7.89 10 26.32 8 21.05 6 15.79 4 10.53 1 2.63 4 10.53

MandibularIl - - - - 3 9.37 4 12.50 7 21.87 13 40.62 5 15.6212 - - 1 3.23 3 9.68 5 16.13 5 16.13 13 41.93 4 12.90C - - - - 4 13.33 5 16.67 8 26.67 13 43.33 - -P3 - - 3 9.09 7 21.21 10 30.30 4 12.12 5 15.15 3 9.09 1 3.03P4 - - 6 15.79 6 15.79 12 31.58 5 13.16 4 10.53 3 7.89 2 5.26

'Tbe ordinaiscale(1-8)refers te Molnar'ssystem(1971).

..

TABLE 8. Degree or ckntal wear in maxillary (upper) and mandibular (lower) molars, in the total samplel

4-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40N % N % N % N % N % N % N %

MaxillaryMI 4 9.76 4 9.76 4 9.76 12 29.27 3 7.32 9 21.95 5 12.19M2 9 20.45 7 15.91 14 31.82 6 13.64 5 11.36 3 6.82M3 lO 47.62 4 19.05 5 23.81 2 9.52 - - - -

MandibularMI 2 4.35 6 13.04 7 15.22 6 13.04 12 26.09 7 15.22 6 13.04M2 7 16.67 7 16.67 9 21.43 lO 23.81 5 11.90 4 9.52M3 8 25.81 lO 32.26 lO 32.26 3 9.68

'Tbe ordinaIscale(4-40)refersto Scott'ssystem(1979).

586 R. MACCHIARELLI

height reduction and secondary dentineemergence are constant features of the Ra' sal-Harnra anterior teeth. The anterior teethhave mesiodistally directed flat or notchedocClusal surfaces and sometimes show a lin-gual-Iabial wear component, which is morefrequent on both upper incisors. In adults ofboth sexes, anterior wear patterns suggest apossible usage ofthe mouth as a "tool." How-ever, no grooves marking the occlusal sur-faces of incisors or canines (Larsen, 1985)were macroscopically noted. Well roundedanterior teeth were found on upper denti-tions only; rounded occlusal surfaces wererecorded on premolars of both the arches.

Wear frequency degrees of molar teeth were. arbitrarily divided into seven classes (Table8) from 4 to 40 (Scott, 1979).Upper and lowerfirst and second molars commonly presentemerging secondary dentine and a notchedsurface incompletely surrounded by a thinenamel rimo In the numerous cases of com-plete dentine exposure, wear is frequentIyextended below the cervicoenamel junction.In young adults, the last molars also appearto have been intensively involved in masti-catory functions, with at least two flat quad-rants and emerging dentine patches.Ubelaker and coworkers (1969) have sug-gested the use of "wooden probes" as thera-peutic or palliative responses to relieve localirritations. In agreement, thin and shortgrooving were episodically observed on thebuccal aspect of lower molars.

Hinton (1981) compared form and pattern-ing of dental wear in aboriginal humangroups with different subsistence economies.He showed that in hunters and gatherers thewear on the anterior teeth was consistentIyequal to or greater than that on the molarteeth. This was also well documented by Bor-gognini Tarli and Repetto (1985), in numer-ous Italian epipaleolithic and mesolithicsamples. Furthermore, molar wear equalledor exceeded anterior wear only in old individ-uals; in agriculturalists anterior wear wasby and large less than molar wear (Hinton,1981).

With respect to these reference models, thegeneraI wear pattern offered by the presentprehistoric fishermen can be regarded as in-termediate, with posterior dentitions heavilyworn, in association with anterior arches alsostrongly altered by numerous mechanicalstresses (such as those deriving from the highshellfish consumption).

It is apparently more difficult to resolve thepatterns of molar occlusal orientation in the

Ra's al-Harnra mandibular dentition, withrespect to the differentiated models definedby Smith (1984) for hunter-gatherers and ag-riculturalists. Smith (1984) demonstratedthat, at low wear stages, no significant differ-ence exists between the two groups in thelower first molar orientation angle. How-ever, when wear rates increase, significantdifferences emerge. It is often assumed thatcupping results mainly from fine particles infood (Costa and Greaves, 1981, cited bySmith, 1984), and that rates of change arebasically higher in agriculturalists than inhunter-gatherers (Smith, 1984). Accordingly,the trend recorded among the Ra's al-Harnrafishermen in the orientation change of theocclusal surfaces (from negative values in M3to positive values in MI) suggests a wearpattern globally compatible with agricultur-alists. On the other hand, the sample is alsocharacterized by greater mandibular wear inassociation with a greater occlusal variabil-ity in the maxillary molars. This patternagrees well with that found by Lovejoy (1985)for a large hunter-gatqerer sample. It thusseerns appropriate to consider the rapid anddrastic changes that occurred in the naturalmorphology of the prehistoric Omani denti-tions as essentially the product of a highlyabrasive grit action on the crowns, whichwas independent of the nature of the foodregularly consumed.

DISCUSSION

The sedentary prehistoric community ofRa's al-Harnra lived in and exploited anoceanic coastal environrnent characterized bya complex of potentially influential factors.Although stilI under study, evidence relatedto aspects of skeletal biology reflects somedifficulties, in terms of adaptive responses,suffered by the Omani fishermen in main-taining an adequate equilibrium with re-spect to the environmental stresses.Therefore, a brief synthesis of these biologi-cal aspects seems appropriate to better un-derstand some results of these dental data.

The Ra's al-Harnra mortality pattern (re-sulting from the application of the "LIFE"computing program to the whole of 132 indi-viduaI age-at-death attributions) offers inter-esting criticaI evidence with respect to sometheoretical expectations. In a paper devotedto the maritime hunter-gatherer ecology andprehistory, Yesner (1980) stated that "be-cause both old people and children were ableto engage in activities such as shellfish col-

PREHISTORIC DENTAL ANALYSIS FROM RA'S AL-HAMRA 587

lecting, and because they have lower caloricrequirements, they were virtualIy able tosupport themselves in coastal zones and donot act as a sump for the population's re-sources. Therefore, in any maritime societyin which shelIfish or other invertebrates arean important resource, dependency ratiostend to be lower, population pyramidsbroader, life expectancies higher."

At Ra's al-Hamra, in spite ofthe low num-ber of children aged between O and 5 years(20.46%) found preserved in the archaeologi-cal deposit (Coppa et al., 1985; Macchiarelliand Coppa, 1983), eOo life expectanciesscarcely reach 19 years. Almost 26% of theindividuals died within the 20-25 year ageinterval. At the start of the fourth decade,13.64% of the population was still alive (130),with a life expectancy of only 8.33 more yearsand a 0.44 q30value.

CriticaI comments on some of Yesner's(1980)demographic generalizations were alsoexpressed by Clark (1981), when he notedthat "demographic-stress variables should betaken into consideration on a case-by-casebasis." In association with a criticaI demo-graphic profile, extreme skeletal gracility insubadults and strong retardation of growth(both resulting in a generalIy low degree ofsexual dimorphism in adults), point to theaction of developmental disturbances fromenvironmental constraints, including limit-ing resources and stressors. For instance,rickets were recorded in youths and osteo-malacia in adults, particularly in the grave-yard area named "G-43."

According to Yesner (1980), "human popu-lations living in coastal areas display a highavailability of edible biomass," and "shelI-fish are another criticaI resource for coastalpopulations, since they exist as highly con-centrated resource, are easily colIectable byalI segments of the human population with aminimum of energy input, and often serve asan emergency buffer during times of relativefood scarcity." Furthermore, Tosi (1986)stated that, in the prehistoric Arabian pen-insula, "a second and even larger permanentbiomass was available from the ocean, thebelt of tropical waters surrounding the pen-insula. Each of the several ecological com-partments forming a maritime environment(rocky/sandy shorelines, tidal creeks andflats, littoral and pelagic waters) provided areliable supply of fish and molIuscs alI yearround, supplemented by more seasonal tur-tles and marine mammals."

The RH5 site archaeological deposits pre-

served great quantities of both mollusc andfish remains, but cases of cranial porotic hy-perostosis and cribra orbitalia were alsofound. These conditions are possible indica-tors of metabolic disorders related to nutri-tional stress. Widening of the spongy diploeand cribra orbitalia interpreted as changesfrom malaria and hemoglobin-derived ane-mias were also recorded by Kunter (1981) inthe Bronze and Iron Age skeletal materialfrom the Omani interior oasis of Maysar.

An alternative interpretation offered byWalker (1986) for a marine-dependent Cali-fornia Amerindian population generalIy ap-pears more appropriate for the Ra's al-Hamra's palaeobiological context (see alsoMartin et al., 1985). These workers proposean interaction between chronic diarrhea, ex-posure to fish-borne parasites, prolongedbreast feeding, and protein-caloric malnutri-tion that could have been largely responsiblefor stresses resulting in pathological skeletalchanges. Moreover, the role of mangroveswamp pathogenic agents on the fishermen'shealth still has to be fulIy evaluated, but itis possible to speculate that it was seasonalIyintense. Together, the skeletal markers tendto lead to revision of the optimistic figuresdescribed by Yesner (1980) and Tosi (1986) interms of quality (and quantity) of edible bio-mass available for prehistoric fishermencommunities living in tropical coastal zones.

Since genetic factors also play an impor-tant role in resistance to certain diseases(Goodman et aL, 1984), an important biologi-cal indicator of genetic isolation and stressat Ra's al-Hamra can be considered. There isan extremely high incidence of dehiscence ofthe crista sacralis mediana, a defect knownas spina bifida occulta (Cavalli Sforza andBodmer, 1971; Fuhrmann et al., 1971; Gates,1946).

With respect to previous estimations(Coppa et al., 1985; Macchiarelli and Coppa,1983),more recent evaluations (performed ona total of 32 available sacral bones), showedfive individuals with complete sacral defects(15.62%). A partial manifestation ofthe trait(involvment of at least two arches) was ob-served in a further 18 cases (56.25%). Despitesome criticism by Devor and Cordell (1981)on the defect's etiology, a high spina bifidaocculta frequency in archaeological samplesis commonly considered an indicator of ge-netic isolation and inbreeding (Bennett, 1972;Castro de La Mata and Bonavia, 1980; Fer-embach, 1962, 1963; Morse, 1978). In addi-tion, humeral septal perforation is frequent

588 R. MACCHIARELLI

Summarized Dental Areas Cc - M3)Maxillary and Mandibular dentitions

comparative values1180

1178

-M4

1!!542Cg...I~

É 1118E

"""

404

4112

470

LEGEND

~ Maxlllary teeth- Mandibular teeth

Nat. M.Nu. Jar. A.Go. Mehr. RH5 A.Nu.Prehistoric samples ..

Fig. 2. Values (in mm2) of the maxillary and mandib-ular summarized dental areas (including canine andthird molar) in the Ra's al-Hamra sample (RH5) com-pared to those recorded for other eastern African (M.Nu.,A.Nu.) and near-Middle Eastern (Nat., Jar., A.Go., Mehr.)prehistoric samples. The values refer to both sexes. Sam-ples in chronological order. Nat., epipaleolithic Natufi-ans (XI-X mill. BC); M.Nu. mesolithic Nubians (XI-VITImil!. BC); Jar, early Jarmo agriculturalists (VII mil!. BC);

(32.84%). This trait is another skeletal indi-cator that supports the hypothesis that ge-netic drift was operating in the community(Cavicchi et al., 1978).

It is well known that dental "develop-mental instability increases with the in-crease of deleterious genetic effects andadverse environmental effects" (Biggerstaff,1979). The interest in considering skeletalindicators of stress and isolation in the pre-historic Ra's al-Hamra fishermen lies in thepossible relapse of the same adverse con-straints on dental crown development. Thedental variability patterns, as well as somemorphologic and morphometric aspects, haveconsequently to be considered in a restricted,local biological context. Moreover, accordingto Bailit (1966), female dental metrics appear

A.Go, early Abou Gosh agriculturalists (VII mili. BC);Mehr., early neolithic Mehrgarh (VII mili. BC);RH5,mesolithic Ra's al-Hamra (V-IV mill. BC);A.Nu., Nubianagriculturalists (IV-II mill. BC). See text for the dataresources. With respect also to the samples representingearly "food producers" (Jàr., A.Go., Mehr., A.Nu.)"theRa's al-Hamra mesolithic one systematically shows thelowest values.

commonly "ambiguous" in inbred samples,not completely following the male variabilitypattern. At Ra's al-Hamra, in addition to thelimited sample size, this would explain thenumerous anomalies observed in the varia-bility distribution within each dental mor-phological class, particularly evident in thefemale sex. Unfortunately, despite some in-teresting odontometric analysis performed onBronze and Iron Age Arabian human re-mains (Hojgaard, 1980a,b, 1983a), no com-parative statistical analyses are possible atpresent because of the extremely small sam-pIe size.

At Ra's al-Hamra, a marked and prolongedgenetic isolation possibly influenced the den-tal morphological trait frequencies. With fewexceptions only, great differences are notable

PREHISTORIC DENTAL ANALYSIS FROM RA'S AL-HAMRA

in comparison to both eastern Mrican andnear-Middle Eastern prehistoric populations.For example, very high frequencies of shovel-shaped upper incisors were recorded byGreene (1972) in mesolithic Nubia (78.00%on Il), by Lukacs and Sellier (1986) in earlyneoIithic Pakistan (89.30% on Il and 83.80%on I2), and by BentIey (1987) in early BronzeAge Jordan (67.44% on Il and 81.82% on 12).This morphology was never noted at Ra's al-Hamra. In spite of the frequently practicedevulsion of both upper and centraI incisors,shovelling was occasionally observed also inthe Saggai l mesolithic Sudanese material(Coppa and Macchiarelli, 1983). Other signif-icant differences regard the Carabelli's trait,which is very common on the upper first mo-lar at Bab edh-Dhra' (BentIey, 1987) and alsofrequent at Mehrgarh (Lukacs and Sellier,1986) as well as the protostylid on the lowerMI. Conversely, a greater homogeneity in-volves both the cusp number and pattern inmolars, incIuding also modern East Mricanfrequencies (Chagula, 1960). On the basis ofthe preliminary anthropological investiga-tions of the Omani skeletal material (Coppaet aL, 1985; Macchiarelli and Coppa, 1983),other significant affinities with Mrican pop-ulations can also be noted in the generaIcranial and lower face morphology. A factorof extreme anthropological interest emergeswhen the tooth sizes of the Ra's al-Hamracommunity (Table 3) is compared to thoseavailable from some eastern Mrican andnear-Middle Eastern prehistoric samples.

Figure 2 shows, for both upper and lowerdentition, the comparative values ofthe sum-marized dental areas recorded for the poste-rior dentition (incIuding canine and lastmolar) in the epipaleoIithic Natufians (Nat.,XI-X millenia BC;Bar-Yosef et aL, 1971-72),mesoIithic Nubians (M.Nu., XI-VIII milleniaBC;Calcagno, 1986; Greene et aL, 1967),earlyJarmo agriculturaIists (Jar., early VII mil-lenium BC;Dahlberg, 1960), early Abou Goshagriculturalists (A.Go., VII millenium BC;Arensburg et aL, 1978),early neolithic Mehr-garh (Mehr., late VII millenium BC;Lukacs,1983b, 1985a), mesolithic Ra's al-Hamra(RH5, V-IV millenia BC; present data), andNubian agriculturaIists (A.Nu., IV-II mil-lenia BC:Calcagno, 1986).

Despite the fact that the comparison in-cIudes four groups of well documented "foodproducers" (Jarmo, Abou Gosh, Mehrgarh,and Nubian agriculturaIists), the Ra's al-Hamra mesolithic group systematically

589

shows the smallest values in both arches.The greatest percent differences in dentalsize are seen with respect to the mesoIithicNubian mandibular dentition (-15.76%) butdifferences are also appreciable with respectto the Nubian agriculturaIists (-4.49% and-4.96%, in maxillary and mandibular den-titions, respectively).

With regard to this Mrican group of Nu-bian agriculturaIists (chronologically repre-senting the most recent dental sample in thepresent series), it must be considered that"the bulk of dental reduction that occurredin Nubia took pIace between the MesoIithicand AgriculturaIist period" (Calcagno, 1986).Moreover, in originally describing the meso-Iithic Nubian sample (M.Nu.), Greene andcoworkers (1967) stated that dentition "wassubjected to rigorous selective pressures fa-voring large andJor morphologically complexteeth. This pressure was apparently inten-sive wear presumably caused by the incIu-sion of large amounts of grit in the diet." Inspite ofthe fact that all the available archae-ological and odontological evidence supportsthe hypothesis that similar selective forcesmust have also acted on the Ra's al-Hamradentition, it is evident that this did not occur.On the contrary, as was shown abov~, theteeth are particularly reduced in size, espe-cially when the "preagricuItural" Omanicontext is considered.

To date, the anthropological remains of theRa's al-Hamra fishermen constitute the mostancient group excavated in the Arabian Pen-insula. Therefore, nothing is known aboutteeth size and body size of their predecessors.However, based on consoIidated models fornumerous diacronic researches on "Iinear"skeletal series, it is reasonable to supposethat both teeth and body sizes were larger.

A generaI trend towards a graduaI dentalstructural reduction throughout time is verywell documented in human evolution, as wellas a drastic acceleration of the phenomenonin post-Pleistocene times (Anderson and Po-povich, 1977; Anderson et aL, 1975; Brace,1978; Brace and Mahler, 1971; Brace andNagai, 1982; Brace and Ryan, 1980; Brace etaL, 1984; Calcagno, 1986; Frayer, 1977, 1978,1984;Larsen, 1981, 1983; LeBlanc and Black,1974; Lukacs, 1982, 1984; Macchiarelli andBondioli, 1986a; Smith, 1978; Y'Edynak,1978).

Possibly depending on larger and betterrepresented samples, the most recent accel-eration of the trend has traditionally been

590 R. MACCHIARELLI

observed (and consequently interpreted) withan attentive eye to the transition fromhunter-gatherers to agriculturalists.

The data discussed in this paper refer onlyto 49 individuals. However, the dental evi-dence collected at Ra's al-Hamra is clearlynot explained by a strict use of these twoextreme reference "focal poles" (Cleland,1976). The analysis ofFigure 2 suggests thatthe mesolithic Omanites had already under-gone a consistent tooth size reduction, al-though they were not agriculturalists.

With particular regard to the most recentand intensive phase of the structural reduc-tion process in human dentition, Macchi-arelli and Bondioli (1984, 1986b) interpretedthe phenomenon mainly as a side effect of amore generaI reduction trend occurring spe-cifically in body size and build. This theoret-ical approach emphasizes primarily the roleof biocultural factors that followed sedentismand the graduaI local density increment ofgroups (number of people per settlement).These biocultural factors probably modifiedthe directionality of selection pressures pre-viously operating and directly influenced apotential size expressivity of the geneticbackground. Thus, during the most recentevolutionary times, the role played by direc-tional selective forces in expressely favoringlarge teeth would have to be redirected. Fol-lowing some of Leamy's (1978) experimentalconclusions on animaI dentitions, it is stillfar from being clearly demonstrated that anappreciable difference in fitness is conferredby having different-sized teeth, especially inthe chronological and cultural horizons inwhich the trend's acceleration is expressed.

In opposition to numerous current inter-pretations, the authors then suggested thatthe last accentuated phase of the trend pos-sibly derived from the synergistic sum oftwoactions: "that of selective pressures directlyaffecting the lean body-mass (not the crudedental size), and that of stress factors operat-ing against a full genotype penetrance indetermining the size. The relative weight ofeach of these elements is to be consideredinconstant, conditioned, and °intimatelylinked to local microprocesses" (Macchiarelliand Bondioli, 1986b).According to this model,marked structural reduction in body mass,and consequent1y in dental size, occurredduring a gradual transition from locallysmaller human groups, characterized bylower density and regional mobility, to largecommunities, characterized by a sedentary

(or semisedentary) style oflife, in associationwith a higher and in creasing populationdensity.

The Ra's al-Hamra prehistoric fishermenwere sedentary and probably conditioned fora long time by marked and prolonged stressfactors in an isolated oceanic coastal environ-mento This human group, therefore, is a validtest for the speculative model of structuralreduction, originally defined as 'increasingpopulation density effect" (Macchiarelli andBondioli, 1984). This study approach is notrigidly subordinated to the role of "agricul-ture" as traditionally the main agent respon-sible for dental changes (see, for example,Brace and Mahler, 1971). In fact, in the pre-historic coastal environment of the ArabianPeninsula, a graduaI shift to sedentism (inassociation with a related increase in sitenumber and population density) specificallyresulted in an intensive exploitation of theocean and ocean-related natural resources,not in intensive agriculture. In this case,marked dental structural reduction probablyoccurred during this ~iocultural shift processo

CONCLUSIONS

As was stressed by Biagi and coworkers(1984), archaeological explorations have his-torically been restricted to very few sites,along the 6,000 km of coastlands from Meso-potamia to Egypt. Fortunately, at least from1973, a second generation of studies was 10-cally directed to the analysis of indigenousdevelopments, during the 4th and 3th mil-lennia BC, in the oasis belt of the Oman Pen-insula, as well as in some Arabian Gulfislands (Cleuziou, 1978-79, 1982, Cleuziouand Vogt, 1983, 1985; Frifelt, 1975; Vogt,1985; Weisgerber, 1980, 1981).An exhaustiveoverview, including more than 300 refer-ences, was recently provided by Tosi (1986).These pilot researches brought otolight someskeletal series, and anthropological reports(including odontological studies) are in somecases available (EI-Naijar, 1985; Hojgaard,1980a,b, 1983a, 1985; Kunter, 1981, 1983;Macchiarelli, 1985).

Agriculture is well documented in the in-terior Arabian regions from the early 3thmillennium BC (Cleuziou and Costantini,1980, 1982), with evident effects on the gen-eraI oral health status of the oasis popula-tions (Hojgaard, 1985; Kunter, 1983;Macchiarelli, 1985). Qualitative differencesare notable with respect to the Ra's al-Hamra

PREHISTORIC DENTAL ANALYSIS FROM RA'S AL.HAMRA 591

data, which reflect alternative man-environ-ment relationships (Macchiarelli, 1985).

At present, the largest protohistorical hu-man skeletal sample excavated in Arabia be-longs to the 3th millennium BCUmm an-Narcollective megalithic tomb from Hili North(Cleuziou and Vogt, 1983, 1985; Vogt, 1985).Dental observations on the material still par-tially in situ were made almost simultane-ously by two different observers (EI-Naijar,1985; Macchiarelli, 1985). Curiously, they of-fered two different generaI pictures of thesame situation. EI-Naijar (1985) found "noevidence of severe dental wear, periodontaldisease and dental caries," whereas Macchi-arelli (1985:42-43) reported that "the analy-sis of the skeletons lying on the basaI levelof the third burial chamber unequivocallyshows the effects of dental decay . . . . withalmost alI the individuals frequently pre-senting multiple carious lesions, responsiblefor a great number ofteeth lost intra vitam."

Unfortunately, further anthropologicalstudies on this unique material are at pres-ent difficult, but the Hili North skeletons, instudying the development of biocultural al-ternative styles of life, may represent a cru-cial reference point in the Arabian Peninsula.Furthermore, the scattered comparative re-sults of the last years on other near-easternprehistoric and protohistorical populations(Bentley, 1987; Frohlich and Ortner, 1982,Lukacs, 1983a,c, 1984, 1985a,b; Ortner, 1981,1982), will perhaps permit a better anthro-pological record for ancient Arabia. How-ever, the Ra's al-Hamra skeletal materialstill represents only an isolated case, cer-tainly not enough, by itself, to answer somefundamental questions, such as those con-cerning the origin, evolution, and biologicalrelationships of the Arabian people. For thispurpose, greater efforts developed on the tra-ditionally ignored western Arabian side willbe essential.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank the following people for their valu-able criticisms and advice offered during theexcavation and particularly the study of theRa's al-Hamra skeletal material: Dr. L. Bon-dioli (Museo Pigorini, Rome), Prof. S. Borgog-nini Tarli (Istituto di Antropologia, Pisa), Dr.R.S. Corruccini (Dept. of Anthropology,Southern lllinois University), Dr. A.A. Dahl-berg (Dept. of Anthropology, University ofChicago), Dr. D.W. Frayer (Dept. of Anthro-pology, University of Kansas), Dr. B. Froh-

lich and Dr. D.J. Ortner (Smithsonian Inst.,Washington, DC), Prof. P. Passarello (Dip.Biologia Animale e dell Uomo, Rome), andDr. S. Salvatori (Soprintendenza Beni Arch.,Venice), the archaeologist responsible for theRH5 graveyard excavations. In particular,Prof. S. Borgognini Tarli, Dr. R.S. Corruc-cini, Dr. D.W. Frayer, and Prof. P. Passarelloprovided also special criticaI comments onthe final version of the present papero Dr.R.S. Corruccini and Dr. D.K. Evans (Dept. ofAnthropology, Wake Forest University)kindly invited me to offer an official presen-tation about the preliminary results of thisodontological study during a visit in theirdepartments in 1985. Data elaborations (in-cluding preliminary paleodemographic pro-files) were basically performed at theSmithsonian Institution of Washington, DC,with the generous collaboration offered byDr. B. Frohlich. Special thanks are offered tomy Superintendent in Chieti, Dr. G. Scichi-Ione (Soprintendenza Arçheologica dell'Abruzzo), for always having facilitated mylong periods of field excavations in Omanduring the last years as well as to the Minis-tero per i Beni Culturali e Ambientali fortheir permissions. Dr. S. Cleuziou (C.N.R.S.,URA 30, Paris) invited and supported myfield study ofthe protohistorical human skel-etal material from Hili site CUnited ArabEmirates), offering an important data basefor comparative purposes. Without the initialhelp of Prof. M. Tosi (Istituto UniversitarioOrientale, Naples) and Dr. A. Coppa (Dip.Biologia Animale e dell'Uomo, Rome), thisresearch would not have been possible. How-ever, the results presented here are my own,despite the contributions of my previous col-laborators. The present study is part of a"Progetto Strategico," directed by Prof. P.Passarello CUniversity of Rome) in collabora-tion with the Istituto Italiano per il Medio edEstremo Oriente (IsMEO, Rome), supportedby a grant ofthe Italian C.N.R.

LITERATURE CITED

Acsàdi G, and Nemeskèri J (1970) History of HumanLife Span and Mortality. Budapest: Akadèmiai Kiad6.

Anderson DL, and Popovich F (1977) Dental reductionand dental caries. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 47:381-385.

Anderson DL, Thompson GW, and Popovich F (1975)Evolutionary dental changes. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.43:95-102.

Angel JL (1974) The cultural ecology versus dentalhealth. In: Sonderdruck aus "Bevolkerungsbiologie."Stuttgart: G. Fischer Verlag, pp. 382-391.

Arensburg B, Smith P, and Yakar R (1978) The humanremains from Abou gosh. In: M Lechevallier (ed): Abou

592 R.~CCF.DJlRELLI

Gosh et Beisamoun: Deux Gisements du VII millén-aire Avant l'ère Chrétienne en Israe!. Paris: Mém.Trav. Centre Rech. Préhist. Francais de Jerusalem,vo!. 2, pp. 95-105.

Armelagos GJ, Jacobs KH, and Martin DL (1981) Deathand demography in prehistoric Sudanese Nubia. In:SC Humphreys and H King (eds): Mortality and Im-mortality. The Anthropology and Archaeology ofDeath. London: Academic Press, pp. 33-57.

Bailit HL (1966) Tooth size variability, inbreeding, andevolution. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 134:616-623.

Bar- Yosef O (1980) Prehistory of the Levant. Annu. Rev.Anthropo!. 9:101-133.

Bar-Yosef O, Arensburg B, and Smith P (1971-72) Al-gunas notas acerca de la cultura y la antropologianatufienses. Ampurias 33-34:111-152.

Bennett KA (1972) Lumbo-sacral malformations andspina bifida occulta in a group of proto-historic ModocIndians. Am. J. Phys. Anthropo!. 36:435-440.

Bentley GR (1987) Kinship and social structure at earlyBronze lA Bab edh-Dhra', Jordan. A bioarchaeologicalanalysis of the mortuary and dental data. PhD disser-tation; University of Chicago, Department of nearEastern Languages and Civilizations.

Biagi P, and Nisbet A (1986) Some aspects of the 1982-85 excavations at the aceramic coastal settlement ofRH5 at Qurum. In: PM Costa and M Tosi (eds): Omanstudies. Orientali a Romana 7. Rome: IsMEO (in press).

Biagi P, and Salvatori S (1986) Gli scavi nell'insedia-mento preistorico e nella necropoli di Ra's al-Harnra 5(Muscat-Oman). Riv. Archeo!. (in press).

Biagi P, Torke W, Tosi M, and Uerpmann HP (1984)Qurum: A case study of coastal archaeology in North-ern Oman. World Archaeo!. 16:43-61.

Biggerstaff RH (1979) The biology of dental genetics.Yearbk. Phys. Anthropo!. 22:215-227.

Borgognini Tarli SM, and Repetto E (1985) Dietary pat-terns in the Mesolithic samples from Uzzo and Molaracaves (Sicily): The evidence of teeth. J. Hum. Evo!'14:241-254.

Brace CL (1978) Tooth reduction in the Oriento AsianPerspect 19:203-219.

Brace CL, and Mahler PE (1971) Post Pleistocene changesin human dentition. Am. J. Phys. Anthropo!. 34:191-204.

Brace CL, and Nagai M (1982) Japanese tooth size: Pastand presento Am. J. Phys. Anthropo!. 59:399-411.

Brace CL, and Ryan AS (1980) Sexual dimorphism andhuman tooth size differences. J. Hum. Evo!' 9:417-435.

Brace CL, Shao X, and Zhang Z (1984) Prehistoric andmodern tooth size in China. In: FH Smith and F Spen-cer (eds): The Origins of Modern Humans; A WorldSurvey ofthe Fossil Evidence. New York: Alan R. Liss,Inc., pp. 485-516.

Calcagno JM (1986) Dental reduction in post-pleistoceneNubia. Am. J. Phys. Anthropo!. 70:349-363.

Castro de La Mata R, and Bonavia D (1980) Lumbosacralmalformations and spina bifida in a Peruvian precer-arnic child. Curr. Anthropo!. 21:515-516.

Cavalli Sforza LL, and Bodrner WF (1971) The Geneticsof Human Populations. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman.

Cavicchi S, Gualdi Russo E, and Martuzzi Veronesi F(1978): On relations between olecranal perforation andsome humeral and ulnar metric characters on the ba-sis of multivariate analysis. J. Hum. Evo!' 7:393-399.

Chagula WK (1960) The cusps on the mandibular molarsof East Mricans. Am. J. Phys. Anthropo!. 18:83-90.

Clark GA (1981) On preagricultural coastal adaptations.Curr. Anthropo!. 22:444-445.

Cleland CE (1976) The focal-diffuse model: an evolution-ary perspective on the prehistoric cultural adaptationsof the eastern United States. Mid. -Conto J. Archaeol.1:59-76.

Cleuziou S (1978-79) The second and third seasons ofexcavations at Hili 8. Archaeo!. United Arab Emirates2-3:30-69.

Cleuziou S (1982) Hili and the beginning of oasis life ineastern Arabia. Proc. Semin. Arabian Stud. 12:15-22.

Cleuziou S, and Costantini L (1980) Premiers élémentssur l'agri culture protohistorique de l'Arabie orientale.Paléorient 6:245-251.

Cleuziou S, and Costantini L (1982) A l'origine des oasis.Recherce 137:1179-1182.

Cleuziou S, and Vogt B (1983) Umm an-Nar burial cus-toms, new evidence from Tomb A at Hili North. Proc.Semi. Arabian St.13:37-52.

Cleuziou S, and Vogt B (1985) Tomb A at Hili North(United Arab Emirates) and its connection to southeastIran and the greater Indus Valley. In: M Taddei (ed):South Asian Archaeology. Naples: Istituto Universi-tario Orientale, pp. 332-353.

Coppa A, and Macchiarelli R (1982) The maxillary den-tition of the Iron-age population of Alfedeno (middle-Adriatic area, ltaly). J. Hum. Evol. 11:219-235.

Coppa A, and Macchiarelli R (1983) Human skeletalremains from the Mesolithic site of Saggai 1 (Sudan).A descriptive and comparative anthropological study.Origini 12:116-139.

Coppa A, Macchiarelli R, Sa1vatori S, and Santini G(1985) The prehistoric graveyard of Ra's al-Harnra(RH5): A short preliminary report on the 1981-83 ex-cavations. J. Oman Stud. 8:97-102.

Corruccini RS, and Macchiarelli R (1987) Variabilità oc-clusale ed anomalie nella modellistica antropologica.In G Gambacorta and N Pantaleoni (eds): L'ortodonzianei suoi sviluppi storici. Milano: Ars Medica Antiqua,pp. 93-103.

Costa RL, and Greaves WS (1981) Experimentally pro-duced tooth wear facets and the direction of jaw mo-tion. J. Paleonto!. 55:635-638.

Dahlberg AA (1945) The changing dentition in mano J.Am. Dent. Assoc. 32:676-690.

Dahlberg AA (1960)The dentition of the first agricultur-ists. Am. J. Phys. Anthropo!. 18:243-256.

Dahlberg AA (1963) Dental evolution and culture. Hum.Bio!' 35:237-249.

Danubio M, and Coppa A (1984) Visita agli avidell'E miro: la necropoli di Qurum. Doctor 10:62-67.

Devor EJ, and Cordell LS (1981) Neural-tube defects ina prehistoric south-western Indian population. Ann.Hum. Bio!' 8:65-75.

Durante S, and Tosi M (1977) The aceramic shell-mid-dens of Ra's al-Hamra: A preliminary note. J. OmanStud.3:137-162.

El-Na.ijar MY (1985) An anthropological study on skele-tal remains from Tomb A Hili North. Archaeo!. UnitedArab Emirates 4:38-43.

Ferembach D (1962) La Nécropole Épipaléolithique deTaforalt (Maroc OrientaI). Etude des Squelettes Hu-mains. Paris: Institut de Paléontologie Humaine.

Ferembach D (1963) Frequency of spina bifida occulta inprehistoric human skeletons. Nature 199:100-101.

Ferembach D, Schwidetzky I, and Stloukal M (1979)Recommandations pour déterminer l'age et le sexe surle squelette. Bul!. Mem. Soc. Anthopo!. Paris 6, Sér.13:7-45.

Frayer DW (1977) Metric dental changes in the Euro-pean Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic. Am. J. Phys.

PREHISTORIC DENTAL ANALYSIS FROM RA'S AL-HAMRA 593

Anthropol. 46:109-120.Frayer DW (1978) Evolution of the Dentition in Upper

Paleolithic and Mesolithic Europe. Lawrence: Univer-sity of Kansas.

Frayer DW (1980) Sexual dimorphism and cultural evo-lution in the late Pleistocene and Holocene of Europe.J. Hum. Evol. 9:399-415.

Frayer DW (1984) Biological and cultural change in theEuropean late Pleistocene and early Holocene. In FHSmith and F Spencer (eds): The Origins of ModernHumans: A World Survey ofthe Fossil Evidence. NewYork: Alan R. Liss, Inc., pp. 211-250.

Frayer DW, and Wolpoff MH (1985) Sexual dimorphism.Annu. Rev. AnthropoI.14:429-473. .

Friedlaender JS (1975) Patterns of Human Variation.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Frifelt K (1975) On prehistoric settlement and chronol-ogy of the Oman Peninsula. East and West 25:359-424.

Frohlich B, and Ortner DJ (1982) Excavations of theearly Bronze age cemetery at Bab edh-Dhra Jordan,1981. A preliminary report. Ann. Dept. Antiq. Jordan26:249-267.

Fuhrmann W, Seeger W, and Bohm R (1971) Apparentlymonogenic inheritance of anencephaly and spina bi-fida in a kindred. Humangenetik 13:241-243.

Garn SM, Brace CL, and Cole PE (1977) Use of crownareas in odontometric analyses. J. Dent. Res. 56:876.

Garn SM, Kerewsky RS, and Swindler DR (1966a) Ca-nine "field" in sexual dimorphism oftooth size. Nature212:1501-1502.

Garn SM, Lewis AB, and Kerewsky RS (1966b) Themeaning of bilateral asymmetry in the permanentdentition. Angle Orthodont. 36:55-62.

Garn SM, Lewis AB, and Kerewsky RS (1968) Relation-ship between buccolingual and mesiodistal tooth di-ameters. J. Dent. Res. 47:495.

Garn SM, Lewis AB, Swindler DR, and Kerewsky RS(1967) Genetic control of sexual dimorphism in toothsize. J. Dent. Res. 46:963-972.

Gates RR (1946) Human Genetics. New York: The Mac-millan Company.

Goodman AH, Martin DL, and Armelagos GJ (1984)Indications of stress from bone and teeth. In MN Cohenand GJ Armelagos (eds): Paleopathology at the Originsof Agriculture. Orlando FL: Academic Press, pp. 13-49.

Goose DH (1963) Dental measurement: An assessmentof its value in anthroplogical studies. In DR. Brothwell(ed): Dental Anthropology. London: Pergamon Press,pp. 125-148.

Greene DL (1972) Dental anthropology of early Egyptand Nubia. J. Hum. Evoi. 1:315-324.

Greene DL, Ewing GH, and Armelagos GJ (1967) Denti-tion of a Mesolithic population from Wadi Halfa, Su-dan. Am. J. Phys. Anthropoi. 27:41-56.

Grilletto R (1982) Premières études des cas patholo-giques des fouilles dans la nécropole RH5 du Sultanatde l'Oman. Proc. 4th Eur. Meet. Paleopath. Ass. Mid-dleburg: Antwerpen, pp. 138-139 (abstract).

Hanihara K (1978) Differences in sexual dimorphism indental morphology among several human populations.In PM Butler and KA Joysey (eds): Development,Function and Evolution of teeth. London: AcademicPress, pp. 127-133.

Hinton RJ (1981) Form and patterning of tooth wearamong aboriginal human groups. Am. J. Phys. Anthro-poI. 54:555-564.

Hojgaard K (1980a) Dentition on Umm an-Nar (Trucial

Oman), 2500 B.C. Scand. J. Dent. Res. 88:355-364.Hojgaard K (1980b) Dentition on Bahrain, 2000 B.C.

Scand. J. Dent. Res. 88:467-475.Hojgaard K (1983a) Dental anthropological investiga-

tions on Bahrain. Paper Presented at the "Bahrainthrough the Ages" Conference, Bahrain.

Hojgaard K (1983b) Dilmun's ancient teeth. Dilmun J.Archaeol. Hist. Bahrain 11:11-13.

Hojgaard K (1985) SEM (scanning electron microscopiciexamination of teeth from the third millennium B.C.excavated in Wadi Jizzi and Hafit. In J Schotsmansand M Taddei (eds): South Asian Archaeology. Naples:Istituto Universitario Orientale, pp. 151-156.

IsMEO Activities (1981) Oman. East and West 31:182-198.

IsMEO Activities (1982) Oman. East and West 32:223-230.

Jorgensen KD (1955) The Dryopithecus pattern in recentDanes and Dutchmen. J. Dent. Res. 34:195-208.

Kunter M (1981) Bronze-und eisenzeitliche Skelettfundeaus Oman. Bemerkunsen zur BevolkerungsgeschichteOstarabiens. Homo 32:197-210.

Kunter M (1983) Chronologische und regionale Unter-schiede bei Pathologischen Zahnbefunden auf der Ar-abischen Halbinsei. Archiioi. Korrespond. 13:339-343.

Larsen CS (1981) Skeletal and dental adaptations to theshift to agriculture on the Georgia Coast. Curr. An-thropoi. 22:422-423.

Larsen CS (1983) Deciduous tooth size and subsistencechange in prehistoric Georgia Coast populations. Curr.Anthropoi. 24:225-226. t

Larsen CS (1985) Dental modifications and tool use inthe western Great Basin. Am. J. Phys. Anthropoi.67:393-402.

Leamy L (1978) Intensity of na:tural selection for odon-tometric traits generated by differential fertility inPeromyscus leucopus. Heredity 41:25-34.

LeBlanc SA, and Black.B (1974) A long term trend intooth size in the eastern Mediterranean. Am. J. Phys.Anthropoi. 41:417-422.

Lovejoy OC (1985) Dental wear in the Libben population:its functional pattern and role in the determination ofadult skeletal age at death. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.68:47-56.

Lukacs JR (1982) Cultural variation and the evolutionof dental reduction: An interpretation of the evidencefrom South Asia. In A Basu and KC Malhotra (eds):Human Genetics and Adaptation. Calcutta: IndianStatistical Institute Conference, voI. 2, pp. 252-269.

Lukacs JR (1983a) Dental anthropology and the originsof two Iron age populations from Northern Pakistan.Homo 34:1-15.

Lukacs JR (1983b) Human dental remains from earlyNeolithic levels at Mehrgarh, Baluchistan. Curr. An-thropol. 24:390-392.

Lukacs JR (1983c) Crown dimensions of deciduous teethof prehistoric and living populations of western India.Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 61:383-387.

Lukacs JR (1984) Dental Anthropology of South Asianpopulations: A review. In JR Lukacs (ed): The PeopleofSouth Asia. New York: Plenum Press, pp. 133-157.

Lucaks JR (1985a) Dental pathology and tooth size atearly Neolithic Mehrgarh: An anthropological assess-mento J Schotsmans and M Taddei (eds): South AsianArchaeology. Naples: Istituto Universitario Orientale,pp. 121-150.

Lukacs JR (1985b) Tooth size variation in prehistoricIndia. Am. Anthropoi. 87:811-825.

Lukacs JR, and Sellier P (1986) Dental morphology of

594 R. MACCHIARELLI

human skeletons from Neolithic levels at Mehrgarh,Pakistan. Paper Preseented at the vn Intern. Symp.on Dental Morphol. Paris: CNRS.

Macchiarelli R (1984) The permanent dentition of theRH5-site prehistoric population (Qurum, Oman, 4thmillennium B.C.). Preliminary evidence. Antropol.Contemp. 7:139-140 (abstract).

Macchiarelli R (1985) Antropologia dentaria, contesticulturali ed ambiente: TIparallelismo nelle popolazionipre-protostoriche dal Vicino Oriente all' Asia media. InG Vogel and G Gambacorta (eds): Storiadell'Odontoiatria. Milano: Axs Medica Antiqua, pp- 35-46.

Macchiarelli R, and Bondioli L (1984) Time and dentalstructural reduction in man: A reassessment of mech-anisms. Antropol. Contemp. 7:102 (abstract).

Macchiarelli R, and Bondioli L (1986a) Morphometricchanges in permanent dentition through the Neolithic:A microregional analysis. L Upper dentition. Homo37:239-256.

Macchiarelli R, and Bondioli L (1986b) Post-Pleistocenereductions in human dental structure: A reappraisalin terms of increasing population density. Hum. Evol.1:405-418.

Macchiarelli R, and Coppa A (1983) Preliminary reporton skeletal and dental anthropology of the prehistoricpopulation from RH5-site, Qurum, Oman. Roma:IsMEO (unpublished internai report).

Macchiarelli R, and Frohlich B (1986) The dentition ofthe prehistoric fishermen along the Eastern ArabianCoast. Paper presented at the VII Intern. Symp. onDental Morphol. Paris: CNRS.

Macchiarelli R, and Salvadei L (1985) Dental wear andextramasticatory anterior function in the Iron-Age AI-fedena community (Abruzzi, Italy). Anthropol. Co-tempo 8:203-210.

Martin DL, Goodman AH, and Armelagos GJ (1985)Skeletal pathologies as indicators of quality and quan-tity of diet. In RI Gilbert and JH Mielke (eds): TheAnalysis of Prehistoric Diets. Orlando FL: AcademicPress, pp. 227-279.

Molnar S (1971) Human tooth wear, tooth function, andcultural variability. Am- J. Phys. Anthropol. 34:175-190.

Molnar S (1972) Tooth wear and culture: A survey oftooth functions among some prehistoric populations.Curr. Anthropol. 13:511-526.

Morse D (1978) Ancient disease in the Midwest. Spring-field, IL: Illinois State Museum Rep. Invest. No. 15.

Nemeskéri J, Harsànyi L, and Acsàdi G (1960)Methodenzur Diagnose des Lebensalters von Skelettfunden. An-thropol. Anz. 24:70-95.

Ortner DJ (1981) A preliminary report on the humanremains from the Bab edh-Dhra' cemetery. In WE Rastand RT Schaub (eds): The Southeastern Dead SeaPlains Expedition: An Interim report of the 1977 sea-

sono Philadelphia: Ann. Am. School Oriento Res., pp.119-132.

Ortner DJ (1982) The skeletal biology of an early BronzeIB charnel house at Bab edh-Dhra', Jordan. In A Had-idi (ed) Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jor-dan. Amman: Dept. Antiquit., pp. 93-95.

Perzigian, AJ (1976) The dentition of the Indian Knollskeletal population: Odontometrics and cusp number.Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 44:113-122.

Scott EC (1979) Dental wear scoring technique. Am. J.Phys. Anthropol. 51:213-218.

Scott GR (1977) Lingual tubercles and the maxillaryincisor-canine field. J. Dent. Res. 56:1192.

Scott GR (1978) The relationship between Carabelli'strait and the protostylid. J. Dent. Res. 57:570.

Scott GR, and Dahlberg AA (1982) Microdifferentiationin tooth crown morphology among Indians of theAmerican Southwest. In B Kurtén (ed): Teeth: Form,Function, and Evolution. New York: Columbia Univer-sity Press, pp. 259-291.

Scott GR, Potter RHY, Noss JF, Dahlberg AA, and Dahl-berg T (1983) The dental morphology of Pima Indians.Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 61:13-31.

Smith BH (1984) Patterns of molar wear in hunter-gath-erers and agriculturalists. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.63:39-56.

Smith P (1978) Evolutionary 'fhanges in the deciduousdentition of near eastern populations. J. Hum. Evol.7:401-408.

Tosi M (1975) Notes on the distribution and exploitationof natural resources in ancient Oman. J. Oman Stud.1:187-206.

Tosi M (1983) The relevance of prehistoric non-farmingeconomies in the forma~ive process ofthe centraI Asiancivilizations. J. Centrai Asia 6:1-28.

Tosi M (1986) The emerging picture of prehistorie Ara-bia. Annu. Rev. Anthropol.15:461-490.

Ubelaker DH, Phenice TW, and Bass WM (1969) Artifi-cial interproximal grooving on the teeth in AmericanIndians. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 30:145-150.

Vogt B (1985) The Umm an-Nar Tomb A at Hili North:A preliminary report on three seasons of excavations,1982-1984. Archaeol. United Arab Emirates 4:20-37.

Walker PL (1986) Porotic hyperostosis in a marine-de-pendent California Indian population. Am. J. Phys.Anthropol. 69:345-354.

Weisgerber G (1980) n. . . und Kupfer in Oman." DerAnschnitt 32:62-100.

Weisgerber G (1981) Mehr als Kupfer in Oman. DerAnschnitt 33:174-263.

Y'Edynak G (1978) Culture, diet, and dental reductionin Mesolithic forager-fishers of Yugoslavia. Curr. An-thropol. 19:616-618.

Yesner DR (1980) Maritime hunter-gatherers: ecologyand prehistory. Curr. Anthropol. 26:727-750.